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Pigments
We report on a multi‐method sourcing study of 35 mineral pigment artifacts from the Middle Stone Age site of Pinnacle Point 5‐6 North (PP5‐6N), dating from ~90‐50 ka. The artifacts were analyzed and compared to geologic samples from seven sources using neutron activation analysis (NAA), and supplemented by data from X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Our preliminary results suggest that the occupants of PP5‐6N likely utilized at least two local and one currently unidentified and possibly non‐local Fe‐oxide mineral pigment sources. The mineral pigment artifacts derived from the latter source(s) exhibited manganese (Mn) enrichment with concentrations well above those observed in all sampled source deposits in the study area, suggesting a distinctive formation process. The proportions of the Mn‐enriched mineral pigment artifacts within the PP5‐6N assemblage vary over time, but tends to occur at higher rates in the glacial MIS 4 deposits, which holds potential implications for changes in the use of sources over time, increased mobility, or increased exchange during this period.
Over the last two decades, red ochre has played a pivotal role in discussions about the cognitive and cultural evolution of early modern humans during the African Middle Stone Age. Given the importance of ochre for the scholarly debate about the emergence of ‘behavioral modernity’, the lack of long-term spatio-temporal analyses spanning large geographical areas represents a significant gap in knowledge. Here we take a continent-wide approach, rather than focusing on specific sites, regions or technocomplexes. We report the most comprehensive meta-analysis of ochre use to date, spanning Africa between 500 and 40 thousand years ago, to examine data from more than a hundred archaeological sites. Using methods based on time averaging, we identified three distinct phases of ochre use: the initial phase occurred from 500,000 to 330,000; the emergent phase from 330,000 to 160,000; and the habitual phase from 160,000 to 40,000 years ago. The number of sites with ochre increased with each subsequent phase. More importantly, the ratio of sites with ochre compared to those with only stone artifacts also followed this trend, indicating the increasing intensity of ochre use during the Middle Stone Age. While the geographical distribution expanded with time, the absolute number of ochre finds grew significantly as well, underlining the intensification of ochre use. We determine that ochre use established itself as a habitual cultural practice in southern, eastern and northern Africa starting about 160,000 years ago, when a third of archaeological sites contain ochre. We argue that this pattern is a likely material manifestation of intensifying ritual activity in early populations of Homo sapiens . Such ritual behavior may have facilitated the demographic expansion of early modern humans, first within and eventually beyond the African continent. We discuss the implications of our findings on two models of ritual evolution, the Female Cosmetic Coalitions Hypothesis and the Ecological Stress Hypothesis, as well as a model about the emergence of complex cultural capacities, the Eight-Grade Model for the Evolution and Expansion of Cultural Capacities .
Ornaments such as beads are among the earliest signs of symbolic behavior among human ancestors. Their appearance signals important developments in both cognition and social relations. This paper describes and presents contextual information for 33 shell beads from Bizmoune Cave (southwest Morocco). Many of the beads come as deposits dating to ≥142 thousand years, making them the oldest shell beads yet recovered. They extend the dates for the first appearance of this behavior into the late Middle Pleistocene. The ages and ubiquity of beads in Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites in North Africa provide further evidence of the potential importance of these artifacts as signals of identity. The early and continued use of Tritia gibbosula and other material culture traits also suggest a remarkable degree of cultural continuity among early MSA Homo sapiens groups across North Africa.
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Naturally occurring and deeply coloured iron-bearing materials were exploited very early on by human populations. The characterization of these materials has proven useful for addressing several archaeological issues, such as the study of technical behaviors, group mobility, and the reconstruction of cultural dynamics. However, this work poses some critical methodological questions. In this paper, we will review ochre studies by focusing on the analytical methods employed, the limits of non-invasive methods, as well as examples of some quality research addressing specific issues (raw material selection and provenience, heat treatment). We will then present a methodological approach that aims to identify the instrumental limits and the post-depositional alterations that significantly impact the results of the non-invasive analysis of cohesive ochre fragments from Diepkloof rock Shelter, South Africa. We used ochre materials recuperated in both archaeological and geological contexts, and we compared non-invasive surface analyses by XRD, scanning electron microscopy coupled with dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDXS), and particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) with invasive analysis of powder pellets and sections from the same samples. We conclude that non-invasive SEM-EDXS and PIXE analyses provide non-representative results when the number of measurements is too low and that post-depositional alterations cause significant changes in the mineralogical and major element composition at the surface of archaeological pieces. Such biases, now identified, must be taken into account in future studies in order to propose a rigorous framework for developing archaeological inferences.
The use of iron pigments is well documented in the archaeological horizons of the different parts of the world since the Middle Pleistocene. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the pigments allowed defining, in most cases, their inorganic origin, which were then used after a limited transformation and manipulation. The use of a biogenic ochraceous pigment and its manipulation has recently been described in a late Holocene archaeological horizon of the American continent.
Here we describe the earliest case of archaeological use of ferrous pigment produced by iron-oxidising bacteria (FeOB), the first identified in a European Epigravettian (late Upper Palaeolithic) layer, at the San Teodoro site in Sicily, Italy. Samples of the ochraceous archaeological deposit, overlying a large burial site, were analysed ac- cording to current methods of physical analysis and SEM highlighting a matrix of bacterial structures and a chemical composition coherent with biogenic productions. The physical-chemical analysis of the archaeological material from the Palaeolithic site, and of the modern bacteriogenic iron sediments from two close springs gave consistent results even after heat treatment. In absence of Terra Rossa or other easily available inorganic ferrous materials in the hinterland of their site, the hunter-gatherers identified several possible water sources rich of pigment used for covering a multiple burial.
The implications of these results influence interpretations of the ecology of the late-glacial and Epigravettian sites in Europe, especially in relation to problems such as the increasing complexity of behaviours, the need to establish rituals and the search for materials.
Though many Middle Stone Age sites of Southern Africa document the use of ochre, existing literature about their use within archaeological contexts of Later Stone Age (LSA) rock art sites is scarce. Despite the discovery of several painted shelters rich in archaeological ochre assemblages within the Erongo Mountains (Namibia), no ochre studies have been done in the region yet. Here, we present the archaeological ochre assemblage recovered from the LSA sequence at the rock art shelter of Leopard Cave (Erongo, Namibia) spanning ca 5 700 to 2 100 cal. yr. BP. The use-wear traces present on some ochre fragments and stone tools bearing red residues are coherent with the existence of different “chaînes opératoires” to process ochre on the site. The presence of other artefacts such as ostrich eggshell and bone beads with red traces and the existence into the shelter of rock paintings further strengthen the importance of ochre to understand socio-cultural behaviours of LSA populations in central Namibia.
Ochres are a diverse category of naturally occurring iron-enriched earths and rocks, as well as iron oxide minerals, that derive their color from iron-containing chromophores and are suitable for use as pigments. Over the last two decades, provenience studies of archaeological ochres have grown from a rarity largely of interest only to specialists to an accepted and expected part of the archaeological science panoply. The most effective approach to distinguishing among sources of ochre and assigning archaeological pigments to their origin is multi-elemental characterization or “elemental fingerprinting.” In this study, we coupled a sample preparation method not previously used in ochre archaeometry with elemental fingerprinting by Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and Electron Probe MicroAnalysis (EPMA). We present a procedure for lithium borate (LiBo) fusion of samples for solid-state analysis, optimized for use with ochres, and designed for the budget and laboratory equipment constraints faced by many professional and student archaeologists. This method development research is part of the broader project “OLKARIA: Ochre Landscapes of Kenya – Anthropological Research and Iron-oxide Archaeometry,” which seeks in part to characterize the elemental composition of all known geologic ochre sources in the Kenya Rift Valley. Using a subset of project OLKARIA samples prepared by LiBo fusion and measured with LA-ICP-MS and EPMA, we successfully distinguished among six geologic ochre sources and a sample of commercially available iron oxide pigment. Our ability to uphold the Provenience Postulate for this data set compared favorably with source discrimination analyses done using data from Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) of whole ochre for the same samples. LiBo fusion presents potential solutions to some criticisms of solid-state analysis of ochre using beam techniques, including issues arising from mineralogical heterogeneity, variable surface topography, the presence of free and chemically bound water, and the lack of matrix-matched standard reference materials. We also address the challenges of applying compositional data analysis best practices to ochre with an emphasis on the issues of rounded zero replacement and multivariate normality and highlight the work that remains to be done in this area.
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Les matières colorantes sont des vestiges encore mal connus de nos jours. L’intérêt qu’elles suscitent tient à ce qu’elles sont susceptibles de révéler des pratiques techniques diverses et complexes, mais il tient aussi à leur forte potentialité à traduire des pratiques symboliques du fait de leur pouvoir colorant intense et des couleurs exploitées : le rouge et le noir qui sont encore aujourd’hui investis d’une forte valeur symbolique. Dans un contexte aussi particulier que celui de la transition entre le Paléolithique moyen et le Paléolithique supérieur, ces vestiges ont été mis au jour en abondance et demandent à être analysés pour restituer les modes de vie des derniers hommes de Neandertal.C’est sur le gisement châtelperronien de la grotte du Renne à Arcy-sur-Cure (Yonne), fouillé de 19491963 par André Leroi-Gourhan, que les nombreuses matières colorantes découvertes ont conduit à échafauder des théories concernant leurs transformations et leurs utilisations qui méritaient d’être éprouvées. En effet, il est supposé, depuis leur découverte, qu’elles ont fait l’objet d’un chauffage contrôlé qui visait à en modifier la couleur, le chauffage permettant de transformer les matières colorantes jaunes (hydroxydes de fer) en orangées, en rouges et en violacés (oxydes de fer). De cette hypothèse découle la théorie selon laquelle les Néandertaliens ont exploité les matières colorantes en tant que pigment pour des réalisations symboliques, voire d’ordre esthétique, ce qui n’a pas encore pu être prouvé.Notre étude, fondée sur le croisement des données issues des analyses de la nature physico-chimiquepétrographique des assemblages de matières colorantes, mais aussi sur leur intégration dans le gisement, en association avec des structures d’habitat dont la conservation est exceptionnelle, et sur une série d’expérimentations visant à caractériser les poudres obtenues par différents moyens (broyage et concassage d’une part, abrasion d’autre part) ont permis de définir les choix techniques qui ont présidé à l’approvisionnement en matières colorantes dans tous les niveaux d’occupation châtelperroniens de la grotte du Renne. Il a ainsi été possible de démontrer qu’aucune des matières colorantes, rouges ou noires, n’a fait l’objet d’un chauffage préalablement à son utilisation, bien au contraire de ce qui avait été supposé jusqu’ici. Ces matières colorantesont fait l’objet d’un approvisionnement raisonné auprès de formations géologiques affleurant ponctuellement à plus de 10 km et à environ 5 km de la grotte. L’exploitation de ces gîtes de matières premières colorantes été la même durant toute la séquence châtelperronienne et s’est orientée préférentiellement vers des matériaux que l’on peut aisément réduire en poudre. Une partie était grossièrement réduite en poudre afin de recouvrirde grandes surfaces (sols, peaux de bêtes) dans le but de les assainir, alors qu’une autre partie des matières colorantes était destinée à des activités plus minutieuses nécessitant leur emploi sous forme d’une poudre fine, régulière et extrêmement colorante. Dans ce dernier cas, les Néandertaliens de la grotte du Renne ont entrepris d’exploiter ces produits en association avec le travail des matières osseuses (os et ivoire de mammouth) maisaussi pour leur couleur. L’assemblage des matières colorantes de la grotte du Renne révèle à la fois une permanence des pratiquestechniques et culturelles qui ont trait à l’emploi de matières colorantes et un profond ancrage des connaissances et de la compréhension des multiples propriétés et qualités de ces matériaux intensément mises à profit dans des activités diverses, domestiques artisanales et manifestement aussi d’ordre symbolique, de telle sorte que le gisement châtelperronien était tout de rouge et noir et la chaîne opératoire qu’il a été possible de restituer relève d’inventions techniques abouties, très élaborées dans leur genre pour l’état des observations ingénieuses, des découvertes et donc de la pensée qu’elles supposent et des capacités dont elles témoignent.
Red mineral pigment use is recognized as a fundamental component of a series of traits associated with human evolutionary development, social interaction, and behavioral complexity. Iron-enriched mineral deposits have been collected and prepared as pigment for use in rock art, personal adornment, and mortuary practices for millennia, yet little is known about early developments in mineral processing techniques in North America. Microanalysis of rock art pigments from the North American Pacific Northwest reveals a sophisticated use of iron oxide produced by the biomineralizing bacterium Leptothrix ochracea; a keystone species of chemolithotroph recognized in recent advances in the development of thermostable, colorfast biomaterial pigments. Here we show evidence for human engagement with this bacterium, including nanostructural and magnetic properties evident of thermal enhancement, indicating that controlled use of pyrotechnology was a key feature of how biogenic iron oxides were prepared into paint. Our results demonstrate that hunter-gatherers in this area of study prepared pigments by harvesting aquatic microbial iron mats dominated by iron-oxidizing bacteria, which were subsequently heated in large open hearths at a controlled range of 750 °C to 850 °C. This technical gesture was performed to enhance color properties, and increase colorfastness and resistance to degradation. This skilled production of highly thermostable and long-lasting rock art paint represents a specialized technological innovation. Our results contribute to a growing body of knowledge on historical-ecological resource use practices in the Pacific Northwest during the Late Holocene.
Figshare link to figures: https://figshare.com/s/9392a0081632c20e9484.
Many Middle Stone Age sites in South Africa yielded hundreds, even thousands, of ochre pieces sometimes showing use traces. Less attention has been paid to the tools used for their processing. Here, seven tools excavated from the oldest layers (71,000 to 77,000 years ago) of Sibudu rock shelter were studied non-invasively to identify the micro-residues on them. The tools were first examined with optical microscopy to detect areas of interest. Then, Raman micro-spectroscopy was performed on the residues present, as well as on random areas of tool surfaces. These Raman signatures were compared to those obtained from the sediments and ochre samples recovered from the same lay-ers. All tools exhibited red, orange and brown stains on their surfaces and these comprised iron oxides (haematite and maghemite) and oxyhydroxide (goethite). The other compounds detected include amorphous carbon, quartz, anatase and manganese oxides. All of these can occur within ochre, but they may alternatively be natural compo-nents of other rocks and sediments, formed secondarily by decay processes. However, the large and thick residues present on the surfaces of the artefacts imply their use for ochre processing (microscopic observations and chemical analyses of the sediments and the local rocks showed that they contain only traces of haematite). Ochre seems to have been the only material processed with these old Sibudu artefacts whereas in younger occupations, items such as bone were also processed with grindstones. The grinding tools are morphologically varied and the ochre pieces are both morphologically and chemically diverse.
Abstract and depictive representations produced by drawing-known from Europe, Africa and Southeast Asia after 40,000 years ago-are a prime indicator of modern cognition and behaviour1. Here we report a cross-hatched pattern drawn with an ochre crayon on a ground silcrete flake recovered from approximately 73,000-year-old Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Our microscopic and chemical analyses of the pattern confirm that red ochre pigment was intentionally applied to the flake with an ochre crayon. The object comes from a level associated with stone tools of the Still Bay techno-complex that has previously yielded shell beads, cross-hatched engravings on ochre pieces and a variety of innovative technologies2-5. This notable discovery pre-dates the earliest previously known abstract and figurative drawings by at least 30,000 years. This drawing demonstrates the ability of early Homo sapiens in southern Africa to produce graphic designs on various media using different techniques.
Naturally occurring minerals or their synthetic analogues have been important as pigments used in artistic and cosmetic contexts in global antiquity. The analysis and identification of mineral pigments, though routine to the petrologist or mineralogist, also requires specialist knowledge of the archaeological contexts and available technologies and trade. This paper attempts to present an analytical approach to the study of mineral pigments in archaeology and also introduces the range of mineral pigments encountered in works of art and painted objects on archaeological sites and in museums. It attempts to cover the range of mineral and synthetic inorganic pigments used in global cultures from to the early Medieval period.
Cueva de los Aviones (southeast Spain) is a site of the Neandertal-associated Middle Paleolithic of Europe. It hasvyielded ochred and perforated marine shells, red and yellow colorants, and shell containers that feature residuesvof complex pigmentatious mixtures. Similar finds from the Middle Stone Age of South Africa have beenvwidely accepted as archaeological proxies for symbolic behavior. U-series dating of the flowstone capping the Cueva de los Aviones deposit shows that the symbolic finds made therein are 115,000 to 120,000 years old and predate the earliest known comparable evidence associated with modern humans by 20,000 to 40,000 years. Given our findings, it is possible that the roots of symbolic material culture may be found among the common ancestor of Neandertals and modern humans, more than half-a-million years ago.
Neandertal cave art
It has been suggested that Neandertals, as well as modern humans, may have painted caves. Hoffmann et al. used uranium-thorium dating of carbonate crusts to show that cave paintings from three different sites in Spain must be older than 64,000 years. These paintings are the oldest dated cave paintings in the world. Importantly, they predate the arrival of modern humans in Europe by at least 20,000 years, which suggests that they must be of Neandertal origin. The cave art comprises mainly red and black paintings and includes representations of various animals, linear signs, geometric shapes, hand stencils, and handprints. Thus, Neandertals possessed a much richer symbolic behavior than previously assumed.
Science , this issue p. 912
Ochre is a common feature at Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and has often been interpreted as a proxy for the origin of modern behaviour. However, few ochre processing tools, ochre containers, and ochre-stained artefacts from MSA contexts have been studied in detail within a theoretical framework aimed at inferring the technical steps involved in the acquisition, production and use of these artefacts. Here we analyse 21 ochre processing tools, i.e. upper and lower grindstones, and two ochre-stained artefacts from the MSA layers of Porc-Epic Cave, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, dated to ca. 40 cal kyr BP. These tools, and a large proportion of the 4213 ochre fragments found at the site, were concentrated in an area devoted to ochre processing. Lower grindstones are made of a variety of raw materials, some of which are not locally available. Traces of use indicate that different techniques were employed to process ochre. Optical microscopy, XRD, μ-Raman spectroscopy, and SEM-EDS analyses of residues preserved on worn areas of artefacts show that different types of ferruginous rocks were processed in order to produce ochre powder of different coarseness and shades. A round stone bearing no traces of having been used to process ochre is half covered with residues as if it had been dipped in a liquid ochered medium to paint the object or to use it as a stamp to apply pigment to a soft material. We argue that the ochre reduction sequences identified at Porc-Epic Cave reflect a high degree of behavioural complexity, and represent ochre use, which was probably devoted to a variety of functions.
The first chemical analyses of artworks and archaeological artefacts were accomplished historically and reported by Rene-Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur [[1][1]–[4][2]] in France in a series of publications between 1716 and 1739 and by Sir Humphry Davy [[5][3]] in the UK in 1815, respectively: the
The Kenya Rift Valley contains many ochre sources that are currently used by indigenous peoples for adornment, rituals, and art. Ochre pigments occur in rock art and archaeological sites spanning over 250,000 years. Chemical analysis for provenience of geological sources is the first step in the process of reconstructing provenance of archaeological artifacts for cultural heritage, archaeological, and paleoanthropological research. Development of an ochre source chemical composition database can facilitate reconstruction of social interaction networks and cultural heritage conservation efforts in this region. Techniques such as Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) and Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) are often used for compositional analysis and sourcing of ferruginous mineral pigments. Sourcing has proven challenging due to the diverse range of rocks and minerals that are classified as red and yellow ochres, and the diverse processes that induce variation in composition, including modes of formation, sedimentary transport of parent materials, and diagenesis. Attribution of samples to specific sources is possible only when variation within sources is less than differences between sources (the Provenience Postulate). Here we present the results of a study using LA-ICPMS to determine inter- and intra-source geochemical variations for ten ochre sources associated with three large volcanic centers in the central Rift Valley of Kenya. Our results show that differences in chemical composition among sources are greater than variation within sources, both at the scale of large volcanic centers and of individual ochre outcrops within these centers. Clear differentiation of source chemical fingerprints at local and regional scales satisfies the Provenience Postulate, and suggests that provenance studies of ochre artifacts, residues, and rock art in Kenya will be feasible.
Earth pigments figure prominently in debates about signal evolution among later Homo. Most archaeologists consider such behavior to postdate ~300 Ka. To evaluate claims for Fauresmith and Acheulean pigments in South Africa’s Northern Cape Province, extending back 1.1 Ma (Beaumont and Bednarik 2013), we reexamined collections from Kathu Pan 1, Wonderwerk Cave, and Canteen Kopje. We report and describe materials where we are confident as to a pigment status. We found (i) compelling evidence of absence in all but the youngest Acheulean contexts, (ii) definite but irregular use in Fauresmith contexts from at least 500 Ka, (iii) widespread and regular use within this limited area by ~300 Ka, coeval with circumstantial evidence for pigment transport over considerable distances and use in fire-lit environments. These findings are used to evaluate predictions derived from two competing hypotheses addressing the evolution of group ritual, the “female cosmetic coalitions” hypothesis (Power 2009) and the “cheap-but-honest signals” hypothesis (Kuhn 2014), finding that the former accounts for a greater range of the observations. The findings underscore the wider behavioral significance of the Fauresmith as an industry transitional between the Acheulean and the Middle Stone Age. © 2016 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. All rights reserved.
This article addresses the nature of the evidence for symbolling behaviour among hominids living in the Near East during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene. Traditionally, Palaeolithic art and symbolling have been synonymous with the Upper Palaeolithic of Europe. The Berekhat Ram figurine, a piece of volcanic material from a Lower Palaeolithic site in Israel, described as purposely modified to produce human features, challenges the view of a late emergence of symbolic behaviour. The anthropogenic nature of these modifications, however, is controversial. We address this problem through an examination of volcanic material from the Berekhat Ram site and from other sources, and by experimentally reproducing the modifications observed on the figurine. We also analyze this material and the figurine itself through optical and SEM microscopy. Our conclusion is that this object was purposely modified by hominids.
With comments from Ofer Bar-Yosef, Angela E. Close, João Zilhão, Steven Mithen, Thomas Wynn, and Alexander Marshack followed by a reply from the authors.
Several Mousterian sites in France have yielded large numbers of small black blocs. The usual interpretation is that these 'manganese oxides' were collected for their colouring properties and used in body decoration, potentially for symbolic expression. Neanderthals habitually used fire and if they needed black material for decoration, soot and charcoal were readily available, whereas obtaining manganese oxides would have incurred considerably higher costs. Compositional analyses lead us to infer that late Neanderthals at Pech-de-l'Azé I were deliberately selecting manganese dioxide. Combustion experiments and thermo-gravimetric measurements demonstrate that manganese dioxide reduces wood's auto-ignition temperature and substantially increases the rate of char combustion, leading us to conclude that the most beneficial use for manganese dioxide was in fire-making. With archaeological evidence for fire places and the conversion of the manganese dioxide to powder, we argue that Neanderthals at Pech-de-l'Azé I used manganese dioxide in fire-making and produced fire on demand.
The article summarizes the results of the researches that have been conducted for the PIXE analyses of different north Australian pigments. The procedure, findings and the benefits of the analysis are all reported.
We perceive color everywhere and on everything that we encounter in daily life. Color science has progressed to the point where a great deal is known about the mechanics, evolution, and development of color vision, but less is known about the relation between color vision and psychology. However, color psychology is now a burgeoning, exciting area and this Handbook provides comprehensive coverage of emerging theory and research. Top scholars in the field provide rigorous overviews of work on color categorization, color symbolism and association, color preference, reciprocal relations between color perception and psychological functioning, and variations and deficiencies in color perception. The Handbook of Color Psychology seeks to facilitate cross-fertilization among researchers, both within and across disciplines and areas of research, and is an essential resource for anyone interested in color psychology in both theoretical and applied areas of study.
An overview is provided of the processing of hides in southern Africa as reflected in ethnographies and other written sources. Although some of these techniques may still be in use today, the wave of modernization in recent times likely led to the loss or disuse of many processes, knowledge and utensils. The processing of hides consists mainly of three steps: dehairing, scraping and tanning. A variety of methods have been used to process hides, which was in part determined by the availability of particular plants and trees. Both men and women were often involved in the processing of hides. While hides were usually processed by their owner, some groups such as the Zulu employed specialists, and others processed skins as part of a communal activity.
Archaeological indicators of cognitively modern behaviour become increasingly prevalent during the African Middle Stone Age (MSA). Although the exploitation of ochre is viewed as a key feature of the emergence of modern human behaviour, the uses to which ochre and ochre-based mixtures were put remain ambiguous. Here we present the results of an experimental study exploring the efficacy of ochre as a topical photoprotective compound. This is achieved through the in vivo calculation of the sun protection factor (SPF) values of ochre samples obtained from Ovahimba women (Kunene Region, Northern Namibia) and the Palaeozoic Bokkeveld Group deposits of the Cape Supergroup (Western Cape Province, South Africa). We employ visible spectroscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and granulometric analyses to characterise ochre samples. The capacity of ochre to inhibit the susceptibility of humans to the harmful effects of exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is confirmed and the mechanisms implicated in the efficacy of ochre as a sunscreen identified. It is posited that the habitual application of ochre may have represented a crucial innovation for MSA humans by limiting the adverse effects of ultraviolet exposure. This may have facilitated the colonisation of geographic regions largely unfavourable to the constitutive skin colour of newly arriving populations.
Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, proteomic and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) analyses of residue on a stone flake from a 49,000 year-old layer of Sibudu (South Africa) indicate a mixture of ochre and casein from milk, likely obtained by killing a lactating wild bovid. Ochre powder production and use are documented in Middle Stone Age South African sites but until now there has been no evidence of the use of milk as a binder. Our analyses show that this ochre-based mixture was neither a hafting adhesive nor a residue left after treating animal skins, but a liquid mixture consisting of a powdered pigment mixed with milk; in other words, a paint medium that could have been applied to a surface or to human skin. The significance of our finds also lies in the fact that it establishes the antiquity of the use of milk as a binder well before the introduction of domestic cattle in South Africa in the first millennium AD.
This article describes a study of adhesive residues on 16 projectile weapons, 15 from ice patches in southwest Yukon and one from the Selwyn Mountains, Northwest Territories. The objects selected for analysis cover much of the Holocene, with radiocarbon dates from 8103 to 170 cal. yr. BP and represent both throwing-dart and bow-and-arrow technology. The goal of the study was to identify the residues associated with hafting and to determine if patterns of material use exist. The residues were analyzed using a combination of analytical techniques: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS) and polarized light microscopy (PLM). Hafting adhesive residues were found on nine objects that relate to throwing-dart technology and on two objects related to bow-and-arrow technology. In all cases where adhesive was found, the projectiles included chipped stone components. All adhesives, regardless of age, were found to be conifer resin, more specifically identified as spruce (Picea sp.). While the majority of adhesives were relatively pure, homogeneous spruce resin, in the case of three stone dart points, the spruce resin was intentionally mixed with red ochre to produce a compound adhesive. A fourth stone dart point showed the use of spruce “callus” resin, a type of resin produced during wound closure on the surface of the tree, which has a unique chemical signature.
Neolithic site of Çatalhöyük (Turkey) presents the most detailed and the interesting story up to date on Neolithic art and technologies both for the prehistoric archaeology and the material science studies. Çatalhöyük wall paintings are significant in terms of understanding the ideas of beliefs, rituality, symbolism and the social organization within the Neolithic community as well as the development of Neolithic wall art, since there are no other Neolithic sites at which the wall paintings were found of a similar scale in sizes and varieties in representations. However the technological processes which these paintings were created by did not seem to be interconnected with the discussions on the social aspects. The constantly developing field of material science has proved that the social studies on these paintings would not be complete without the study of their technologies which ultimately created these images. For the first time, this research aims to investigate primarily the technological make up of these paintings in detail and tie up the previous studies on the Çatalhöyük pigments and plasters within a broader technological and social context. The nature of wall painting production as a whole i.e. the materials used and their interaction with each other, tools and techniques and how “specialized” this practice was within the Neolithic community were investigated with the variety of analytical techniques available in order to understand the painting methods and the use of materials/sources within their archaeological and technological context. The research showed that most households at Çatalhöyük have involved in the making of wall paintings, their selection of materials/techniques were developed via their close environment and the production work was based on long-lived practices and traditions which were created through simply discovering and experimenting. By undertaking this research, it was also possible to understand the nature of the individual wall painting materials and thus to develop better conservation strategies for their preservation whilst setting up parameters for their safe retrieval from soil, sampling, stabilizing and safe storage which will help to increase the level of information provided by these very old paintings.
Evidence for ochre use has been identified at archaeological sites in the eastern Great Lakes Region (North America) dating from the Paleoindian through to the Late Woodland periods. Yet, little is known regarding its procurement practices or if it was a component of established exchange networks. Addressing archaeological evidence for ochre provenance requires an assessment of the geochemical variability of Fe-oxide bearing de- posits to determine if they can be differentiated on the basis of their chemical compositions, and if their chemical signatures satisfy the provenance postulate. We present the results of a geochemical characterization and multivariate statistical analysis of Fe-oxide deposits and ochre artifacts. Using Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD), we determined the elemental and mineralogical characteristics of ten Fe- oxide sources in the Great Lakes Region. In addition, we analyzed and compared twenty-three ochre nodule artifacts from the Haney-Cook villages (BcHb-27) and the Ball village (BdGv-3) to determine if they could be geochemically linked to any of the source deposits. The results presented here demonstrate that the Fe-oxide bearing sources each possess unique geochemical signatures, and, that ochre artifacts recovered from the ar- chaeological sites can be linked to source deposits or source zones. Inhabitants of Haney-Cook were most likely engaged in direct procurement of local Fe-oxides, while those at the Ball site used ochres that were acquired either by mid-distance (< 100 km) direct procurement, or intra-group exchange. Our findings illustrate the potential for ochre-based provenance studies in the Great Lakes Region.
The Middle Stone Age in Africa
The Olorgesailie basin in the southern Kenya rift valley contains sediments dating back to 1.2 million years ago, preserving a long archaeological record of human activity and environmental conditions. Three papers present the oldest East African evidence of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) and elucidate the system of technology and behavior associated with the origin of Homo sapiens . Potts et al. present evidence for the demise of Acheulean technology that preceded the MSA and describe variations in late Acheulean hominin behavior that anticipate MSA characteristics. The transition to the MSA was accompanied by turnover of large mammals and large-scale landscape change. Brooks et al. establish that ∼320,000 to 305,000 years ago, the populations in eastern Africa underwent a technological shift upon procurement of distantly sourced obsidian for toolmaking, indicating the early development of social exchange. Deino et al. provide the chronological underpinning for these discoveries.
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Micro-residue analysis of stone tools is generally performed with optical light microscopy and the visual observations are then compared with experimental, replicated pieces. This paper complements such archaeological research by providing physico-chemical evidence. Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy have been used to confirm the presence of hematite on red-stained medial and proximal parts of 71 000-year-old Still Bay bifacial tools from Sibudu Cave. Our results confirm the conclusion from optical light microscopy that the tools were hafted with an ochre-loaded adhesive. However, we point to some instances when hematite residues are incidental or may be inclusions in the rock used to make the stone tools.
The use of red ochre for utilitarian, symbolic and artistic purposes is widely documented in prehistoric contexts. The absence of adequate red-coloured raw materials influenced the development of technological activities aimed at modifying the original physiochemical properties of yellow ochre. The heat treatment of goethite to obtain hematite was investigated in the western sector of the Lessini Mountains in north-east Italy, where red ochre was found in the (Proto)Aurignacian levels at Fumane cave and in the Late Epigravettian sequence at Tagliente rockshelter. The combination of X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) proved that heat treatment was a common practice in the studied archaeological sites due to the scarce availability of suitable hematite-based material in the region.
The elemental composition of Fe rich rocks used as pigment during prehistoric periods can provide valuable information about the type of material used and their geological origin. However, these materials present several analytical constraints since their patrimonial value involve using non-invasive techniques maintaining a high sensitivity of the detection and the quantification of trace elements. Micro-beam techniques also require to take into account the heterogeneity of these geomaterials from the macroscopic to microscopic scales. Several previous studies have demonstrated that PIXE analysis satisfies these analytical conditions. However, application of micro-PIXE analysis is still complex when thin and discontinuous layer of pigment is deposed on the surface of other materials such as rocks or bones. In such case, PIXE imaging could improve the ability to take into account the high heterogeneity of such archaeological objects. In study, we used PIXE imaging system developed at the NewAGLAE facility in order to visualize distribution of elements associated with iron-rich pigment phase. The results obtained show that PIXE maps can improve the identification of the main trace elements specific to the iron mineral phase. By grouping pixels of iron-rich areas and performing quantitative treatment, it was possible to reveal additional trace elements associated to pigment. This study highlights the contribution of PIXE imaging to the identification of elements associated with mineral phases of interest and to use them as proxies to discriminate different geological materials used in archaeological context.
Most of the magnificent wall paintings from the ancient city of Pompeii are decorated with red and yellow colors coming from the used ochre pigments. The thermal impact of the pyroclastic flow coming from the eruption of Vesuvius volcano, in the year 79 AD, promoted the transformation of some yellow painted areas into red. In this work original red ochre, original yellow ochre and transformed yellow ochre (nowadays showing red color) of wall paintings from Pompeian houses (House of Marcus Lucretius and House of Gilded Cupids) were analyzed by means of a hand-held energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (HH-ED-XRF) to develop a fast methodology which allows to differentiate chemically the original red ochre and the transformed yellow ochre into red. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the obtained multivariate data showed that arsenic (As) is the tracer element to distinguish between both red colored ochres. Moreover, Pompeian raw red and yellow ochre pigments recovered from the burial were analyzed in the laboratory using a benchtop ED-XRF spectrometer in order to confirm the elemental composition and the conclusions extracted by the in situ analysis, according to the yellow ochre pigment transformation in real Pompeian wall paintings.
The emergence of symbolic culture, classically identified with the European cave paintings of the Ice Age, is now seen, in the light of recent groundbreaking discoveries, as a complex nonlinear process taking root in a remote past and in different regions of the planet. In this book the archaeologists responsible for some of these new discoveries, flanked by ethologists interested in primate cognition and cultural transmission, evolutionary psychologists modelling the emergence of metarepresentations, as well as biologists, philosophers, neuro-scientists and an astronomer combine their research findings. Their results call into question our very conception of human nature and animal behaviour, and they create epistemological bridges between disciplines that build the foundations for a novel vision of our lineage's cultural trajectory and the processes that have led to the emergence of human societies as we know them.
Zilhão and his colleagues have argued that the discovery of pigment use in Middle Palaeolithic contexts in Cuevas de los Aviones and Antón, Spain, provides “secure evidence that, approximately 50 ka cal B.P., 10 millennia before modern humans are first recorded in Europe, the behaviour of Neanderthals was symbolically organised and continues to be so until the very end of their evolutionary trajectory”. This derived from some outstanding archaeological research but is it a valid interpretation? To address this question I will initially review the evidence for similarities and differences in the cognition of H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and then consider the impact on existing theories of the recently discovered and/or published evidence for Neanderthal pigment use. My conclusion is that while such evidence supports proposals for a socially complex, emotionally driven Neanderthal lifestyle, it does not provide prima facie evidence for symbolic thought and behaviour. Neither does the evidence for pigment use by H. sapiens when found without any additional evidence for symbolic thought, such as that from Pinnacle Point at c. 164 kya in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa.
The general purpose tool of the Australian Aborigines, usually known as a stone axe, is more correctly termed a hatchet since it conforms to the design requirements of a tool made for one-handed use. Similar implements not so conforming appear to be special purpose tools.
A geometrical feature common to all these tools and perhaps to other types is the ‘median plane’ which determines the position of the edge and governs some of its operational properties.
Some dynamical features of stone hatchet heads, the design of handles for them and their security of mounting are examined and compared with the features of modern steel hatchets.
Many Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites have evidence of the regular collection and use of ochre. Sibudu (KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa) has a large MSA ochre assemblage of over 9000 pieces from layers dating between ~77 ka and ~38 ka. There are 682 pieces with signs of use. All usetraces were examined and activity categories were defined based on published ochre experiments. The most frequent markings on ochre pieces are grinding striations that are smoothed by subsequent rubbing. Grinding and rubbing also occur independently on many pieces. Scored pieces are rare, but are more common in the pre-Still Bay (~77 ka)
industry than elsewhere in the sequence. Some scored pieces may represent deliberate engravings. Markings acquired during powder-production are most numerous in the assemblage. Powder was mostly produced from bright-red pieces, but scoring was mainly performed on brown-red pieces. Pieces with mica inclusions are not common, but were favoured for powder production. Ochre powder was used as an aggregate in hafting adhesives, but other possible applications are as paint or as a substance to aid hide tanning.
This paper evaluates red ochre phenomena as a fossil indicator for developments of human capacities and red color choice in cultures. The archaeological record reveals that, from Early Palaeolithic to historical times, the collectors and users of red ochre have always been a distinctive minority (probable exceptions being the Magdalenian and Paleo-Indian peoples). Nevertheless, red ochre practices have persisted till the present, and the patterns of red ochre use show astonishing regularities. Beginning with the Neandertal populations, they revolve predominantly around the ideational complex of death-life-kin. Homo sapiens sapiens introduces the second dominant theme into red ochre symbolism, fertility-procreation. Archaeology demonstrates that it is biology which makes the choice of red color pigments possible; biological foundation and red color choice interact. It thus seems unwarranted to suppose that human red color behavior is solely a process of relating; recognizing is also part of this process. Red color pigments became a symbolic vehicle through recognizing and relating. These developments led to the transformation of red ochre into human (female) blood, a basic element in the symbolism of the "mother" prevalent in present-day nonliterate societies but probably also developed by Upper Palaeolithic and successive peoples. Modern civilized man, with his capacity for abstration, came to use the red color for powerful social and cultural symbols in which his ambivalent emotional reactions to the color "red" became universally expressed and understood.