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Mercury Contamination from Artisanal Small-scale Gold Mining Activities in Simpenan District, Sukabumi Regency, West Java, Indonesia
Abstract
Mercury is still used in the amalgamation process in small-scale gold processing. This study aims to evaluate the mercury contamination of various environmental media in the artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) area in the Simpenan District, Sukabumi Regency. The ecological media examined in this study included groundwater, river water, soil, sediment, biota, and plants. The threshold number was determined using APHA 3125 and Indonesian National Standard (SNI) 7387:2009. Meanwhile, the mercury concentration in the ambient air was measured directly using a mercury analyser. Mercury concentrations in the water, soil, sediment, biota, and plant matrices were calculated using a calibration curve. The study found that the levels of mercury in groundwater, river water, and sediment were all below the applicable quality standards of <0.0001, <0.0001 and 0.001 mg/L, respectively. However, the levels of mercury in soil and plants were 27.28 and 0.52 mg/kg, respectively. Additionally, the levels of mercury in four types of fish found in a river adjacent to the ASGM location, namely beunteur (0.33 mg/kg), snakehead (0.05 mg/kg), catfish (0.26 mg/kg) and eel (0.20 mg/kg), exceeded the specified quality standards. In conclusion, mercury contamination is present in the soil, plants, and aquatic biota (fish) in the ASGM area in the Simpenan District, Sukabumi Regency.
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Frequent discharge of mercury waste from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) facilities into nearby farms may contaminate foodstuffs and the entire farms. High contamination levels may result in ecological risks to the soil, plants, animals, humans, and the entire farm ecosystem. This original research is the first study within the catchment areas that describes the effects of mercury waste on the entire farm ecosystem. In this study, the contamination levels and the associated ecological risks of farmland soils, plantains, and cassavas from farms sited near ASGM facilities in four communities around Obuasi, Ghana, were evaluated using the Hakanson (1980) model. Results showed that all samples except for the edible parts of plantains from Tweapease, Nyamebekyere, and Ahansonyewodea and plantain peels from Nyamebekyere and Ahansonyewodea were contaminated and may pose moderate to very high ecological risks. All farms were also contaminated and may pose considerable to very high ecological risks. The farms at Odumase were the highest contaminated with degree of contamination (Cdeg) above 20, while those at Ahansonyewodea were the least contaminated with Cdeg = 8.1. This meant that farms at Odumase may pose the highest potential ecological risk (Per) to plants, animals, humans, and the entire farm ecosystem since Per > 600, while the farms at Ahansonyewodea may pose the least ecological risks with Per = 324. There is, therefore, the need for strict control of ASGM activities in these study areas to preserve the integrity of the ecosystem.
Mercury (Hg) is one of the most harmful metals and has been a public health concern according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world’s fastest-growing source of Hg and can release Hg into the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere. Hg has been widely used in ASGM industries throughout Southeast Asia countries, including Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Thailand. Here, 16 relevant studies were systematically searched by performing the PRISMA flow, combining the keywords of “Hg”, “ASGM”, and relevant study areas. Mercury concentrations exceeding the WHO and United States Environmental Protection Agency guideline values were reported in environmental (i.e., air, water, and soil) and biomonitoring samples (i.e., plants, fish, and human hair). ASGM-related health risks to miners and nonminers, specifically in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Myanmar, were also assessed. The findings indicated severe Hg contamination around the ASGM process, specifically the gold-amalgamation stage, was significantly high. To one point, Hg atmospheric concentrations from all observed studies was shown to be extremely high in the vicinity of gold operating areas. Attentions should be given regarding the public health concern, specifically for the vulnerable groups such as adults, pregnant women, and children who live near the ASGM activity. This review summarizes the effects of Hg in Myanmar and other Southeast Asian countries. In the future, more research and assessment will be required to investigate the current and evolving situation in ASGM communities.
A large anthropogenic source of mercury pollution is mercury-dependent artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM). Thabeikkyin Township is a small-scale gold mining township located in Pyin Oo Lwin District in the Mandalay Region, Myanmar. The villages of Thabeikkyin Township engage in gold ore crushing, screening, refining, and other mining activities for a living. Miners in this area commonly use mercury for gold recovery by heating amalgam at their homes, gold shops, on the street, and near the riverbank. The evaporated mercury is released into the atmosphere during the heating process and then transported and deposited in the surrounding environments, resulting in the mercury pollution of air, water, soil, etc. To assess atmospheric mercury pollution, a preliminary study on the environmental mercury contamination from ASGM was conducted in Thabeikkyin Township. High mercury concentrations were observed in plant samples collected near the refining sites, ranging 0.33-6.51 ug/g, compared with 0.02 ug/g in Wet Thay Village, where no mercury use was reported. Correlation coefficients between Hg and other heavy metals showed that no heavy metal concentration significantly correlated with that of Hg. The results indicated that the atmospheric environment in the ASGM area of Thabeikkyin Township was contaminated with mercury originating from ASGM, which could very likely deteriorate the health of surrounding residents.
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the world’s largest source of anthropogenic mercury emissions and releases. These have devastating consequences for miners' health and the environment. Most of the >20 million ASGM miners worldwide are not officially recognized, registered, regulated, or protected by state laws. Formalization—the process of organizing, registering, and reforming ASGM—is mandated by the Minamata Convention on Mercury. Previous attempts to reduce mercury emissions from ASGM have largely failed. Our perspective argues that signatories to the Convention will only succeed in reducing ASGM mercury emissions and releases with comprehensive bottom-up formalization approaches centered around working with miners, and significant external funding from consumers, large mining corporations, and governments. The approximate global 5-year cost of this approach could be US213–742 million) if scaled per country, or US248 million–US$2.17 billion) if scaled per miner.
Mercury emissions from artisanal and small-scale gold mining throughout the Global South exceed coal combustion as the largest global source of mercury. We examined mercury deposition and storage in an area of the Peruvian Amazon heavily impacted by artisanal gold mining. Intact forests in the Peruvian Amazon near gold mining receive extremely high inputs of mercury and experience elevated total mercury and methylmercury in the atmosphere, canopy foliage, and soils. Here we show for the first time that an intact forest canopy near artisanal gold mining intercepts large amounts of particulate and gaseous mercury, at a rate proportional with total leaf area. We document substantial mercury accumulation in soils, biomass, and resident songbirds in some of the Amazon’s most protected and biodiverse areas, raising important questions about how mercury pollution may constrain modern and future conservation efforts in these tropical ecosystems.
Soil can be contaminated by the accumulation of heavy metals and metalloids through emissions from rapidly developing industrial areas. Due to the possibility of chemical change (speciation) and their bioavailability, the presence of toxic metals in the soil can greatly inhibit the biodegradation of organic contaminants. The researchers aimed to analyse the effect of heavy metal levels in agricultural soil on chlorophyll levels in agricultural crops through a meta-analysis method which is expected to provide results in the form of a summary of data that already exists in journals that have been published so far. Here we present a meta-analysis of 6 studies (56 data collected) published between 1997 and 2020 that reported the effects of heavy metal content on plant chlorophyll content. Based on the meta-analysis of the effect of heavy metal exposure in agricultural soil on the chlorophyll content of agricultural crops, the value “effect size overall” was -0.285 in the range of -0.380 to -0.190, where most of the values “effect size” were on the left. Plants growing on soil contaminated with heavy metals result in decreased growth due to changes in physiological and biochemical activities, especially when heavy metals inhibit plant growth and development. Furthermore, environmental risk assessment due to mercury exposure is very important to control the transport and accumulation of mercury in the biosphere to reduce the impact of mercury on the environment.
A large amount of Hg is used for gold extraction through the amalgamation process in the Mandailing Natal derived from artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) area located in the North Sumatera Province, Indonesia. The objective of this work was to characterize the potential contamination of total Hg in water, sediments, and soil in this ASGM area. Sampling was done in two locations in West Panyabungan and Huta Bargot Districts using grab sampling method. Results showed that accumulation of Hg in the studied soils and sediments was the highest, but Hg in aquatic solution was below the detection limit of the analytical method of the studied community wells and rivers. The highest concentration of Hg was found in the river sediments of the Saba Padang irrigation (1,63 mg/kg), and in the soil of the plantation area of Huta Bargot (1,62 mg/kg) respectively. These concentrations may pose a serious problem for aquatic and land life, related ecosystems, and human health. For further study, there is a need to study Hg availability in riverine biota to better understand the cycling of Hg in this ASGM area. Understanding the ecological impacts can assist in the prioritizing of impact mitigation efforts.
To clarify the human health risk of inhalation of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM), we measured GEM concentrations in three artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) areas of Palu (Central Sulawesi, 342 000 residents), Muara Aman (Benkulu in Sumatra, about 1000 residents), and Palangka Raya (Central Kalimantan, 236 000 residents). These sites differed with regard to the scale and method of gold mining (ball mill and dredging systems). Although the scale of ASGM activity at these three sites differed for both the ball mill and dredging methods, gold amalgams were always made during the refining process. The air in these cities was therefore polluted by the mercury used in extracting the gold, although the levels of pollution differed. The highest GEM concentrations were measured at gold shops (5 × 10⁵ ng m⁻³). In the ASGM activity area, the measured GEM concentrations were high (100–14 000 ng m⁻³) near grinding drums. GEM concentrations in Palu and Palangka Raya ranged from 2.06 to 375 ng m⁻³ and 2.04 to 25.3 ng m⁻³, respectively. GEM concentrations within an ASGM community area in Muara Aman ranged from 4.10 to 11.5 ng m⁻³. Our results indicated that the health of residents of Palu—not only in the ASGM area but also in the city—may be at risk due to GEM inhalation. In Muara Aman, the health of people who engage in gold refining and of gold shop employees may be at risk, whereas the health of residents of Palangka Raya appears not to be at risk.
The Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) activities at Sekotong District, NTB have a negative impact on the environment. This study aims to determine the content of mercury and cyanide in soil and plants around gold mining. The research method used is descriptive explorative. The research sample was taken purposively at 4 locations and sample analysis at the Chemical Laboratory of Universitas Brawijaya. The results showed that the Hg and HCN content in surface soil ranged from 2.90-26.94 and 63.93-104.08 mg/Kg, Hg and HCN in soil with a depth of 30 cm ranging from 3.48-53.86 and 66.59-106.55 mg/Kg. The Hg and HCN content in plants ranges from 1.23-8.15 and 18.41-52.85 mg/Kg. Referring to the standards set by WHO and the rules of Health the Republic Indonesia 2016, soil and plants have polluted and have a negative impact on other living things.
Gold mining has played a significant role in Ghana’s economy for centuries. Regulation of this industry has varied over time and while industrial mining is prevalent in the country, the expansion of artisanal mining, or Galamsey has escalated in recent years. Many of these artisanal mines are not only harmful to human health due to the use of Mercury (Hg) in the amalgamation process, but also leave a significant footprint on terrestrial ecosystems, degrading and destroying forested ecosystems in the region. In this study, the Landsat image archive available through Google Earth Engine was used to quantify the total footprint of vegetation loss due to artisanal gold mines in Ghana from 2005-2019 and understand how conversion of forested regions to mining has changed over a decadal period from 2007-2017. A combination of machine learning and change detection algorithms were used to calculate different land cover conversions and the timing of conversion annually. Within the study area of southwestern Ghana, our results indicate that approximately 47000 ha (⨦2218 ha) of vegetation were converted to mining at an average rate of ~2600 ha yr⁻¹. The results indicate that a high percentage (~50%) of this mining occurred between 2014 and 2017. Around 700 ha of this mining occurred within protected areas as mapped by the World Database of Protected Areas. In addition to deforestation, increased artisanal mining activity in recent years has the potential to affect human health, access to drinking water resources and food security. This work expands upon limited research into the spatial footprint of Galamsey in Ghana, complements mapping efforts by local geographers, and will support efforts by the government of Ghana to monitor deforestation caused by artisanal mining.
With the aim of protecting human life and the environment, the Minamata Convention seeks to reduce and monitor mercury (Hg) concentrations in the environment. Artisanal and Small-scale Gold Mining (ASGM) has been identified as the most important anthropogenic source of Hg at a global scale and an important route of human exposure to Hg. In this context, this study assessed total Hg (THg) in blood, urine and hair, and methylmercury (MeHg) in human hair samples from 238 participants with occupational exposure to Hg in the most relevant ASGM communities of Colombia. Mercury concentrations in different biological matrices were related to several variables of interest such as age, gender, body mass index, fish consumption, exposure time, and specific occupational activities, such as amalgamation and amalgam burning. The median values of THg in blood (3.70 µg/L), urine (4.00 µg/L) and hair (1.37 mg/kg), and hair MeHg (1.47 mg/kg) for all participants were below permissible concentrations set by WHO. However, about 40% of the miners showed Hg concentrations in blood, urine and/or hair above the WHO thresholds. In all the biological matrices studied, miners burning amalgams showed significantly higher concentrations than miners who did not burn amalgams, with values 7-, 7-, and 8-fold higher in blood, urine and hair, respectively. A multiple linear regression model revealed that burning amalgam and fish consumption were significant predictors of Hg exposure in miners. Miners from Guainía had the highest concentrations in urine and hair, most likely due to the high manipulation and burning of amalgam, and a high fish consumption. In contrast, miners from Caldas showed the lowest Hg concentrations in all the biomarkers because they do not manipulate or burn amalgam, as well as reporting the lowest fish consumption. Our study also highlighted that gold miners exposure to Hg depends on their work practices. Therefore, the implementation of a health education programme on gold mining strategies is required, especially in Guaina, Vaupés, Córdoba, and Antioquia departments.
Mercury (Hg) contamination in soil and forage plants is toxic to ecosystems, and artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the main source of such pollution in the Bombana area of Indonesia. Hg contamination in soil and forage plants was investigated by particle-induced X-ray emission analysis of samples collected from three savannah areas (i.e., ASGM, commercial mining, and control areas) in the Bombana area. Hg contents of forage plants in the ASGM area (mean 9.90 ± 14 µg/g) exceeded those in the control area (2.70 ± 14 µg/g). Soil Hg contents (mean 390 ± 860 µg/g) were also higher than those in the control area (mean 7.40 ± 9.90 µg/g), with levels exceeding international regulatory limits. The Hg contents of 69% of soil and 78% of forage-plant samples exceeded critical toxicological limits. Thus, the Hg levels observed in this study indicate that contamination extending over large areas may cause major environmental problems.
Artisanal and small scale gold mining (ASGM) activities usually use the amalgamation process with mercury to extract the gold. The waste of amalgamation is disposed of in a pond or discharged directly into the river. Most of the tailing ponds are located close to the community wells due to water supply purposes for the amalgamation activity. The amalgamation activity could cause mercury pollution to the community well. This study is aimed to determine the mercury concentration in the groundwater in Southern Lombok Coast. The method used during the study were observation and laboratory testing for mercury concentration. An observation activity had been completed at three villages, namely West Sekotong, Pelangan, and Batu Putih, to identify the process of amalgamation and tailings disposal. Ten community wells associated with the amalgamation process were taken as the sample locations for mercury laboratory testing. It was found that the mercury concentration at the nine location samples was below 0.06 µg/l, and only one location sample (sample code P2) was detected with mercury concentration more than 0.06 µg/l. The results indicated that most of the community wells water met with the government standard (Hg = 0.005 mg/L) as stipulated in government regulation No. 82 of 2001.
Mercury-dependent artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is the largest source of mercury pollution on Earth. In this practice, elemental mercury is used to extract gold from ore as an amalgam. The amalgam is typically isolated by hand and then heated—often with a torch or over a stove—to distill the mercury and isolate the gold. Mercury emissions from tailings and vaporised mercury exceed 1000 tonnes each year from ASGM. The health effects on the miners are dire, with inhaled mercury leading to neurological damage and other health issues. The communities near these mines are also affected due to mercury contamination of water and soil and subsequent accumulation in food staples such as fish. The risks to children are also substantial, with mercury emissions from ASGM resulting in both physical and mental disabilities and compromised development. Between 10 and 19 million people use mercury to mine for gold in more than 70 countries, making mercury pollution from ASGM a global issue. With the Minamata Convention on Mercury entering force this year, there is political motivation to help overcome the problem of mercury in ASGM. In this effort, chemists can play a central role. Here, the problem of mercury in ASGM is reviewed with a discussion on how the chemistry community can contribute solutions. Introducing portable and low-cost mercury sensors, inexpensive and scalable remediation technologies, novel methods to prevent mercury uptake in fish and food crops, and efficient and easy-to-use mercury-free mining techniques are all ways in which the chemistry community can help. To meet these challenges, it is critical that new technologies or techniques are low-cost and adaptable to the remote and under-resourced areas in which ASGM is most common. The problem of mercury pollution in ASGM is inherently a chemistry problem. We therefore encourage the chemistry community to consider and address this issue that affects the health of millions of people.
The invasive and widespread golden apple snail (GAS, Pomacea canaliculata) is a harmful crop pest in many parts of Asia. The heavy use of molluscicides to control GAS could result in soil and water pollution as well as in loss of biodiversity. A sustainable and pollution-free control method is urgently needed to counteract this invasion. In this study, we proposed using dried and powdered GAS residue to neutralize and fertilize soils. We compared the effects of adding GAS residue (i.e., ground GAS shell and meat residue) to the effects of adding lime upon soil properties and microbes in a greenhouse pot experiment. Each pot was incubated for 120 days, and soil pH, nutrients, microbial species, and enzyme activity were assessed. Results showed that addition of GAS residue significantly improved soil pH, contents of total organic carbon (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), and available nitrogen but decreased soil available phosphorus (AP) content due to phosphorus sorption induced by soil organic matter (OM) and high pH. The GAS residue added to soil released nutrients and alleviated soil acidity, as well as provided more resources to soil microbes to increase their bioactivity, although lime addition was better at mitigating soil acidity. We found that with added GAS residue of 25 g kg⁻¹, the soil nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) content increased by 10 times; microbial biomass increased by 43%; and enzyme activity of β-1,4-glucosidase, β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase, and β-d-cellobiosidase also were enhanced, compared to the control. Our findings suggest that GAS residue functions well as a fertilizer and soil amendment to aid the remediation of barren and acidic soils, making it a valuable and useful option in the control of the invasive GAS.
The distribution of mercury in the soil, sediment and river water around the artisanal small-scale gold mining (ASGM) area along the Cikaniki River, West Java, Indonesia, was investigated. The total mercury concentration (T-Hg) in the forest soil ranged from 0.11 to 7.0mgkg(-1), and the highest value was observed at the ASGM village. In the vertical T-Hg profile around the villages, the highest value was observed at the soil surface, and the concentration decreased with depth. This result suggested that the mercury released by mining activity was dispersed through the atmosphere and deposited on the surface. The total organic carbon content (TOC) showed a similar vertical profile as the T-Hg, and a linear relationship was found between T-Hg and TOC. Mercury deposited on the surface can be absorbed by organic matter. The slope of the line was larger near the ASGM village, implying a higher rate of deposition of mercury. The T-Hg in the sediment ranged from 10 to 70mgkg(-1), decreasing gradually toward the lower reaches of the river. Mining waste can be transported with the river flow and deposited along the river. The distribution of the mining waste can be determined using the mineralogical composition measured by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.
Mercury pollution poses global human health and environmental risks. Although mercury is naturally present in the environment, human activities, such as coal burning, have increased the amount of mercury cycling among the land, atmosphere, and ocean by a factor of three to five. Emitted to the atmosphere in its elemental form, mercury travels worldwide before oxidizing to a form that deposits to ecosystems. In aquatic systems, mercury can convert into methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin. People and wildlife are exposed to methylmercury as it bioaccumulates up the food chain. Mercury continues to circulate in the atmosphere, oceans, and terrestrial system for centuries to millennia before it returns to deep-ocean sediments. Areas of uncertainty in the global biogeochemical cycle of mercury include oxidation processes in the atmosphere, land-atmosphere and ocean-atmosphere cycling, and methylation processes in the ocean. National and international policies have addressed direct mercury emissions, but further efforts to reduce risks face numerous political and technical challenges.
This review article focused on the current status of mercury (Hg) contamination in different ecological compartments in China, and their possible environmental and health impacts, focusing on some major cities. Mercury emission from non-ferrous metals smelting (especially zinc smelting), coal combustion and miscellaneous activities (of which battery and fluorescent lamp production and cement production are the largest), contributed about 45%, 38% and 17%, respectively, to the total Hg emission based on the data of 1999. Mercury contamination is widespread in different ecological compartments such as atmosphere, soil and water. There is evidence showing bioaccumulation and biomagnification of Hg in aquatic food chains, with higher concentrations detected in carnivorous fish. In terms of human exposure to Hg, fish consumption is the major exposure pathway for residents living in coastal cities such as Hong Kong, but inhalation may be another major source, affecting human health in areas with severe atmospheric Hg, such as Guiyang City (Guizhou Province). The first case study indicated that after closure of the acetic acid plant 20 years at Songyuan City (Jilin Province), 16.7% of residents' hair still contained Hg concentration in excess of 1 mg/kg (the reference dosage value, RfD set by USEPA). The second case study indicated that the male residents of Hong Kong who consumed more than four or more meals of fish per week tended to contain higher Hg in their hair, which was linked to their subfertility. There is also increasing evidence showing that skin disorders and autism in Hong Kong children are related to their high Hg body loadings (hair, blood and urine), through prenatal methyl Hg exposure. There seems to be an urgent need to identify the sources of Hg, speciation and concentrations in different ecological compartments, which may lead to high body loadings in human beings. Adverse health effects of residents living in places with a higher background level of Hg, due to long-term exposure to chronic levels of Hg through oral intake should not be overlooked.
The artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sector is estimated to be the largest anthropogenic source of mercury pollution worldwide, and not surprisingly human exposures in this sector are amongst the highest of all population groups. While formalization of the sector has been proposed as a solution to help improve health and safety within ASGM sites, there are few empirical studies in support of this notion. The objective of this study was to assess if individuals working in ASGM sites that are registered have reduced mercury exposures and better neuropsychological scores than workers from unregistered sites. To achieve this objective, we studied biological samples (urine, hair) and survey data from a study of 404 ASGM workers (of which, 295 worked in registered ASGM sites) conducted in Tarkwa (Ghana) in 2014. Between miners working in registered and unregistered sites, there were few differences in socio-demographic characteristics. Median urinary mercury concentration (specific gravity-corrected) among those from unregistered mines was nearly 3-fold higher than those from the registered mines (18.5 versus 6.6 μg/L), and in the overall population the median concentration was 10.0 μg/L, and ranged from 0.3 to 2499 μg/L. Mercury biomarkers varied across ASGM work categories (e.g., those who burned or amalgamated had the highest) and users of personal protective equipment. Nearly 30% of the study population indicated having some challenges concerning, for example, reduced appetite, hair loss, or excess salivation. Ataxia and rigidity of gait were absent in most of the participants, and for those with slight, moderate, or marked responses, there were no differences between miners from registered and unregistered sites, across work groups, as well as in reference to mercury biomarker measures. For the pencil tapping, Frostig, matchbox, and Wechsler tests, no striking differences were found though a correlation was found between urinary mercury levels and matchbox scores among those who amalgamate and burn, and scores were similar to past studies using the same tests in ASGM sites. We believe this is the first study to compare mercury exposures and neuropsychological test results between miners from registered and unregistered ASGM sites. In doing so, the research findings provide the necessary evidence for stakeholders and parties of the Minamata Convention considering various response options to help fulfill their obligations.
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