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Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications
JASA 2024, 9 (1), 548-567
Research article
e-ISSN: 2548-0170
https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/mbud
Citation: Akatlı, G. & Dinç Kalaycı, P. (2024). Spatial perception: A critical bibliometric inquiry. Journal of
Architectural Sciences and Applications, 9 (1), 548-567.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30785/mbud.1402794
Received: January 8, 2024 – Accepted: July 7, 2024 548
Spatial Perception: A Critical Bibliometric Inquiry
Gülsüm AKATLI 1* , Pınar DİNÇ KALAYCI 2
ORCID 1: 0000-0002-5803-935X
ORCID 2: 0000-0002-1932-9477
1 Gazi University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, 06570, Ankara, Türkiye.
2 Gazi University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of Architecture, 06570, Ankara, Türkiye.
* e-mail: akatlig@gmail.com
Abstract
In this study, it is aimed to answer the research question "what is the place and status of architectural research
in perception studies?". At the same time, determining the validity of the VOSviewer program, which is widely
used for systematic bibliometric analysis, within the scope of the study constitutes an indirect secondary objective
of the research. In this direction, two consecutive bibliometric analyses, each with a different depth, were
conducted to see the range of spatial perception studies and to explore its sub-expansions. In this context, two
keyword groups were created for the first two phases of the study. Document type and category were restricted
to determine the research framework. In this framework, the studies identified in the first phase (n=2727) and
the second phase (n=243) were transferred to the VOSviewer program for bibliometric analysis and analyzed. In
the last phase of the study, a flow-quantity diagram was created for the article studies identified in the second
phase using the Sankey diagram generator (n=92). When the studies scanned in Web of Science were analyzed,
it was found that the studies involving the concepts in the research framework were mostly related to the concept
of comfort and the least related to the concept of happiness.
Keywords: Spatial perception, bibliometric analysis, content analysis, architecture, multidisciplinary psychology.
Mekânsal Algı: Eleştirel Bir Bibliyometrik Sorgulama
Öz
Bu çalışmada ‘‘algı çalışmaları içinde mimarlık araştırmalarının yeri ve durumu nedir?’’ araştırma sorusuna yanıt
verilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Aynı zamanda bibliyometrik analizlerin sistematik olarak gerçekleştirilmesi noktasında
yaygın kullanıma sahip olan VOSviewer programının çalışma kapsamındaki geçerliliğinin saptanması da
araştırmanın dolaylı yoldan ikincil hedefini oluşturmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda mekânsal algı araştırmalarının
yelpazesini görmek ve alt açılımlarını keşfetmek üzere her biri farklı derinlikte olan ardışık iki bibliyometrik analiz
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu kapsamda çalışmanın ilk iki aşaması için iki anahtar kelime grubu oluşturulmuştur.
Araştırma çerçevesini belirlemek üzere doküman türü ve kategori sınırlaması getirilmiştir. Bu çerçevede ilk
aşamada (n=2727) ve ikinci aşamada (n=243) tespit edilen çalışmalar bibliyometrik analizlerini yapabilmek üzere
VOSviewer programına aktarılarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın son aşamasında, Sankey diyagramı oluşturucusu
kullanılarak ikinci aşamada belirlenmiş makale çalışmaları özelinde bir akış-miktar diyagramı oluşturulmuştur
(n=92). Web of Science'ta taranmış olan çalışmalar incelendiğinde, araştırma çerçevesindeki kavramları içeren
çalışmaların en çok konfor kavramı ile, en az ise mutluluk kavramı ile ilgili olduğu saptanmıştır.
Anahtar kelimeler: Mekânsal algı, bibliyometrik analiz, içerik analizi, mimarlık, çok disiplinli psikoloji.
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
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1. Introduction
Although architectural space design depends on many elements, the most important reference point
is the ‘‘human being’’. ‘‘Space constantly encompasses our being. Through the volume of space, we
move, see forms, hear sounds, feel breezes, smell the fragrances of a flower garden in bloom. It is a
material substance like wood or stone. Yet it is an inherently formless vapor. Its visual form, its
dimensions and scale, the quality of its light—all of these qualities depend on our perception of the
spatial boundaries defined by elements of form’’ (Ching, 2015, p.100). As supported by Ching,
architectural space represents a specific area consisting of elements such as form, material, texture,
and color within certain boundaries. Although this space comes to the forefront with its physical
quality in terms of separating people from environmental conditions, protecting them in a sense and
allowing them to perform certain tasks, it is also of great psychological importance because it affects
the moods of the individuals in it. This situation actually reveals the importance of the concept of space
perception.
As a result of the inevitability that the physical and psychological effects of architecture are
interrelated, spatial perception based on the relationship established with climatic and environmental
conditions, as well as the elements that make up the architectural space, positively or negatively affect
human physiology and human psychology. For example, a dwelling that lets in the sounds of nature
can positively affect the mood, while a dwelling that lets in only street and vehicle sounds will require
sound insulation. Indeed, there are empirical studies that provide evidence that living in natural
environments has psychological and physiological benefits compared to living in the city. One of these
studies was conducted by Zhang, Tan & Yuan (2023). In their study, changes in the psychophysiological
state of participants who normally live and study in the city were compared with those who entered a
forest environment, and it was found that a natural forest environment had a positive effect on human
psychophysiology (Zhang et al., 2023). In terms of the built environment, green buildings as a
sustainable urban form can contribute to social sustainability as well as environmental sustainability
by promoting people's well-being and pro-environmental behavior (Zhang & Yong, 2021). Similarly,
thermal insulation needs may vary according to climate and season. At this point, it is possible to say
that thermal comfort is affected by both environmental and psychological factors (Tan, Chung, Roberts
& Lau, 2019). Moreover, even the ventilation type of a building in terms of thermal comfort affects the
behavioral adaptations and psychological adaptations of the users of that building (de Dear & Brager,
1998). In addition, traditional and cultural habits and environmental harmony are other factors
affecting perception. ‘‘Just as it is perturbing when our buildings deny their settings, so it can be
pleasurable to find evidence of the opposite tendency’’ (Botton, 2006, p.221). In addition to the
perception of the built environment, the perception of landscape can also change depending on
cultural identity. ‘‘Socio-cultural factors, that are decisive for cultural identity and socio-cultural
background, together with biological and psychological factors influence landscape perception and
evaluation’’(Kamičaitytė, Grazuleviciute-Vileniske & Gadal, 2019, p.72). Even, spatial perception,
which is a cognitive skill that can develop throughout life and is influenced by many different factors,
can also vary depending on the expertise of individuals (Mertins, Danhier, Mertins, Schulz & Schulz,
2019).
Considering all these issues, it is seen that human perception of space depends on many variables for
an ideal space design. This situation reveals how important the concept of spatial perception is in the
design of an architectural space. In this context, the main purpose of this study is to determine the
place and status of architectural studies within perception studies. The secondary purpose of the study
is to question the validity of the Vosviewer program, which is frequently preferred for systematic
bibliometric analysis, within the scope of the study. For this purposes, the Web Of Science database,
VOSviever program and SankeyMatic diagram generator were used to see the range and sub-
expansions of the studies on the subject of ‘‘spatial perception’’; the literature on the subject was
examined within the framework of the limitations created by using the first and second keyword group.
Thanks to this study, a situation assessment has been realized by systematically looking at spatial
perception research, which has a very wide range, from the intersection of architecture and
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
550
multidisciplinary psychology disciplines. In addition, this bibliometric determination will also guide the
future studies on spatial perception.
1.1. Bibliometric Analysis-Space Studies
Spatial perception is related to many disciplines besides architecture. In this respect, it is inevitable
that studies on the subject have been conducted in different disciplines with different methods and
perspectives. In the field of spatial perception, there are relatively large-scale studies on urban design
or landscape perception, as well as studies related to different building types at the architectural scale.
In addition, with the effect of today's developing and widespread technology, studies on virtual spaces
prepared by utilizing virtual reality are also increasing. There are many studies in the literature on the
perception of spaces in individuals in related fields such as psychology as well as architecture. The
diversity of these studies and the fact that they are related to more than one field makes it difficult to
analyze these studies with a conventional research method. In this respect, it is very important to
analyze the literature data systematically with a relatively general perspective and to look at the issue
of spatial perception from the intersection of the interrelated disciplines of architecture and
psychology in order to guide future studies.
Pritchard states that bibliometrics is the application of mathematics and statistical methods to books
and other media of communication (Pritchard, 1969). Bibliometric research, which examines study
patterns using quantitative analysis and statistics, can be descriptive in the form of revealing how many
articles a particular organization has on a particular subject, or evaluative in that it can provide data
on how a study affects subsequent researchers by conducting citation analysis (McBurney & Novak,
2002). In this respect, bibliometrics refers to the quantitative analysis of the relationships between
documents, authors or sources such as journals in order to show the productivity, quality or impact of
an individual investigator or research team (Carpenter, Cone & Sarli, 2014).
If scientific analysis is handled in a conventional way, it is possible to encounter some limitations
(Varshabi, Arslan Selçuk & Mutlu Avinç, 2022) and difficulties in terms of screening due to the increase
in the number of academic publications. In fact, a conventional bibliography simply describes the
structure of humanity's accumulated knowledge on a given subject to date and it kind of ignores the
relationships between the studies examined (Garfield, 1983). For this reason, it is possible to say that
it is difficult to carry out traditional literature surveys meticulously and completely (Snyder, 2019).
However, ‘‘The bibliometric method facilitates the investigation of the relationship between research
collaboration and variables pertaining to the research problem and the research environment, by
applying statistical techniques such as regression, correlation, and factor analysis’’ (Subramanyam,
1982). In this respect, it is possible to say that literature reviews handled with bibliometric analysis
method enable faster and more effective data collection.
Additionally, bibliometric analyses also provide an opportunity to make observations using
visualization. Bibliometric mapping, which can also be called science mapping, is a spatial
representation of the relationships between disciplines, fields, specialities, individual papers or
authors, similar to the way geographical maps show physical and political relationships (Small, 1999).
In this study, a bibliometric analysis study was conducted in which visual data from article studies
related to the subject of spatial perception were also obtained.
2. Methodology
A two-depth three-phase method (Figure 1) was used to conduct a systematic bibliometric analysis to
determine the place and status of architectural studies among the wide range of perception studies
investigated by the discipline of psychology.
Accordingly, after the first phase, which was carried out to see the range of these studies by looking at
spatial perception studies from a general perspective within the framework of the research question
in order to evaluate the scientific literature in the context of spatial perception, a second phase was
needed to determine the range of studies on the responses of users/perceivers who experience the
space in order to explore the sub-expansions of spatial perception studies. A third phase was needed
for the content analysis of the studies identified in the second phase. The interpretation of the validity
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
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of the VOSviewer program at the point of bibliometric analysis within the limits of the research is given
at the end of the analysis comments in the discussion section. In this framework, the research
questions to be answered on the studies on spatial perception in the categories of architecture and
multidisciplinary psychology are as follows:
For the first two phases:
• Which countries are prominent?
• Which are the most cited articles?
• Which are the prominent journals?
• What are the prominent concepts?
For the final phase:
• What is the diversity of related studies in terms of the spaces to which they relate?
In the first phase, the keywords ‘‘spatial perception’’, ‘‘space perception’’, ‘‘perception of space’’ and
‘‘perception of architectural space’’ were determined to be analyzed in the Web Of Science database.
In order to identify studies containing any or more than one of these four keywords, the expression
‘‘OR’’ was used between the words. In addition, in order to examine the determined keywords within
clearer boundaries, the studies to be evaluated were scanned through ‘‘title, abstract and keywords
(author keywords and keywords plus)’’. In order to determine the screening framework, document
type restrictions were made as ‘‘article’’ and ‘‘review article’’ to examine the prominent articles in
obtaining scientific data. The data obtained in the first search were reviewed according to the fields of
study. Afterwards, ‘‘Architecture’’ and ‘‘Psychology Multidisciplinary’’ were selected as ‘‘Categories’’
on the Web Of Science database. These data on studies in the fields of architecture and
multidisciplinary psychology were transferred to the program called VOSviewer, which allows
bibliometric analysis through the Web Of Science database. ‘‘Geographical area analysis, document
analysis, source analysis, and keyword analysis’’ were performed through the VOSviewer program.
As the second step of the study, a second bibliometric analysis, which is related to the subject and has
relatively narrow limitations, was conducted. For this second analysis, a second set of keywords was
created in addition to the keywords in the first phase in order to obtain a narrower research framework
for human responses of spatial perception among the studies scanned through the Web of Science
database in the first phase. These words are ‘‘happiness’’, ‘‘comfort’’, ‘‘user satisfaction’’, ‘‘well-
being/wellbeing’’ and ‘‘quality of life’’. In order to identify studies that included any or more than one
of the keywords that make up this second word group, the expression ‘‘OR’’ was used between the
words. In addition, the expression ‘‘AND’’ was used between the two word groups in order to scan the
studies containing at least one word from the first and second word groups at the same time. In this
way, a second scan was conducted to identify the studies that also included these words among the
studies scanned in the first analysis. These data obtained from the Web Of Science database were
transferred to the VOSwiever program similar to the first phase and the second phase of bibliometric
analysis was carried out.
In the third and final phase of this bibliometric analysis study on spatial perception, a flow-quantity
diagram was created using the online Sankey diagram generator called ‘‘SankeyMatic’’ over the article
studies identified in the second phase. In doing so, the words ‘‘happiness’’, ‘‘comfort’’, ‘‘user
satisfaction’’, ‘‘well-being’’ and ‘‘quality of life’’, which constitute the second keyword group
determined to narrow the limitations through the Web of Science database, were taken as reference.
In this context, it was aimed to determine which types of buildings or fields of study were intensively
studied through the article studies identified during the second bibliometric analysis. In doing so, from
the studies retrieved from the Web of Science database, those whose main text was in English and
Turkish and which could be related to the discipline of design were selected, and those studies that
could not be related to any building type or space of study and which had a relatively weak relationship
with the subject were ignored.
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Figure 1. Research method scheme of two-depth three-phase bibliometric analysis of spatial perception
3. Bibliometric Analysis and Findings
After two in-depth analyses of the studies extracted from the Web of Science database into the
VOSviewer program on ‘‘geographical area analysis, document analysis, source analysis, keyword
analysis’’, a third content analysis was conducted on the limiting keywords, and related study areas
of the selected articles.
3.1. Analysis Results of Spatial Perception Studies
As described in the methodology section, the keywords related to the subject to be used in the Web
Of Science database were determined as ‘‘spatial perception’’, ‘‘space perception’’, ‘‘perception of
space’’, ‘‘perception of architectural space’’. In the first research conducted on this database in this
way, 62186 sources were identified.
PHASE 1
Research Questions: In terms of studies on spatial perception in the
categories of architecture and multidisciplinary psychology;
Which countries are prominent?
Which are the most cited articles?
What are the prominent journals?
What are the prominent concepts?
Web of Science
(n=2727)
Keywords
''spatial perception''
''space perception''
''perception of space''
''perception of architectural space''
PHASE 2
Research Questions: In terms of studies on the users/perceivers
responses of spatial perception in the categories of architecture and
multidisciplinary psychology;
Which countries are prominent?
Which are the most cited articles?
Which are the prominent journals?
What are the prominent concepts?
Web of Science
(n=243)
Keywords
''spatial perception''
''space perception''
''perception of space''
''perception of architectural space'' AND
''happiness''
''comfort''
''user satisfaction''
''well-being'' / ''wellbeing''
''quality of life''
PHASE 3
Research Question: How is the studies on the users/perceivers
responses of spatial perception in the categories of architecture and
multidisciplinary psychology in terms of the diversity of the fields of
study they are related to?
Web of Science
(n=92)
DISCUSSION
INTERPRETATION OF BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
INTERPRETATION OF VOSVIEWER
BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
VOSViewer
o Geographic area
analysis
o Document analysis
o Source analysis
o Keyword analysis
SANKEY DIAGRAM
CREATION
SankeyMatic
o Content analysis of
articles
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
553
When the results of the analysis of this initial information are analyzed, it is observed that there are
studies in more than 250 research areas in terms of Web of Science Categories, and most studies on
this subject are in the field of ‘‘Neuroscience’’ with a rate of 15.906%. ‘‘Experimental Psychology’’ ranks
second with 11.070% and ‘‘Psychology’’ ranks third with 8.336%. This situation reveals the intensive
relationship between the studies on this subject and psychology. However, with reference to the words
in question, 879 studies in the field of ‘‘Architecture’’ ranked 32nd with a rate of 1.414%, while
‘‘Psychology Multidisciplinary’’ ranked 10th with 2252 studies.
Following the overview of research areas in the context of Web of Science Categories, ‘‘architecture’’
was first selected as the ‘‘category’’ on the Web of Science database and the studies (n=879) in this
field were reviewed. When the studies on the subject in the field of ‘‘architecture’’ are analyzed
according to years, it is determined that although there has been an increase since 1997, most
publications belong to 2019. Afterward, only ‘‘multidisciplinary psychology’’ was selected as the
‘‘category’’ through the Web of Science database and the studies (n=2252) conducted in this field were
reviewed. When the studies on the subject in the field of ‘‘multidisciplinary psychology’’ were analyzed
according to years, it was found that studies on the subject started to be conducted in 1980, at least
one study was conducted every year except 1984 and 1990, and although some years varied, there
was a regular increase in the studies on the subject as of 1991.
Figure 2. Distribution of publications by year in the architecture and multidisciplinary psychology categories
within the framework of phase 1 keywords
Then, the fields of ‘‘architecture’’ and ‘‘multidisciplinary psychology’’ were selected together as
categories to determine the study boundaries. It was determined that the total number of studies that
belong to these two disciplines together was 3129. Since the year 2023 was ongoing during the study
period, it is not included in the annual change graph visualization.
Among these studies, ‘‘article’’ and ‘‘review article’’ were selected as document types in order to
examine the articles that stand out in obtaining scientific data. In this way, a total of 2729 studies
prepared in the fields of architecture and multidisciplinary psychology, 2558 ‘‘articles’’ and 171
‘‘review articles’’, were selected for bibliometric analysis in the first phase. These studies were scanned
by their names before being transferred to the VOSviewer program. As a result of this scanning, it was
realized that 1 study was included with the Early Access version and another study was registered
twice. In order for the data to be obtained from the study to be right, only 1 sample of these two
studies was subjected to examination; therefore, 2727 studies were identified to be imported into the
VOSviewer program. After this first look, the information on the article studies identified on the Web
of Science database was imported into the ‘‘VOSviewer’’ program and the bibliometric analysis was
continued through the VOSviewer program.
3.1.1.Geographical area analysis
While there are 101 countries with publications in the related field, 24 countries have 25 or more
publications. In terms of countries, the country with the most publications in the relevant field is the
USA. It is followed by the England and Germany. However, when all publications are considered in
terms of continent, Europe is the continent with the most publications (Figure 3). While no studies
have been conducted in the related field in Africa, only Brazil from South America has conducted
research on spatial perception. In this part of the analysis, the data obtained from Vosviewer were
0
50
100
150
200
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
2022
Architecture Psychology Multidisciplinary
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
554
used only to determine the countries with the most publications on spatial perception.Thanks to this
determination, it has been determined that spatial perception is a universal subject.
Figure 3. Map image of countries with 25 or more publications within the framework of phase 1 keywords and
number of publications
3.1.2.Document analysis
Of the 2727 documents on spatial perception in the fields of architecture and multidisciplinary
psychology, 2061 were cited at least once. The table of the 10 most cited documents is given below.
(Table 1).
Table 1. Top 10 most cited articles within the framework phase 1 keywords
Article Title
Year
Citation
Source
Author
Construal-level theory of psychological
distance
2010
2888
Psychological
Review
Trope, Yaacov
Liberman, Nira
Defining place attachment: A tripartite
organizing framework
2010
1074
Journal of
Environmental
Psychology
Scannell, Leila
Gifford, Robert
Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention,
social cognition, and individual differences
2007
895
Psychological
Bulletin
Frischen, Alexandra
Bayliss, Andrew P.
Tipper, Steven P.
The location of trait emotional intelligence
in personality factor space
2007
759
British Journal
Of Psychology
Petrides, K. V.
Pita, Ria
Kokkinaki, Flora
A taxonomy of external and internal
attention
2011
700
Annual Review
Of Psychology
Chun, Marvin M.
Golomb, Julie D.
Turk-Browne, Nicholas B.
Why are small and large numbers
enumerated differently - A limited-capacity
preattentive stage in vision
1994
668
Psychological
Review
Trick, Lana M.
Pylyshyn, Zenon W.
How to build a baby: 2. Conceptual
primitives
1992
610
Psychological
Review
Mandler, Jean M.
Remembering the past and imagining the
future: A neural model of spatial memory
and imagery
2007
593
Psychological
Review
Byrne, Patrick
Becker, Suzanna
Burgess, Neil
Emotion facilitates perception and
potentiates the perceptual
benefits of attention
2006
535
Psychological
Science
Phelps, Elizabeth A.
Ling, Sam
Carrasco, Marisa
Primacy of wholistic processing and global/
local paradigm: A critical-review
1992
498
Psychological
Bulletin
Kimchi, Ruth
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In this table, 2 studies that are considered to have a relatively intense relationship with the discipline
of architecture are colored in blue. This can be interpreted as the fact that among the most cited
studies in the relevant field, the proportion of studies that can be considered related to the discipline
of design within the discipline of psychology is quite low. When the 10 most cited articles were
evaluated, it was found that there was no significant relationship network between them in terms of
citation.
3.1.3.Source analysis
Regardless of citations, there are 283 sources with at least one publication on spatial perception. When
we look at the sources with at least 1 citation, this number decreases to 222. The citation relationship
network between 111 of these 222 sources consists of 22 clusters and 255 links. It is clearly seen that
the journal ‘‘Frontiers In Pschology’’ is the dominant journal in this relationship network where many
clusters form dense connections among them (Figure 4). However, another noteworthy point in this
network of relationships is the situation of sources for environmental psychology related to
architecture. Journal Of Environmental Psychology and Environment And Behavior journals are among
the journals that cover research on the scientific examination of the mutual relations between humans
and the physical environment. It was observed that these sources were dominant in the clusters they
formed within themselves. However, it is possible to say that although the journals related to
architecture are visible in terms of citation link, they remain in the background compared to the
psychology discipline.
Figure 4. Citation link network of cited sources within the framework of phase 1 keywords
There are 17 journals that contain at least 25 studies on the subject and have at least 1 citation (Table
2). All these journals, although in a sense interdisciplinary, were evaluated in three ways according to
their relative density in terms of content. In this table, journals related to design disciplines that have
a relatively intense relationship with the discipline of architecture are colored in blue, while journals
related to the discipline of psychology are colored in black. Journals that focus on research in the field
of environmental psychology, which is located at the intersection of architecture and psychology, are
also colored blue due to their relationship with design. Journals that contain research that is specialized
in different fields are shown in red, even if they are related to the discipline of psychology. While
determining this aspect of the journals; the descriptions on the online home page of each journal were
taken as reference.
Seven of these 17 sources include studies directly related to the discipline of psychology. Six of them
are related to at least one of the disciplines of architecture and environmental psychology. In addition
4 journals are specialized in different fields, albeit interdisciplinary. Accordingly, in percentage terms,
studies related to the discipline of psychology ranked first with 41.17%. Studies related to the discipline
of architecture have a rate of 35.29%, while other journals have a rate of 23.52%. This situation shows
that journals related to architecture and design can find a place in the discipline of psychology among
the sources that stand out with the high number of documents in terms of space perception research.
However, it is also seen from the relevant table that some psychology journals are relatively prominent
in terms of the number of citations and documents (Table 2).
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Table 2. Journals with at least 25 studies and at least 1 citation within the framework of phase 1 keywords
Journal
Documents
Citations
Related fields
Frontiers In Psychology
667
9110
psychology
Psychological Science
149
9636
psychology
Spatial Vision
86
1986
computation, perception, attention and action
Journal Of Environmental
Psychology
85
4660
environmental psychology
Environment And Behavior
80
2916
environmental psychology
Psychological Review
53
8103
psychology
Computers In Human Behavior
40
1043
use of computers&psychology
Megaron
38
29
architecture, planning
International Journal Of Human-
Computer Studies
37
788
design and use of interactive computer technology
Japanese Psychological Research
36
259
psychology
Archnet-Ijar International Journal
Of Architectural Research
32
113
architecture, urban design and planning, built
environment
Journal Of Asian Architecture And
Building Engineering
32
97
architecture and building engineering
British Journal Of Psychology
30
1573
psychology
Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal
30
42
psychology
Laterality
26
297
lateralisation
Open House International
26
68
architecture, building technology, housing, urban
design and planning
Annee Psychologique
25
94
psychology
3.1.4. Keyword analysis/Co-occurrences of keywords
When the related studies were evaluated in terms of the co-occurrence of keywords, it was found that
there were 290 keywords repeated at least 5 times (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Co-occurences of keywords repeated at least 5 times within the framework of phase 1 keywords
Among these words, perception, attention, visual perception, spatial perception, virtual reality, public
space, space, architecture, vision, consciousness were found to be the most frequently used keywords.
Words that have a relatively intense relationship with the concept of space are highlighted on the
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
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relationship network. When this visual is analyzed, it is found that most of the studies associated with
the concept of space were carried out by associating with public spaces at the urban scale. When this
relationship network visualization is evaluated, it is clearly seen that there are quite a lot of concepts
related to psychology, but architectural terms can also find a place within this concepts.
3.2. Analysis Results of the Studies on the Human Responses of Spatial Perception
After the first bibliometric analysis on spatial perception, a second bibliometric analysis with relatively
narrow limitations was conducted as explained in the methodology section. For this second analysis,
studies with the words ‘‘happiness’’, ‘‘comfort’’, ‘‘user satisfaction’’, ‘‘well-being/wellbeing’’ and
‘‘quality of life’’ were scanned together with the first group of words (‘‘spatial perception’’, ‘‘space
perception’’, ‘‘perception of space’’, ‘‘perception of architectural space’’) scanned in the first phase
through the Web of Science database.
At the point of determining the second keyword group, 1397 keywords that were repeated at least 2
times out of 7838 keywords identified within the framework of the common keyword analysis
conducted in the first phase were analyzed. In order to determine those related to positive
emotions/outcomes among the studies on the responses of users/perceivers, keywords that were
related to the subject were examined. Accordingly, ‘‘happiness (2), comfort (3), user satisfaction (3)’’
were selected among the keywords that were used relatively few times, while ‘‘well-being (11)’’ and
‘‘quality of life (8)’’ were identified as the prominent concepts among the keywords that were repeated
relatively many times. In this way, a second analysis was conducted using two keyword groups similar
to the first phase.
In this framework, 276 studies were identified after a search on the Web Of Science. Since the year
2023 was ongoing during the study period, it is not included in the annual change graph visualization.
When the distribution of these studies according to years is analyzed, it is possible to say that the
studies related to the subject have relatively increased in recent years, although the increase and
decrease in research continue to vary between years.
Figure 6. Distribution of publications by year in the architecture and multidisciplinary psychology categories
within the framework of phase 2 keywords
In order to determine the boundaries of the research framework, ‘‘article’’ and ‘‘review article’’ were
selected as document types to examine the articles within these studies. As a result, the data from 243
documents were extracted and analyzed in the VOSviewer program similar to the first phase.
3.2.1. Geographical area analysis
When the geographical area evaluation of the second bibliometric analysis is considered, it is found
that there are 63 countries with at least 1 publication on the subject. Only 16 of these 63 countries
have 5 or more publications. In terms of publications, the USA ranks first, Turkey ranks second and
China ranks third, while when the related studies are evaluated in terms of continents, it is seen that
the total number of studies in the countries located in the European continent is relatively higher than
the other continents (Figure 7). Considering the countries with publications in the related field, it was
determined that studies were carried out in many different countries. However, no studies were found
from the African continent, while only Chile from South America was found to have conducted studies
in the relevant field.
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Figure 7. Map image of countries with 5 or more publications within the framework of phase 2 keywords and
number of publications
3.2.2.Document analysis
Of the 243 studies in the related field, 172 were cited at least once. Information on the top 10 most
cited articles in the field is given in Table 3.
Table 3. Top 10 most cited articles within the framework phase 2 keywords
Article Title
Year
Citation
Source
Author
Developments in trait emotional
intelligence research
2016
241
Emotion
Review
Petrides, K.V.
Mikolajczak, Moira
Mavroveli, Stella
Sanchez-Ruiz, Maria-Jose
Furnham, Adrian
Perez-Gonzalez, Juan-Carlos
From the heart to the mind: cardiac
vagal tone modulates top-down and
bottom-up visual perception and
attention to emotional stimuli
2014
185
Frontiers In
Psychology
Park, Gewnhi
Thayer, Julian F.
Neighborhood satisfaction, physical
and perceived naturalness and
openness
2010
173
Journal Of
Environmental
Psychology
Hur, Misun
Nasar, Jack L.
Chun, Bumseok
Residential development patterns and
neighborhood satisfaction: Impacts of
density and nearby nature
2006
129
Environment
And Behavior
Kearney, Anne R.
Peripersonal and interpersonal space in
virtual and real environments:
Effects of gender and age
2016
122
Journal Of
Environmental
Psychology
Iachini, Tina
Coello, Yann
Frassinetti, Francesca
Senese, Vincenzo Paolo
Galante, Francesco
Ruggiero, Gennaro
The importance of auditory-visual
interaction in the
construction of 'tranquil space'
2010
100
Journal Of
Environmental
Psychology
Pheasant, Robert J.
Fisher, Mark N.
Watts, Greg R.
Whitaker, David J.
Horoshenkov, Kirill V.
The effects of color and light on indoor
wayfinding and the evaluation of the
perceived environment
2012
93
Journal Of
Environmental
Psychology
Hidayetoglu, M. Lutfi.
Yildirim, Kemal
Akalin, Aysu
The relationship between perceived
greenness and perceived
2016
80
Environment
And Behavior
Hipp, J. Aaron
Gulwadi, Gowri Betrabet
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
559
restorativeness of university campuses
and student-reported quality of life
Alves, Susana
Sequeira, Sonia
Healthcare
providers' perception of design
factors related to physical
environments in hospitals
2012
75
Journal Of
Environmental
Psychology
Mourshed, Monjur
Zhao, Yisong
Multiple environmental burdens and
neighborhood-related health of city
residents
2012
61
Journal Of
Environmental
Psychology
Honold, Jasmin
Beyer, Reinhard
Lakes, Tobia
van der Meer, Elke
The fact that 6 of the studies were included in the ‘‘Journal Of Environmental Psychology’’ shows that
this journal stands out in terms of receiving citations in the relevant field. Similar to the first phase, in
this table, studies that are considered to have a relatively intense relationship with the discipline of
architecture are colored in blue. When the top 10 most cited articles are analyzed, it is found that 70%
of these studies have a relatively intense relationship with the discipline of architecture. This clearly
shows that in studies focusing on the behavioral outcomes of spatial perception, studies with a design
perspective, and thus the discipline of architecture, stand out compared to psychology. When the
network of citation relationships between the articles was analyzed, it was found that there was a
weak relationship network in which only three sources from the discipline of architecture formed a
cluster. This situation indicates that the prominent studies in the discipline of architecture do not
establish a meaningful citation relationship with research in the discipline of psychology.
3.2.3. Source analysis
In the second phase of the analysis, there are 66 journals with at least one publication related to the
subject regardless of citation, but this number decreases to 48 when we analyze the sources with at
least 1 citation. In the citation network formed between 9 of the sources with at least 1 citation, 4
clusters and 9 links are formed (Figure 8). This shows the relative weakness of the link between these
journals. Among these 9 journals, Frontiers In Psychology stands out. It is seen that Open House
International, Environment And Behavior and Journal of Environmental Psychology, which are related
to design, form separate clusters in which they form a focal point. Considering this relationship
network, it can be said that architecture journals form more clusters in terms of citation.
Figure 8. Citation link network of cited sources within the framework of phase 2 keywords
Similar to the first phase, these journals were evaluated in three different ways according to their
relative density in terms of content with reference to the descriptions on the online home page of each
journal. Accordingly, journals related to design disciplines that have a relatively intense relationship
with the discipline of architecture are colored in blue, journals related to the discipline of psychology
are colored in black, and journals that contain research that is specialized in different fields are shown
in red. (Table 4).
In this second phase of the analysis, although Frontiers In Psychology journal for the discipline of
psychology ranked first in terms of the number of documents, 76.47 % of the citation sources
containing at least 3 studies were found to be journals related to the field of architecture. This is a
proof that the studies on the human responses of spatial perception are mostly carried out through
design disciplines.
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Table 4. Journals with at least 3 studies and at least 1 citation within the framework of phase 2 keywords
Journal
Documents
Citations
Related fields
Frontiers In Psychology
57
680
psychology
Journal Of Environmental
Psychology
19
912
environmental psychology
Environment And Behavior
11
435
environmental psychology
Architectural Science Review
10
87
architectural science, technology and the built
environment
Open House International
10
27
architecture, building technology, housing,
urban design and planning
Megaron
9
16
architecture, planning
Urban Design International
7
104
urban design and management
Computers In Human Behavior
7
93
use of computers&psychology
Frontiers Of Architectural Resarch
7
38
architecture
Journal Of Asian Architecture And
Building Engineering
7
27
architecture and building engineering
Iconarp International Journal of
Architecture And Planning
7
6
architecture, planning and design
Archnet-IJAR: International Journal
of Architectural Research
6
50
architecture, urban design and planning, built
environment
Journal Of Interior Design
6
8
interior environment
American Journal Of Community
Psychology
4
28
community psychology
Journal Of Green Building
4
16
architecture, urban and community planning,
building science, engineering, etc.
European Psychologist
3
53
psychology
Landscape Architecture Frontiers
3
1
landscape architecture
3.2.4. Keyword analysis/Co-occurences of keywords
Considering the studies on the responses of spatial perception on human behavior, there are 9
keywords repeated at least 5 times. Of these, 7 form 3 clusters and have 6 links between them (Figure
9). This is a result of the low number of keywords repeated at least 5 times. Among these keywords,
perception, well-being and public space are concepts repeated 10 or more times. The first cluster
includes the keywords perception, virtual reality, well-being; the second cluster includes the keywords
public space, urban design; the third cluster includes the keywords quality of life and quality of urban
life. It may be possible to interpret these data as the existence of studies in which the concept of well-
being is associated with virtual reality in the context of the response of spatial perception on human
behavior. Moreover, this network of relations shows that architectural terms are visible alongside the
concept of perception in the relevant field.
Figure 9. Co-Occurences of keywords repeated at least 5 times within the framework of phase 2 keywords
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561
3.3. Diversity Analysis Results of the Spaces Related to Studies on the Human Responses of Space
Perception
In the third and final phase of this bibliometric analysis study on spatial perception, a Sankey diagram
was created as explained in the methodology section. Accordingly, the words ‘‘happiness’’, ‘‘comfort’’,
‘‘user satisfaction’’, ‘‘well-being/ wellbeing’’ and ‘‘quality of life’’, which constitute the second keyword
group, were taken as reference and the relationship of the studies with these concepts was tried to be
determined. For this purpose, the title, abstract and keywords (author keywords and keywords plus)
of the studies were reviewed. For the studies that had a relationship with more than one concept, the
concept with which it was relatively intensely related was taken as a reference.
In this context, it was aimed to determine which building types or spaces of study are intensively
studied through the article studies identified during the second bibliometric analysis. To do this, 92
studies were identified within the research framework as stated in the methodology section. The
contents of these studies were analyzed in terms of their fields of study. As a result of the analysis,
these studies were grouped under the headings of ‘’urban area/landscape, house/apartment,
office/workplace, university building/units, healthcare building, campus, aged care facility/nursing
home, school, shopping center/sales area, coffehouse/restaurant, kindergarten/preschool, art and
design gallery, floating space, supportive housing, library, hotel, dormitory’’ and ‘‘corridor’’ according
to the types of buildings and spaces they are related to.
In order to create the flow quantity diagram of these studies, an Excel table was prepared with
reference to limiting keywords and the fields of study they are related to. With the help of the prepared
table, all these data were schematized through the online Sankey diagram generator called
‘‘SankeyMatic’’. The resulting diagram was organized as desired using the size and flow direction
settings of the SankeyMatic diagram generator. In addition, the headings associated with ‘‘related
study area’’ were arranged and sorted on the diagram from most to least in terms of quantity (Figure
10).
Figure 10. Sankey diagram (limiting keywords-related study area)
As can be seen from the diagram, it was determined that the word comfort was the most common
word among the words that make up the second keyword group in the ‘‘title, abstract and keywords’’
of the mentioned studies scanned in the Web of Science. Accordingly, 42.39% of the studies in question
are related to the concept of comfort. Although the concept of comfort is the most studied concept
among the concepts in the related field, it has been determined that there is no study on this concept
in ‘‘campus, library, hotel, dormitory, supportive housing’’ and ‘‘corridor’’ spaces. When the studies
included in the scope of the research in the relevant field are taken as a reference, the words quality
of life and well-being, which share the second place in terms of quantity, constitute 19.56% of the total
amount of studies separately. The concept of quality of life was realized in ‘‘urban area/landscape,
house/apartment, campus’’. The studies related to the concept of well-being were conducted in
‘‘urban area/landscape, university building/units, campus, healthcare building, supportive housing,
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562
office/workplace, library’’. While 16.30% of the relevant studies are related to the concept of user
satisfaction, only 2.17% are related to the concept of happiness. When we look at the research spaces
addressed through the concept of user satisfaction; it is determined that there is a wide variety such
as ‘‘office/workplace, house/apartment, urban area/landscape, hotel, healthcare building, dormitory,
shopping center/sales area, university building/units, campus, coffehouse/restaurant, corridor’’.
Studies related to the concept of happiness were only conducted in ‘‘urban area/landscape’’. This
situation shows that the studies in which the concept of ‘‘spatial perception’’ is associated with
‘‘happiness’’ are still quite insufficient.
In terms of the fields of study they are related to, it is seen that spatial perception studies at the urban
scale are quite prominent and related to all the limiting keywords (Figure 10). The fact that studies
have been conducted in many different spaces related to the subject was found to be positive.
However, it was found that many studies at the architectural scale are considerably less in quantity
compared to urban studies.
4.Discussion
When the findings obtained as a result of this bibliometric analysis are evaluated, first of all, it is
observed that the subject of spatial perception is related to many disciplines, especially psychology
and neuroscience, in addition to architecture. The fact that perception depends on brain processes
that transform input from sensory channels explains the dominance of neuroscience and psychology
disciplines in spatial perception studies (Morgan & King, 1975, p.91).
Within the scope of this study, although a literature review was conducted in a limited framework by
selecting the fields of ‘‘architecture’’ and ‘‘multidisciplinary psychology’’ as ‘‘category’’ through the
Web Of Science database, the fact that there are so many categories related to the subject shows that
there are many studies written in different category sources that can be related to the subject (Encho,
Uchida, Horibe, Nakatsuka & Ono, 2023; Wang, Shen & Shi, 2023; Freitas, Berreth, Chen & Jhala,
2023; Lenzholzer & Koh, 2010; Hughes, Chang, Hu, Talak, Abdulhai, Strader & Carlone, 2024, etc.). This
shows that in future research on this subject, different fields can be included in addition to architecture
and multidisciplinary psychology in terms of ‘‘category’’.
Considering the geographical area analysis in the first phase of the bibliometric analysis, it was found
that the United States of America ranked first by a large margin. Similarly, the United States also ranks
first in studies focusing on the human behavioral outcomes of spatial perception. This is a relatable
situation that the high number of studies that associate user perception with different concepts in the
United States (Ye, Huang & Li, 2023). Moreover, the United States of America also stands out in the
studies of spatial legibility, a concept that can be related to perception (Burkut & Koseoglu, 2023). This
can be interpreted as the fact that America is relatively dominant in studies related to perception. This
is supported by the fact that even in previous studies on the perception of music and speech, it has
been determined that America is at the forefront. (Tirovolas & Levitin, 2011; Chen & Chang, 2022).
Nevertheless, the fact that there are only 16 countries with 5 or more publications worldwide in the
second phase of the study shows that should be studied in more countries on the human responses of
spatial perception.
When the document analysis was analyzed, in the first phase, 80% of the most cited articles are
contextually related to the discipline of psychology. On the other hand, 70% of the most cited articles
in the second phase can be considered contextually related to architecture. Among the sources
containing at least 25 studies and cited in the first phase of the analysis, 41.17% were journals related
to the discipline of psychology, while 35.29% were related to the discipline of architecture/design.
When the sources in the second phase were evaluated, it was determined that 76.47% of the sources
which containing at least 3 studies related to the architecture/design discipline. This is evidence that
when it comes to studies focusing outcomes of spatial perception on human behavior, studies from a
design perspective have become prominent and visible. Nevertheless, since experiencing and
understanding space in analysis and design is closely linked to the psychological function of space
(Bratina, 1997) it is also unlikely that spatial perception can be considered separately from psychology
in architectural studies. In addition, the fact that the journal with the highest number of documents in
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both phases is a source belonging to the discipline of psychology shows that studies related to
psychology still maintain their weight in quantitative terms. This situation can be taken as a sign that
architectural studies in the related field should be increased.
In the common keywords evaluation of the bibliometric analysis, in direct proportion to the research
framework, it was observed that there were more clusters and a higher density of links in the first
phase than in the second phase. When the related keywords are evaluated, especially according to the
data in the first phase; it is determined that the concepts related to psychology have a wider spread in
the studies on spatial perception, but the concepts associated with architecture and design can also
find a place among them. In addition, it was also found that the concept of public space was at the
forefront. This is positive in the sense that studies focusing on the perception of neighborhood
residents or users of a wider community space in public spaces can prevent inappropriate and even
poorly planned renewal plans in cities (Bratina Jurkovič, 2014).
In the third and final phase of the study, when the Sankey diagram of the articles selected within a
certain framework according to the fields of study they are related to was examined, it was found that
the studies related to the concept of comfort in the related keywords came to the fore with a
proportional excess. However, the fact that there are remarkably few studies that include the word
happiness in the title, abstract and keywords can be interpreted as the need for more studies related
to this concept. In addition, in relation to the study spaces, it was found that the studies on the urban
scale were quantitatively dense and are investigated through all of whole related concepts. In this
respect, it is not surprising that there are a large number of literature-oriented studies on human-
environment relations in urban areas (Xu, Nordin & Aini, 2022; Wang, Sun, Cai, Liu, Wu & Peng, 2022;
Zhang, Yu, Zhao, Sun & Vejre, 2020; Meng, Wen, Brewin & Wu, 2020; Tirri, Swanson & Meenar, 2021;
Chen, Wang & Zhou, 2021; Ribeiro, Madureira & Carvalho, 2023; Zhang, Li, Chen & Ouyang, 2022; Jia,
Chen & Wu, 2021). However, it has been determined that even the concept of comfort, which is the
most used concept, has not yet been investigated in all the architectural spaces mentioned. This
situation can be interpreted as an emphasis on urban studies, while studies on architectural spaces
take a back seat.
For the first two phases of the systematic bibliometric analysis carried out in this study, three of the
options of “co-authorship, keyword co-occurrence, citation, bibliographic coupling or co-citation’’ map
creation based on the bibliographic data provided by Vosviewer were considered. ‘‘Co-citation’’ was
not included in the scope of the research as it was not included in the framework of the research
questions identified. ‘‘Bibliographic coupling’’, which provides an idea about the connections between
authors, organizations or countries citing the same document or documents, was also not used as it
does not provide significant data within the study framework. Similarly, relationship analyses of
institutions and authors as the unit of analysis were also excluded since they do not provide significant
data on the place and status of architectural research within spatial perception studies. In the analysis
of the most cited documents and geographical area, Vosviewer data was used only to create a list.
Although the functionality of VOSviewer is useful for displaying large bibliometric maps in an easily
interpretable way (Van Eck & Waltman, 2010), this analysis reveals that the validity and currency of
Vosviewer in performing systematic bibliometric analyses is questionable. In addition, this study was
not limited to the data obtained through VOSviewer, but made use of the online home pages of the
journals in order to conduct a significant analysis of the sources. This analysis concludes that this and
similar methods should be critically approached when conducting systematic bibliometric analyses.
5. Conclusion and Suggestions
As a result of this bibliometric analysis, while determining the place and status of architectural research
within the perception literature, guiding data have been obtained for future studies in the related field.
In this sense, the country with the most studies on the perception of space at the intersection of
architecture and multidisciplinary psychology categories is the United States of America, while the
continent is Europe. The journal with the most publications on the subject is Frontiers In Psychology.
In addition, it is possible to say that the studies on the human responses within the scope of space
Journal of Architectural Sciences and Applications, 2024, 9 (1) 548-567.
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perception studies are in a relatively more intense relationship with design disciplines and that
architecture has become visible within psychology in this field.
According to the studies on the human responses within the scope of spatial perception literature
analyzed through ‘‘title, abstract and keywords’’, it was found that there were mostly studies related
to the concept of ‘‘comfort’’. In addition to this, ‘‘happiness’’ was the least used word. This situation
shows the inadequacy of studies related to happiness in terms of design at the intersection of
architecture and psychology. Especially the pandemic process that has affected the whole world in the
recent past and the prolonged stay at home due to the process has brought the issue of whether spaces
can fully respond to people's psychological and physical needs and adapt to different possible
conditions to the agenda. In research on improving the psychophysiological effects of spatial elements,
examining emotional as well as sensory results can be effective in designing spaces that can have
positive results for individuals living in today's world. This study, which is a starting point for research
that can be conducted in different categories in the related field, recommends that future space
perception research should be guided by the concept of happiness.
Another result of the research was obtained as a result of the content analysis in the last phase.
According to this, the studies focusing on the human behavioral outcomes of spatial perception have
been intensively conducted at the urban scale in terms of the study space. However, although the
diversity of the studies, especially on the architectural scale, is positive in terms of the richness of the
literature, these studies are relatively few in quantitative terms. This situation shows that it would be
appropriate to focus on architectural scale studies on spatial perception.
In addition to these datas, as a methodological criticism, it was determined that not all of the
bibliometric analysis results obtained with VOSviewer were aimed at investigating a problem. If
researchers want to perform specific and significant bibliometric analyses, instead of using the analysis
types offered by VOSviewer and similar software as direct patterns, they should approach their studies
by questioning whether they have a semantic value in their own studies, and they should be able to
offer different perspectives when necessary.
Acknowlegements and Information Note
The authors would like to thank Gazi University Academic Writing Application and Research Center for
proofreading the article. The article complies with national and international research and publication
ethics. Ethics committee approval was not required for this study.
Author Contribution and Conflict of Interest Declaration Information
All authors contributed equally to the article. There is no conflict of interest.
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