Main botanical aspects and pharmacological benefits of medicinal plants, mushrooms, and fungi advised for lupus conditions

Abstract

The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help people were limited. The present text reviews the ethnobotanical and pharmacological aspects of medicinal plants and purified molecules from natural sources with efficacy against lupus conditions. Among these molecules are artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol, baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides of paeony (TGP), and other supplements such as fatty acids and vitamins. In addition, medicinal plants, herbal remedies, mushrooms, and fungi that have been investigated for their effects on different lupus conditions through clinical trials, in vivo, in vitro, or in silico studies are reviewed. A special emphasis was placed on clinical trials, active phytochemicals, and their mechanisms of action. This review can be helpful for researchers in designing new goal-oriented studies. It can also help practitioners gain insight into recent updates on supplements that might help patients suffering from lupus conditions.

Full text

Citation: Pasdaran, A.; Hassani, B.;
Tavakoli, A.; Kozuharova, E.;
Hamedi, A. A Review of the Potential
Benets of Herbal Medicines, Small
Molecules of Natural Sources, and
Supplements for Health Promotion in
Lupus Conditions. Life 2023,13, 1589.
hps://doi.org/10.3390/life13071589
Academic Editors: Azahara
Rodríguez‑Luna and Salvador
González
Received: 30 May 2023
Revised: 5 July 2023
Accepted: 12 July 2023
Published: 19 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swierland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Aribution (CC BY) license (hps://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
life
Review
A Review of the Potential Benets of Herbal Medicines, Small
Molecules of Natural Sources, and Supplements for Health
Promotion in Lupus Conditions
Ardalan Pasdaran 1,2 , Bahareh Hassani 3, Ali Tavakoli 4, Ekaterina Kozuharova 5and Azadeh Hamedi 1,2 ,*
1Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences,
Shiraz 7146864685, Iran; pasdaran@sums.ac.ir
2Medicinal Plants Processing Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7146864685, Iran
3Student Research Commiee, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences,
Shiraz 7146864685, Iran; hasanibahareh@yahoo.com
4Research Center for Traditional Medicine and History of Medicine, Department of Persian Medicine, School
of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134845794, Iran; tavakkolia@sums.ac.ir
5Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Soa, 1431 Soa, Bulgaria;
ina_kozuharova@yahoo.co.uk
*Correspondence: hamediaz@sums.ac.ir
Abstract: The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s to
describe skin lesions that devour esh, and the resources available to physicians to help people were
limited. The present text reviews the ethnobotanical and pharmacological aspects of medicinal plants
and puried molecules from natural sources with ecacy against lupus conditions. Among these
molecules are artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol, baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin,
salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides of paeony (TGP), and other supplements such as
fay acids and vitamins. In addition, medicinal plants, herbal remedies, mushrooms, and fungi that
have been investigated for their eects on dierent lupus conditions through clinical trials, in vivo,
in vitro, or in silico studies are reviewed. A special emphasis was placed on clinical trials, active
phytochemicals, and their mechanisms of action. This review can be helpful for researchers in de‑
signing new goal‑oriented studies. It can also help practitioners gain insight into recent updates on
supplements that might help patients suering from lupus conditions.
Keywords: systemic lupus erythematosus; clinical; autoimmune diseases; natural product; supplement;
medicinal plant; inammation; immunomodulatory; review; herbal medicine
1. Introduction
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease involving multiple or‑
gans and clinical manifestations. SLE is more common in young women. The incidence
of SLE in males compared to females is 1:5~10 [1,2]. In SLE, autoantibodies and antibody‑
immune complexes are produced that eventually cause damage to body tissues and induce
inammation [3,4]. SLE patients experience relapsing and remission courses [5]. In SLE,
various organs can be involved, including the skin, kidneys, joints, heart, lungs, liver, and
blood vessels [6,7]. Since dierent organs are involved in SLE, a variety of indices can be
used to assess the status of diseases, such as the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Ac‑
tivity Index (SLEDAI), Safety of Estrogens in Lupus Erythematosus National Assessment
(SELENA), or British Isles Lupus Activity Group (BILAG) index [8].
The level of anti‑double‑stranded DNA (anti‑dsDNA) antibodies is associated with
disease activity, and anti‑dsDNA plays an important role in the pathogenesis of SLE. In
some cases, the goal of treatment is to bring the level of anti‑dsDNA antibodies back to
normal (5). Mechanisms involved in kidney damage due to lupus nephritis include dys‑
regulation of T‑regulatory cells due to overactivity of B and T lymphocytes, activation of
Life 2023,13, 1589. https://doi.org/10.3390/life13071589 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/life

Life 2023,13, 1589 2 of 68
inammatory responses, improper production of autoantibodies, and deposition of im‑
mune complexes in kidney tissue [9,10].
The current medications used to treat SLE include glucocorticoids, immunosuppres‑
sive drugs, non‑steroidal anti‑inammatory drugs, anti‑malarial drugs, systemic lymph
node irradiation therapy, and plasma treatment. Despite this, the morbidity and mortality
ratios in SLE patients are still unacceptably high [6,11]. The mentioned medications lead
patients to be exposed to side eects and also reduce the patient’s quality of life [12]. This
encourages patients to try complementary and alternative medicines such as herbal reme‑
dies, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, vitamins and mineral supplements, acupuncture,
moxibustion, and spiritual therapy such as yoga. Moreover, tremendous eorts have been
made by researchers to develop safe and ecient drugs and supplements from natural
molecules and their synthetic derivatives for the condition.
Some previous articles can be found on the treatment of lupus conditions that are
not on natural products or supplements and mostly discussed orthodox medicine [13–18].
Some other review articles discussing natural products on a specic condition of lupus,
such as cutaneous lupus [19] or lupus nephritis [20], can be found in the literature. Some
discussed only a specic natural compound such as curcumin [21], omega‑3 fay acids [22],
and triptolide [23]. On the other hand, some other review articles reected a specic tra‑
ditional medicine approach such as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), traditional Ira‑
nian medicine (TIM) [24], or Ayurveda [25], which mostly focused on polyherbal formula‑
tions and plant extracts that are composed of a complex mixture of phytochemicals with a
holistic approach. Some of these articles have neglected minerals, vitamins, and pure ac‑
tive phytoconstituents. Conversely, some reviews and meta‑analyses specically focused
on fay acids [22,26,27] or vitamins [28,29]. Moreover, some articles focused mostly on
pharmacology and possible mechanisms of action of a group of natural components with‑
out scoping clinical trials or meta‑analyses [30]. All the mentioned articles provided pre‑
cious information for specic groups of researchers and highlighted specic aspects of
treatment and drug development for lupus conditions. But a comprehensive systematic
review that simultaneously gives detailed evidence‑based information on the ecacy of
natural products and supplements on dierent lupus conditions, which helps practition‑
ers and clinicians to understand the mechanism of action and the level of evidence for any
of these molecules, herbs, or supplements and researchers to design new goal‑oriented ex‑
perimental studies or clinical trials, seems to be lacking. The present article tries to cover
the last‑mentioned points in this paragraph and reviewed natural molecules, phytochem‑
icals, medicinal plants, fungi, vitamins, minerals, and other supplements that have been
reported to be benecial for lupus conditions, with special emphasis on clinical trials and
the molecules’ mechanism of actions, as well as their adverse eects and toxicity.
2. Materials and Methods
A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed, Cochrane Library, Web
of Science, Scopus, the National Library of Medicine (NLM) catalog, and Google Scholar,
from January 1970 up until January 2023. The obtained records were assessed for eligibility
in accordance with the PRISMA 2000 guidelines.
Inclusion criteria: Combinations of various keywords including systemic lupus ery‑
thematosus, SLE, lupus nephritis, or lupus AND natural molecule, natural medicine, phy‑
tochemicals, herbal medicine, medicinal plants, fungi, mushrooms, minerals, vitamins,
fay acids, supplements, nutrition, meta‑analysis, and clinical trial, toxicity, and side ef‑
fects have been considered in the search strategy. Moreover, the compound names and
scientic names of the identied plants were searched again with keywords related to lu‑
pus. No restriction was set on the language. A special focus was set on reported puried
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fay acids, and vitamins.

Life 2023,13, 1589 3 of 68
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com‑
pounds; (4) did not address specic natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in‑
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) polyherbal
formulations from traditional medicine.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identied
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour esh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant‑based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes‑
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus
species [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per‑
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam‑e‑Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam‑e‑Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepo L., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa ocinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re‑
ported nephroprotective and anti‑inammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
or
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
), Carum carvi L. (in Per‑
sian
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
or
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
), Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
or
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
) [41,42],
and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised
for Varam‑e‑Kolye and/or other kidney diseases such as “Riah‑e‑Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia
(
Life 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 72
molecules from natural sources including artemisinin and its derivatives, antroquinonol,
baicalin, curcumin, emodin, mangiferin, salvianolic acid A, triptolide, the total glycosides
of paeony (TGP), some fatty acids, and vitamins.
Exclusion criteria: (1) Duplicate article; (2) addressed a natural compound, but not
related to lupus conditions; (3) article on lupus conditions, but not related to natural com-
pounds; (4) did not address specific natural compounds or plant extracts; (5) studies in-
volving entirely synthetic molecules or antibodies; (6) herbal remedies from traditional
medicine that had not been scientifically evaluated for lupus conditions; and (7) poly-
herbal formulations from traditional medicine.
Extraction of data: The following entries were included: (1) study ID; (2) title; (3) aim
or objective of the study; (4) study design; (5) possible conflicts of interests for study au-
thors; (6) participants/population description (humans, animal, cell lines, etc.); (7) the total
number of participants; (8) inclusion criteria; (9) exclusion criteria; (10) total number of
experimental repeats; (11) the tested material (plants/compounds/extracts, fungi, mush-
room, pure molecule, etc.); (12) the active ingredients or molecule were tested; (13) the
used positive or negative controls and placebo; (14) primary outcome and findings on
lupus conditions (lupus nephritis, cutaneous lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE),
etc.)—was the intervention statically effective? (15) primary outcome—inflammation—
was the intervention statically effective? (16) primary outcome—immunomodulation—
was the intervention statically effective? (17) primary outcome—other organ systems—
was the intervention statically efficacious? (18) the reported adverse effects for molecules
or extracts; (19) the reported interaction (with drugs, food, or herbs) for the tested mole-
cules or extracts.
3. Results
The search strategy yielded 14,300 studies. The titles or abstracts were reviewed to
exclude duplicates or irrelevant ones. Excluded were 13,887 records that were identified
as irrelevant, duplicate, or not reliable. As a result, 413 studies were included in the review
and 74 were included in the synthesized tables.
3.1. Ethnobotany
The Latin word lupus, meaning wolf, was in the medical literature prior to the 1200s
to describe skin lesions that devour flesh, and the resources available to physicians to help
people were limited [31,32]. Traditional knowledge on how to deal with this condition
involves the use of several medicinal plants or plant-based mixtures. Ethnobotanical and
ethnopharmacological studies reveal that Cinchona spp. [33] and “Thanatka” made of Hes-
perethusa crenulata and Limonia acidissima bark [34] have dermatologic uses, specifically in
the treatment of lupus erythematosus. Also, sieketroos Arctopus species [35], Juniperus spe-
cies [36], Onopordum acanthium [37], and Centella asiatica [38] were documented to treat
systemic lupus erythematosus. According to Iranian traditional medicine (traditional Per-
sian medicine), infectious diseases and fever are the main reasons for nephritis, which is
called “Varam-e-Kolye”. Several medicinal plants have been advised to control for lupus
nephritis or “Varam-e-Kolye”, which are Anethum graveolens L., Carum carvi L., Coriandrum
sativum L., Cucurbita pepoL., Cydonia oblonga Mill., Ficus carica L., Linum usitatissimum L.,
Melissa officinalis L., Prunus amygdalus, and Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Some recent research re-
ported nephroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of these plants [24,39,40].
As examples, Cuminum cyminum L. (in Persian ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ or ﺰﺒﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Carum
carvi L. (in Persian ﻲﻧﺎﻣﺮﻛ ﻥﻮﻤﻛ or ﻩﺎﻴﺳ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ , Lagoecia cuminoides L. (in Persian
ﻲﺸﺣﻭ ﻩﺮﻳﺯ
or
ﺎﻧﺎﻣﺩﺮﻗ
[41,42], and Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedtch (in Persian
Zire Kermani) [39] are other plants advised for Varam-e-Kolye and/or other kidney dis-
eases such as “Riah-e-Gorde” [41,42]. Carvia ﺎﻳﻭﺮﻛ is the Arabic version of the
Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”; in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in
Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”, “Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B.
) is the Arabic version of the Latin word “craviya” or the Syriac word “Ceravi”;
in Greek the word is “Azhamyon”, in Roman “Fadroni”, and in Arabic “Taghdeh”,
“Taghrad”, and “Comone Roomi” [42]. B. persicum has shown antiglycation, antioxidant,
anti‑inammatory, and nephroprotective (possibly due to antiglycation) eects [43–45].
According to the literature, several medicinal plants and fungi have been considered
to be benecial for conditions related to lupus. This review focused on those that are
evidence‑based with in vitro or in vivo studies or clinical trials. The ethnobotanical aspects
of these plants are summarized in Table 1.

Life 2023,13, 1589 4 of 68
Table 1. Main botanical aspects and pharmacological benets of medicinal plants, mushrooms, and fungi advised for lupus conditions.
Plant Name
(Scientic Name or
Species)
English Name Endemic Region
Endemic Name Family Main Parts Used Main Botanical Characteristics
(Description) Preparations Main Pharmacological
Benets/Activities/Properties Reference
Taiwanofungus
camphoratus (M.Zang
and C.H.Su) Sheng H.Wu,
Z.H.Yu, Y.C.Dai and
C.H.Su (Basionym:
Ganoderma camphoratum)
M.Zang and C.H.Su
Stout camphor fungus In Taiwanas
“Niu‑chang‑chih” or
“Chang‑chih” or
“Niu‑chang‑ku” or
“Chang‑ku”
Polyporaceae Fruiting bodies A parasitic fungus on the endemic
roing trees of Cinnamomum
kanehirai Hayata causing a brown
heart rot
Extract Antioxidant
Anti‑inammatory
Immunomodulatory Antimicrobial
Anti‑diabetic
Hepatoprotective
Neuroprotective
Vasorelaxation
Antitumor
Anti‑hypertensive
[46–48]
Artemisia annua L. Annual absinthe, Sweet
wormwood, Sweet annie
Annual mugwort, Annual
wormwood, Sweet
wormwood, Chinese
wormwood,
Sweet sagewort
‑Mild climates of Asia
‑In China as
Qinghao
Asteraceae Leaves An annual plant with hairless
brown erect stems (a height of 50 to
100 cm) and tender leaves about 3
to 5 cm long and many small
yellowish‑green owers and brown
rounded seeds
Extract Anti‑inammatory
Immunomodulatory
Immunosuppressive
Antioxidant, Antitumor
Anti‑malarial, Antibacterial
Antifungal, Anti‑cancer
Anti‑obesity, Hepatoprotective,
Anti‑asthmatic
[49,50]
Astragalus propinquus
Schischkin (Syn. A.
membranaceus fo.
propinquus (Schischk.))
Kitag.
Mongolian milkvetch Huang Qi, in Chinese, Ogi,
in Japanese, Milk‑Vetch, in
English, and Gavan, in
Persian
Fabaceae (or
Leguminosae) Roots A Perennial owering plant
50–150 cm high, including a
straight and long (up to 50 cm)
cylindrical root, erect stems
branched in the upper parts with
small ovate‑lanceolate or elliptical
leaves
Extract Anti‑inammatory
Immune system boosting
Antioxidant, Anti‑cancer
Neuroprotection, Renoprotection
(reduces proteinuria and
creatinine), Hepatoprotection,
Hypoglycemic
Anti‑osteoporosis, Anti‑fatigue,
Cardioprotection
[51]
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.)
Pers.
Syn. Bryophyllum
pinnatum (Lam.) Oken
Air plant Canterbury
bells Cathedral bells
Curtain plant
Life‑plant Fortune plant
Good luck leaf
Green mother of millions
Air plant
Mexican love plant
Madagascar
In Brazil as
“folha‑da‑fortuna” or
“folha‑de‑pirarucu” or saião
“coirama”,
In Caribbean as “bruja”
Crassulaceae Leaves A perennial succulent herb
0.3–1.2 m tall, including
four‑angled stems and eshy
simple/compound dark green
leaves to 20 cm long and red
pendulous owers
Extract Anti‑inammatory,
Antinociceptive Antianaphylactic
Immunomodulator,
Immunosuppressive, Antitumor,
Antiulcer, Anti‑diabetic,
Hypotensive, CNS depressant,
Antimicrobial
Antileishmania, Anthelmintic,
Gastroprotective
Hepatoprotective
Anti‑urolithiatic
[52–54]
Camellia sinensis (L.)
Kune Tea plant tea shrub Tea
tree China and Southeast Asia Theaceae Leaves Evergreen shrub or small tree with
strong taproot and yellow‑white
owers with seven or eight petals
Extract Antioxidant, Analgesic
Anti‑inammatory, Anti‑cancer,
Anti‑brotic, Antimutagenic,
Cholesterol lowering,
Cardiovascular protection,
Hepatoprotective, Neuroprotective
Anti‑diabetic, Anti‑obesity
Analgesic
[55–57]

Life 2023,13, 1589 5 of 68
Table 1. Cont.
Plant Name
(Scientic Name or
Species)
English Name Endemic Region
Endemic Name Family Main Parts Used Main Botanical Characteristics
(Description) Preparations Main Pharmacological
Benets/Activities/Properties Reference
Curcuma longa L. Turmeric Indian subcontinent
South‑east Asian
Curcum in the Arab region
Indian saron Haridra
(Sanskrit, Ayurvedic)
Jianghuang (yellow ginger
in Chinese) Kyoo or Ukon
(Japanese)
Zingiberaceae Rhizome A perennial herbaceous plant with
1 m high with highly branched,
yellow to orange, cylindrical,
aromatic rhizomes and oblong,
pointed leaves and bears
funnel‑shaped yellow owers
Powder
Extract Anti‑inammatory
Antioxidant
Hepatoprotective
Anticarcinogenic
Anti‑diabetic
Antimicrobial
Antidepressant
Lowering cholesterol, triglyceride
and low‑density lipoprotein (LDL)
levels
[58–60]
Ganoderma lucidum
aggregate Reishi In China as Lingzhi or
herb of spiritual potency Ganodermataceae
Or
Polyporaceae
Mycelia Spores
Fruit body Polypore mushroom
grows on decaying hardwood trees Powders
Dietary sup‑
plements
Tea
Immunomodulation
Anti‑inammatory, Antioxidant
Radical‑scavenging Analgesic,
Chemo‑preventive Antitumor,
Chemo and radio protective,
Anti‑atherosclerotic, Sleep
promoting
Antimicrobial, Hypolipidemic,
Anti‑brotic
Hepatoprotective, Anti‑diabetic,
Anti‑androgenic
Anti‑angiogenic, Anti‑aging,
Estrogenic activity,
Anti‑ulcer
[61–63]
Ganoderma tsugae Murrill Hemlock varnish shelf Ganodermataceae Or
Polyporaceae Fruit body
Mycelium Flat polypore mushroom Extract High antioxidant
Immunomodulatory, Antitumor,
Anti‑inammatory
Anti‑brotic, Antiautoantibody
formation
[64]
Gentiana burseri subsp.
villarsii (Griseb.) Rouy
(Syn. G. macrophylla Pall.,
G. macrophylla Bertol.)
Large leaf gentian qin jiao in Chinese Gentianaceae Roots Radix
Gentianae
macrophyllae
Flowers
A glabrous pale green perennial
with erect, gross, 3–6 mm in
diameter and 40–70 cm long stems
and very large, acute,
elongate‑lanceolate and up to 40 cm
long leaves with intensely
bluish‑violet and bell‑shaped
owers and brown, bright and
wingless seeds.
Extract Anti‑inammatory, Wound
healing, Analgesic, Antioxidant,
Immunomodulation
Hepatic protection, Joint protection,
Cardio‑protective Neuro‑protective
Anti‑inuenza
[65–68]

Life 2023,13, 1589 6 of 68
Table 1. Cont.
Plant Name
(Scientic Name or
Species)
English Name Endemic Region
Endemic Name Family Main Parts Used Main Botanical Characteristics
(Description) Preparations Main Pharmacological
Benets/Activities/Properties Reference
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Licorice
Liquorice “Sus”, “Mahak”,“Mehak”,
“Bikh‑e‑Mahak”, in Persian
ethnomedicine, “Shirin
Bayan” (Persian)
and “Irk‑es‑sus” (Arabic).
Fabaceae Roots An herbaceous perennial plant,
growing to 1 m in height, with
pinnate leaves about 7–15 cm long,
with 9–17 leaets. The owers are
8–12 mm long, purple to pale
whitish blue, produced in a loose
inorescence. The roots are
stoloniferous.
Extract Immunomodulatory
Anti‑inammatory
Antiapoptotic
Neuroprotective
Nephroprotective
[69–72]
Linum usitatissimum L. Flax
Flaxseed linseed Cooler parts of Asia, Europe
and Mediterranean regions
In Persian as Bazr‑e katan
Linaceae Seeds Annual small owering plant with
an approximate 60–100 cm length
and 5 petal pale blue owers and
dark to yellow, oval, at and
pointed seed
Oil
Extract
Bread
Antioxidant, Immunomodulatory,
Anti‑inammatory
Antimicrobial, Antiprotozoal,
Analgesic, Antihyperlipidemia,
Antihyperglycemic, Antitumor
[73–75]
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.
(Syn.: Nelumbium
nelumbo, N. speciosa, N.
speciosum, Nymphaea
nelumbo etc.)
Lotus sacred lotus, Laxmi lotus,
Indian lotus,
Egyptian bean
In Chinese, seeds are called
Lian Zi Xin,
In India (lotus, kamala,
pundarika or padma)
Nelumbonaceae All parts of the
plant (seeds, root,
owers, leaf, stem)
An aquatic species. The owers (up
to 30 cm in diameter) are on thick
stems rising several centimeters
above the leaves (that spread up to
80 cm in diameter). The leaf stalks
grow up to 200 cm long while the
peltate leaf blade or lamina can
have a horizontal spread of 1 m
Extracts Anti‑inammatory
Immunomodulatory
Antipyretic
Antioxidant
Cardioprotective
Hepatoprotective
[76,77]
Ophiocordyceps sinensis
(Berk.) G.H.Sung,
J.M.Sung, Hywel‑Jones
and Spatafora
(syn. Cordyceps sinensis)
Caterpillar fungus In Tibet as yartsa gunbu
In Chinese as “Dong Chong
Xia Cao” or “winter worm
summer grass”
In India as keera jhar, keeda
jadi, keeda ghas
Clavicipitaceae
Ophiocordycipitaceae fruiting body A mushroom with plant‑like
fruiting body ll with mycelia Oral liquids
Capsules Immunomodulatory
Anti‑inammatory
Antioxidative
Anti‑brogenic
Antitumor
Anti‑thrombotic
Anti‑viral
Antifungal
[78,79]
Paeonia lactiora Pall. Chinese peony
Chinese herbaceous
peony
Common garden peony
White Peony
East Asia
In Chinese as “Bai Shao
Yao”.
Paeoniaceae
Or Ranunculaceae Root (Radix
Paeoniae Alba) Herbaceous perennial owering
plant is about 60–100 cm tall with
eshy roots, annual stems and
large compound leaves. The ower
buds are large and round, opening
into large owers with 5–10 white,
pink, or crimson petals and yellow
stamen.
Dried root
bark
Extract
Anti‑inammatory
Immunomodulatory
Analgesic
Antioxidative
Hepatoprotective
[80]

Life 2023,13, 1589 7 of 68
Table 1. Cont.
Plant Name
(Scientic Name or
Species)
English Name Endemic Region
Endemic Name Family Main Parts Used Main Botanical Characteristics
(Description) Preparations Main Pharmacological
Benets/Activities/Properties Reference
Paeonia ×suruticosa
Andrews Cortex Moutan
(king of owers) In China as mˇ
udān or
Mudanpi Ranunculaceae
or
Paeoniaceae
Roots bark Collective name of cultivated tree
peonies, originated from the
hybridization of multiple species of
wild tree peonies, belong to P.
suruticosa complex.
A bush or a tree with aractive
owers and woody stems
Dried root
bark
Extract
Anti‑inammatory
Antioxidative
Anti‑allergic
Antitumor
Cardiovascular System Protective
Anti‑Diabetic
Neuroprotective
Hepatoprotective
Analgesic
Sedative
[81]
Rehmannia glutinosa
(Gaertn.) Liboschi ex
Fischer and C. A. Meyer
Rehmanniae Radix In China as Di‑Huang Orobanchaceae or
Scrophulariaceae Roots
Root tuber A perennial plant that the roots of
it are thick and yellowish in color,
while the stems have grayish short
hairs. The leaves appear to be
gathered at the roots with edges
that are blunt and serrated. The
owering form is raceme and
blooms purple owers from June to
July.
Extract Anti‑inammatory
Antitumor
Immunomodulatory
Neuroprotective
Hypoglycemic Cardioprotective
Antioxidant
Hematopoiesis promotion
Antianxiety
[82,83]
Scutellaria baicalensis
Georgi Baikal skullcap
Chinese skullcap
Wogonin, baicalin, and
baicalein
In China as hu´
angq´
ınLamiaceae Roots and
rhizomes A perennial owering herb with
thick, eshy, elongated and
branched rhizome up to 2 cm in
diameter. The leaves are lanceolate
to linear lanceolate, 1.5–4.5 cm in
length and 0.5–1.2 cm in width.
The fruits are hard, ovoid, dark
brown with a tumor, 1.5 mm in
height, and 1 mm in diameter
Dried
Extract Anti‑inammatory, Antioxidant,
Antitumor, Antibacterial, Antiviral,
Liver protection, Eects on the
nervous system, Eects on the
immune system
[84–86]
Tripterygium wilfordii
Hook. f. ‑Thunder god vine
‑Thunder duke vine In China (Mandarin) as léi
gōng téng Celastraceae Roots without bark wood vine
plant
perennial vien
Extract Anti‑inammatory
Immunomodulatory
Immunosuppressive
Anti‑cancer
Anti‑fertility
[87,88]
Urtica dioica L. Common nele
Burn nele
Stinging nele
Europe
Asia
Africa
Urticaceae leaves Roots
Seeds
Aerial parts
A perennial herbaceous plant with
underground rhizome and bi‑arch
root and erect, green and
quadrangular stem with
dark‑green, oblong or ovate leaves
and small dioecious, brown to
greenish owers. Tinging
trichomes cover both stems and
leaves and contain a uid.
Extract Anti‑inammatory
Antioxidant
Analgesic
[89]

Life 2023,13, 1589 8 of 68
3.2. Puried Molecules from Natural Sources
Dierent herbal remedies, medicinal plants, and mushrooms have been utilized to
cure a range of medical ailments in both developing and developed communities. Addi‑
tionally, it is estimated that roughly 25% of currently marketed medicines were developed
from the primary or secondary metabolites of natural medicines [90]. On the other hand,
the absence of a well‑organized regulatory and legal framework for herbal products has
caused the World Health Organization (WHO) to express worry regarding the ecacy
and safety of herbal treatments [91]. Due to varying growth circumstances and harvesting
times, dierent primary and secondary metabolites have varying concentrations in medic‑
inal plants [92]. These problems motivate researchers to nd and purify the medicinal
plant’s active components. Researchers have gained a greater understanding of the mech‑
anisms of action by working with highly puried compounds. When compared to herbal
extracts, pure natural molecules are more reliable at determining dosage and detecting un‑
wanted eects or potential toxicities. Moreover, natural molecules can be considered lead
compounds for developing new drugs. In the case of lupus, several natural products and
their derivatives, in puried and structure‑elucidated form,