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Prole: Issues Teach. Prof. Dev., Vol. 26 No. 2, Jul.-Dec., 2024. ISSN 1657-0790 (printed) 2256-5760 (online). Bogotá, Colombia. Pages 107-123
https://doi.org/10.15446/prole.v26n2.112186
Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual
Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
Inuencias en el aprendizaje de idiomas: proyecto TRADILEX y traducción
audiovisual didáctica
Paula Buil-Beltrán1
Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
María Bobadilla-Pérez
Universidade da Coruña, A Coruña, Spain
is paper reports a mixed-method study on the factors shaping language learning through didactic
audiovisual translation. e aim is to analyse the determinants inuencing the eective implementation
of an integrative project, revealing the strengths and weaknesses of the learning process. Data from
students were gathered through initial and nal questionnaires, which oered insights into their
perceptions of didactic audiovisual translation. e results demonstrate a noticeable shi in learners’
attitudes towards audiovisual translation as a language learning tool during the tasks. is transformation
led to the recognition of potential benets, not only in conventional modes like subtitling and dubbing but
also in less recognised modes such as audio-description and subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing.
Keywords: didactic audiovisual translation, English language prociency, language learning, task-based
learning, mixed-method
Este artículo presenta un estudio de enfoque mixto sobre los factores que inuyen en el aprendizaje de
idiomas mediante la traducción audiovisual didáctica. Su objetivo es analizar los determinantes que
afectan la implementación efectiva de un proyecto integrador, revelando las fortalezas y debilidades
del proceso de aprendizaje. Los datos de estudiantes, recopilados mediante cuestionarios iniciales y
nales, ofrecen perspectivas sobre las percepciones de la traducción audiovisual didáctica. Los resultados
destacan un cambio perceptible en la actitud de los estudiantes hacia la traducción audiovisual como
herramienta de aprendizaje, reconociendo benecios en modos convencionales y menos reconocidos
como la audiodescripción y el subtitulado para sordos.
Palabras clave: aprendizaje de idiomas, aprendizaje por tareas, competencia lingüística en inglés, método
mixto, traducción audiovisual didáctica
Paula Buil-Beltrán https://orcid.org/--- • Email: pbuil@unizar.es
María Bobadilla-Pérez https://orcid.org/--- • Email: m.bobadilla@udc.es
is piece of research forms part of the TRADILEX project (Audiovisual Translation as Didactic Resource in Foreign Language Learning,
PID-GAI/AEI/./), nanced by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
How to cite this article (APA, th ed.): Buil-Beltrán, P., & Bobadilla-Pérez, M. (). Factors inuencing language learning in didactic
audiovisual translation within the TRADILEX project. Prole: Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 26(), –. https://doi.
org/./prole.vn.
is article was received on December , and accepted on April , .
is is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons license Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
. International License. Consultation is possible at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/./
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Departamento de Lenguas Extranjeras
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
Introduction
e use of audiovisual materials in language learn-
ing has been extensively investigated, as evidenced
by the comprehensive literature review conducted
by Wood-Borque (2022). is review emphasises the
signicant role played by visual elements in language
learning, elucidating how images complement verbal
communication and heighten concentration. ese
materials not only enhance students’ motivation and
involvement but also provide genuine content, promote
cross-cultural communication, and rene communica-
tive skills. Moreover, they have the potential to expand
vocabulary and enhance grammatical competence.
Within this context, audiovisual translation (AVT)
emerges as a crucial medium capable of cultivating
learners’ mediation abilities and nurturing an apprecia-
tion for inclusive environments.
AVT modes could be integrated into language
learning to enrich the educational experience (Talaván,
2020). In this context, the eld of AVT has experienced
remarkable growth in recent decades, with a particular
focus on its potential in language education, especially
with the emergence of didactic audiovisual transla-
tion (DAT). AVT encompasses ve primary modes:
subtitling, dubbing, voiceover, audio-description, and
subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing (SDH). While
subtitling and dubbing have historically been prevalent,
the educational potential of the latter three modes has
garnered signicant attention from language educa-
tors and researchers. e signicance of this can be
observed through various research projects nancially
supported by European and Spanish authorities, which
have substantially contributed to comprehending DAT’s
adaptability in language acquisition. Examples include
the Learning via Subtitling (LeViS, 2006–2008) project,
which focused on subtitling for foreign language learn-
ing (FLL). Another noteworthy initiative is Clipair
(2011–2014), which aimed to create innovative exer-
cises and activities, incorporating revoicing through a
social networking web platform. Intralingual D ubbing to
Improve Oral Skills (iDub, 2014) assessed the potential of
intralingual dubbing to enhance speaking skills among
university students. PluriTAV (2017–2019) also explored
the benets of a multilingual approach in teaching foreign
languages. e innovative TRADILEX (2020–2023)
project, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and
Innovation, developed a comprehensive DAT sequence
integrating all ve AVT modalities. is pioneering
initiative, led by experts in AVT and foreign language
teaching, aimed to enhance learners’ communication,
reception, production, and mediation skills holistically.
Leveraging technology, this study evaluated learners’
progress in English language prociency through diverse
AVT tasks, culminating in an extensive exploration of
DAT’s transformative potential.
e present paper is situated within the TRADILEX
project and constitutes a quasi-experimental analysis.
is study focuses on the responses of 172 students
participating in the autonomous learning sequence
designed within the TRADILEX project. e principal
objective is to analyse the factors inuencing the success-
ful completion of TRADILEX tasks during the course
period, thereby identifying strengths and weaknesses
in the learning process. To address this objective, the
study formulated the following research questions:
1. What is the learners’ previous experience with DAT?
2. Upon completion of the learning sequences, which
specic DAT modes did students perceive as most
eectively developed in the tasks?
3. Which tasks presented greater challenges in terms
of technical complexity, translation skills, and
clarity of the instructions and guidelines provided
to complete the TRADILEX sequence?
4. How do learners assess the implementation of the
TRADILEX sequence?
Theoretical Background
e developmental trajectory of DAT delineates
four distinctive decades, with the latter two marking a
pinnacle for this approach. Its inception traces back to
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
the 1980s when scholars initially explored subtitles as a
passive educational tool in classrooms. Prominent gures
like Price (1983) and Vanderplank (1988) associated
acquiring a second language with the incorporation of
subtitles. Subsequent decades revealed a progression in
research, especially during the 2000s, wherein subtitling
remained a predominant focus. While much of the
scholarship concentrated on subtitling as a passive
medium (Williams & Thorne, 2000), this era also
witnessed an emergence of active student involvement
in generating their own subtitles within educational
settings. Sokoli (2006) devised tools for active learning
tasks centred around active subtitling, signalling a
shi towards learner engagement. Similarly, Talaván
(2006) employed computer-assisted activities based
on subtitles to augment writing and oral prociency
among business students.
e 2010s marked a signicant development in
DAT research, redirecting attention towards active
participation by students within the learning process.
Scholars pivoted towards exploring active AVT modali-
ties in educational environments, introducing novel
avenues for AVT investigation. Danan (2010) delved
into the pedagogical use of dubbing, while Lertola (2015)
outlined guidelines for educators in using subtitling as
an active classroom tool. Ibáñez Moreno and Vermeulen
(2013) integrated audio-description in their research
to enhance lexical and phraseological competence in
FLL. Noteworthy publications like the edited volume
by Incalcaterra McLoughlin et al. (2020) showcased
international case studies emphasising learner-centric
learning and diverse pedagogical prospects extending
beyond language skill reinforcement.
DAT has evolved into an active tool wherein students
create AVT material, placing them at the focal point
of their learning experience. Scholars increasingly
acknowledge the potential of this burgeoning field
and how all AVT modalities contribute as valuable
tools in acquiring and enhancing English as a foreign
language (EFL). Recent studies by Bolaños-García-
Escribano and Navarrete (2022), Fernández-Costales
et al. (2023), Lertola (2021), Plaza Lara and Fernández
Costales (2022), and Plaza Lara and Gonzalo Llera
(2022) have concentrated on the didactic application
of specic AVT modes, highlighting their benets in
language learning. Furthermore, DAT has been exam-
ined in conjunction with methodologies like the ipped
classroom or content and language-integrated learning
(Talaván & Tinedo-Rodríguez, 2023), expanding its
potential beyond educational contexts, such as speech
and language therapy (Fernández-Costales et al., 2022).
The TRADILEX Project and
Learning Sequence
e research team of the TRADILEX project devel-
oped a sequence for intermediate English language level
adult learners’ autonomous online learning within non-
formal educational settings, specically for the B1 and
B2 levels stated in the Common European Framework
for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). As Fernández-
Costales et al. (2023) articulated, the project’s research
methodology was pre-experimental and fell within the
framework of a Spanish national research, development,
and innovation (I+D+I) initiative conducted between
2020 and 2023.
e project implementation unfolded through
nine meticulously structured phases, as discussed
by Fernández-Costales et al. (2023). It began with
the initiation phase, involving the formation of the
research group and an extensive literature review.
In the subsequent methodological proposal design
phase, the overall research framework was developed,
and modern language centres for intervention were
selected. e task design and network establishment
phase saw the creation of 30 tailored lesson plans for
B1 and B2 levels and a collaborative network with
aliated language centres. Integral to this phase was
the development of research tools, including initial
and nal integrated skills tests (ITIS and FITIS) and
questionnaires for teachers and students, serving as
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
analytical instruments. e pre-experimental study phase
involved teacher training sessions, ensuring rigorous
implementation, and conducting studies in various
centres, accompanied by pilot study data collection.
is phase continued into further data collection and
analysis, followed by the study closure phase, focusing
on completing the study and initiating data analysis,
particularly exploring students’ perceptions of the
didactic proposal. e subsequent platform design phase
centred on creating a virtual platform (https://www.
tradilex.es/) hosting the 30 lesson plans, facilitating
access for students and educators, and digitising lesson
plans for online use. Finally, the project transitioned
into the piloting, transfer, and dissemination phase,
encompassing platform pilots with selected institutions
and exploring transfer possibilities to diverse contexts.
The findings of various analyses conducted as
part of this research endeavour were disseminated in
reputable academic journals and publications over the
past three years (Couto-Cantero et al., 2021; Navarrete
& Bolaños-García-Escribano, 2022; Plaza-Lara &
Bobadilla-Pérez, 2024; Sánchez-Requena et al., 2022;
Talaván & Lertola, 2022; Talaván & Tinedo-Rodríguez,
2022). Fernández-Costales et al. (2023) conducted a
comprehensive study providing insights into the overall
project implementation. e primary conclusion drawn
from the study was the signicant improvement in
participants’ English language skills.
e learning sequence itself comprises 15 structured
DAT lesson plans, with three plans allocated to each AVT
mode. Within the TRADILEX sequence, considerable
emphasis was placed on dening learning outcomes
and providing a scaolded approach (Sánchez-Requena
et al., 2022). Learners were actively engaged in all four
language skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Grammar and vocabulary acquisition were seamlessly
integrated into specific tasks, fostering meaningful
learning experiences. Integral to this approach were
information and communication technology skills,
as AVT demanded learners to proficiently navigate
digital applications and programs tailored to each mode
(Hornero Corisco et al., 2023).
In their study, Fernández-Costales et al. (2023)
detailed the implementation process of the TRADILEX
sequence, which forms the focal point of this study from
the students’ perspective. According to the authors, the
process was standardised across all institutions. Each
institution received a comprehensive le containing
instructions for student course registration in the virtual
learning space. Each institution was assigned teaching
sta and an individual from the research group who
supervised the intervention’s correct execution. Weekly
follow-up sessions were conducted, and communication
primarily occurred through course forums and email.
e courses were structured as follows:
• Course presentation and initial tasks: We provided
a general guide in PDF format and interactive sup-
port outlining the main steps, along with access to
the pre-test and initial questionnaire.
• Lesson plans: Five blocks, each featuring three
lesson plans for dierent DAT modes, were
oered. Each was accompanied by an introduc-
tory guide and interactive support for initial steps
and mode-specic guidelines. Soware tutorials
were included for various applications such as
Aegisub and Screencastify. Each modality’s dif-
culty level increased incrementally, promoting
sequential learning for an enhanced learning
process. Each lesson plan centred around a pre-
selected short lm excerpt tailored to achieve
specic didactic objectives.
• Final tasks: At the intervention’s conclusion, students
were required to complete a nal questionnaire and
an integrated skills test to assess their progress.
Method
The present research methodology is based on
data collected through two instruments, employing a
mixed-method approach. is approach used initial and
nal questionnaires as assessment tools, capturing both
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
quantitative and qualitative data concerning students’
perceptions of DAT. e collected data were analysed
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) soware and QDA Miner Lite for qualitative data.
Instruments
e study’s instruments consist of two question-
naires, which were custom-designed for this project:
The initial questionnaire, distributed through
Google Forms in the rst week, was implemented to
assemble participants’ proles. Its objectives were to
establish students’ proles, gauge their initial English
prociency perception, and determine their familiarity
with AVT modes. This study aimed to investigate
Research Question 1.
e nal questionnaire, given to the students upon
the modules and nal tests nalisation, contained four
dimensions: (a) process; (b) outcomes; (c) interculturality,
motivation, and AVT; and (d) evaluation. is article
focuses on the first section, which aims to gather
information about the students’ perspective on the
TRADILEX methodology design. The dimension’s
questions are grouped into three sections to answer the
research questions. erefore, the analysis of questions
1 and 2 addresses Research Question 2, the responses to
questions 3, 4, and 5 provide insight into comprehending
Research Question 3, and the final three questions
facilitate the discussion of Research Question 4.
Participants
A total of 638 participants initially enrolled in the
courses oered by various language centres within the
Spanish university system. Among them, 487 students
started the course, with 204 at the B1 level and 283 at
the B2 level. However, a signicant dropout occurred,
resulting in 184 students completing the course. e
main reason for the dropout was the non-compulsory
nature of the courses, as the TRADILEX sequence was
introduced as an extracurricular activity (Plaza-Lara &
Bobadilla-Pérez, 2024). Among those who completed
the sequence, 172 lled out both initial and nal ques-
tionnaires. e participants were diverse in gender,
age, and mother tongue, reecting the multicultural
environment of the language centres. Regarding their
initial English prociency, 57 students did not possess
an English certicate, while 18% had a B1 level and 22%
had a B2 level Cambridge certicate. Most students
assessed their abilities in various English skills between
B1 and C1 levels, with production skills (speaking and
writing) generally falling within the B1 level. Additionally,
51.7% of participants considered themselves to have an
intermediate understanding of English culture, while
only 22.1% rated their prociency as low.
Procedure
e study occurred during the 2021–2022 academic
year, implementing the learning sequence in 15 language
centres of the Spanish education system. e study
focused on two CEFR language levels: intermediate
(B1) and upper intermediate (B2). Rigorous participant
selection took place under the supervision of the
Ethics Committee of the Spanish National University
of Distance Education. Approval from the ethics
committee was obtained under Spanish research
regulations. After completing the ITIS and FITIS,
participants were required to ll out initial and nal
questionnaires as part of the study.
Analysis
To ascertain learners’ prior familiarity with AVT, we
used questions 13, 14, and 15 from the initial question-
naire. Questions 13 and 14 sought to ascertain whether
students had engaged in AVT activities to enhance their
English skills within and outside the classroom. In both
scenarios, using audiovisual material was reported at a
low percentage (7 % within and 13 % outside). Further
inquiry into students’ practices revealed that the pre-
dominant method in class involved using subtitles to
aid comprehension. Similarly, students who employed
audiovisual modalities outside the classroom frequently
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
used subtitles to enhance their understanding of audio-
visual content.
The 15 Likert Scale items (outlined in Table 1)
were transformed to facilitate analysis. Consequently,
a numerical scale was established (1 = totally agree, 2 =
partly ag ree, 3 = agree, 4 = disagree, 5 = par tly disagree, and
6 = totally disagree). rough this transformation and
subsequent descriptive statistical analysis, it was possible
to determine that participants’ prior knowledge and
future expectations of AVT were at an intermediate level
(M = 81.44), with a minimum score of 54, a maximum
score of 126, and a deviation of 75%.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Initial Questionnaire
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. I am interested in participating in the project. 1% 0% 1% 13% 28% 57%
2. I know what AVT is. 2% 8% 20% 35% 22% 13%
3. I know the main AVT modalities (subtitling, dubbing, and
voice-over). 11% 17% 19% 33% 16% 3%
4. I know the main AVT modalities (audio-description and SDH). 15% 23% 22% 28% 10% 2%
5. I consider myself a person with good technological skills. 1% 2% 12% 31% 38% 16%
6. I consider myself a creative person. 1% 5% 15% 35% 32% 12%
7. e use of audiovisual materials in the English classes I have
attended has been frequent. 6% 10% 22% 35% 18% 8%
8. My personal use of audiovisual materials to improve my English is
frequent. 5% 4% 17% 23% 27% 23%
9. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to improving my general
level of English. 0% 1% 2% 16% 35% 45%
10. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to improving my listening
and writing skills in English. 1% 0% 2% 16% 34% 47%
11. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to improving my ability to
understand what I hear and read in English. 1% 1% 2% 16% 29% 51%
12. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to improving my motiva-
tion towards English language learning. 1% 1% 3% 21% 37% 38%
13. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to improving my overall
technological skills. 0% 2% 9% 23% 33% 33%
14. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to my ability to convey
faithfully (in English or in my mother tongue) what I hear, read, or
watch in English (my mediation skills).
0% 1% 3% 28% 31% 37%
15. I believe that AVT tasks can contribute to improving my knowledge
of English culture. 0% 1% 5% 24% 35% 35%
Note. AVT = audiovisual translation, SDH = subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing.
e subsequent analysis through descriptive sta-
tistics of the 15 items, in isolation, revealed notable
insights. Before the course, an overwhelming 98% of
students expressed interest in participating in the project,
indicating high expectations. While a substantial major-
ity (70%) claimed familiarity with AVT, particularly
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
agreeing, partially agreeing, or totally agreeing with
the second statement, the awareness of dierent AVT
modalities varied. Approximately half of the students
were acquainted with subtitling, dubbing, and voice-
over, with 52% agreeing, partially agreeing, or totally
agreeing, in contrast to the 40% of students’ familiarity
with audio-description and SDH.
The subsequent two items addressed students’
reections on their prociency with new technolo-
gies and creativity. A significant proportion (85%)
perceived themselves as procient with technology, a
result expected given that most students fell within the
18 to 30 age range (79.7%). Additionally, a substantial
number (80%) considered themselves creative, poten-
tially associated with the learning environment of a
language centre. Students also tended to rely more
on audiovisual material for learning English outside
the classroom (74%) than within (62%). Nevertheless,
the high agreement rates justied the increased use of
audiovisual materials for language learning.
Finally, when queried about whether they believed
AVT tasks could contribute to improving their English
proficiency, an overwhelming majority of students
agreed, with only 4% expressing disagreement. Simi-
lar percentages were observed when individual skill
enhancement was assessed separately. The highest
agreement rates were noted when students were asked
about more traditional skills such as listening, writing,
and reading, likely attributed to their familiarity with
these skills when learning a new language.
e nal questionnaire employed specic ques-
tions from Section 1: Process to ascertain the factors
inuencing task completion at each stage of the process.
Subsequently, students’ responses were compiled and
analysed using descriptive statistical analysis. Addi-
tionally, open-ended questions underwent coding and
were analysed using QDA Miner Lite to augment the
understanding of students’ responses.
A discernible inclination towards using traditional
modalities for English learning emerged among students.
Notably, 48 students (27.9%) selected subtitling as
their primary preference, while 44 students (25.6%)
opted for dubbing. Despite the continued popularity
of traditional modalities, alternative options such as
audio-description and SDH gained prominence as
second choices. Specically, 36 students (20.9%) and 46
students (26.7%) favoured audio-description and SDH,
respectively, as their secondary preferences. Open-
ended questions accompanying these inquiries aimed
to delve deeper into students’ choices. eir primary
justications were categorised according to their rst
and second choices—subtitling and dubbing, and audio-
description and SDH, respectively—and were coded
accordingly (see Table 2).
Table 2. Students’ Justications Categorised and Coded by Their Audiovisual Translation Preferences
Subtitling and dubbing AD and SDH
• Pronunciation
• Vocabulary
• Complete
• Oral production and reception
• Written production and reception
• Easy
• Interesting
• Shyness
• Common
• Enjoyable
• Easy
• Freedom
• Useful
• Enjoyable
• Listening
• Vocabulary
• Writ i ng
• Speaking
• Helpful
• Needed
Note. AD = audio-description; SDH = subtitling for the deaf and hard of hearing.
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
As illustrated in Figure 1, students predominantly
selected dubbing and subtitling, perceiving these modali-
ties as the most complete. eir observations highlighted
the usefulness of these approaches in enhancing oral
production and reception, facilitating vocabulary acqui-
sition, and improving both written production and
reception. In terms of motivation, students believed
that traditional modalities were enjoyable, interesting,
and easily comprehensible. e familiarity with these
modalities before the beginning of the project contributed
to their perceived ease and commonality.
Figure 1. Reasons for Using Subtitling and Dubbing
Oral production
and reception
Complete
Enjoyable
24.6%
17.2%
16.4%
9%
Interesting
8.2%
8.2%
Easy
Vocabulary
Common
Pronunciation 5.2%
5.2%
Written production
and reception
4.5%
Shyness, 1.5%
Figure 2 delineates the student preference for audio-
description and SDH as their second most favoured
modalities, primarily attributed to accessibility consid-
erations. Student comments underscored the perceived
utility and necessity of these modalities. Furthermore,
students justied their preference by asserting that these
modalities oer benets akin to standard subtitling and
dubbing, encompassing listening, speaking, and writing
enhancements. Additionally, these modalities were
deemed conducive to acquiring specic vocabulary, as
they require students not only to listen and comprehend
but also to interpret the content presented in the video.
In terms of motivational factors, students articulated
that audio-description and SDH were perceived as easy
and enjoyable and provided them with the freedom to
improvise.
Figure 2. Reasons for Using Audio-Description and
Subtitling for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing
23.3%
Vocabulary
12.6% Helpful
11.7%
Useful
10.7%
Listening
9.7%
Enjoyable
7.8%
7.8%
7.8%
Needed
Easy
Writing 6.8%
Speaking Freedom, 1.9%
When queried about the most technically challeng-
ing AVT task, students exhibited a distinct aversion to
voicing modalities, particularly dubbing (35.5%) and
voice-over (36%). However, a notable nding emerged
when assessing the perceived complexity of the transla-
tion process in AVT tasks. A signicant portion of the
participants, specically 62 individuals (36%), indicated
that they did not encounter substantial diculties in this
domain, as evidenced by selecting the “none” option.
A qualitative analysis was conducted to delve deeper
into students’ responses. Select participant responses
were chosen, and descriptive codes were applied and
categorised into voice-over and dubbing for Question
3 and none for Question 4, which asked students to
identify the most challenging AVT task in technical
and translation terms, respectively. us, the codes for
Question 3 were as follows:
• Dubbing: script and performance and
time-consuming
• Voice-over: paraphrasing, soware, uency, and
voices
• Voicing: synchronisation, timing, and creativity
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
As depicted in Figure 3, various challenges are
shared by both modalities (dubbing and voice-over)
under consideration in Question 3, specically about
synchronisation and timing, challenges primarily associ-
ated with voicing modalities. Simultaneously, students
perceive dubbing as the most time-consuming task
throughout the process, as indicated by their comments.
However, a signicant issue encountered during voice-
over pertains to the soware. Participants expressed
frustration regarding their inability to navigate the
soware (Screencastify) despite having access to tutori-
als and reported challenges with installation on Apple
devices. Additionally, they highlight the diculty of
hearing their own voices alongside the character’s voices,
a circumstance absent in dubbing, where characters’
voices are muted.
Figure 3. Students’ Technical Dubbing and Voice-
Over Challenges
Synchronisation
37.7%
18.9%
Voices
Timing
11.3%
10.1%
Script and
performance
6.3%
Software
5%
5%Time-consuming
Paraphrasing 4.4%
Creativity, 1.3%
Fluency
It is essential to note a distinct dierentiation in the
methodologies employed for dubbing and voice-over
tasks. In dubbing, the process entails script creation and
interpretation, while voice-over involves paraphrasing.
Furthermore, in dubbing, this challenge is not considered
in isolation—as it consistently accompanies additional
elements like timing—while in voice-over, paraphrasing
is perceived as a distinct diculty.
In Question 4, the responses regarding the absence of
diculty in translation stood out as the most prominent.
As per the feedback from the students, six descriptive
codes were assigned to these responses (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Translation Process Difculties
42.6% Adequate level
25.5%
Similar
difculties
12.8%
Other
difculties
Familiarised
8.5%
External
resources
6.4%
Previous tasks, 2.1%
No translation, 2.1%
Most students reported that the level of transla-
tion tasks was similar across all modalities (42.6%) or
encountered the same diculties in all (25.5%). Mean-
while, students also emphasised that the diculty level
was not signicant due to the employment of external
aids, such as dictionaries or the video itself, to grasp
context or enhance their vocabulary.
Apart from audiovisual translation, additional
challenges encompassed issues with technology and
voice synchronisation in the voicing tasks. Finally, some
students were unaware they were translating during all
tasks except the last one, which was the only translation
between L2 and L1.
In response to Question 5, students were tasked with
evaluating the clarity of dierent facets of the project
(see Table 3) on a scale ranging from very confusing to
perfectly clear. Most students deemed the educational
platform, the overall instructions for the project, and the
instructions within the lesson plans as perfectly clear.
is indicates a high level of accuracy in the project
planning. Furthermore, the incidence of “confusing”
responses was generally low, with the clarity of the
enrolment process standing out, as indicated by 26
students.
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
Table 3. Participants’ Responses Regarding the Clarity of Various Aspects of the TRADILEX Project
Clarity of... Very
confusing Confusing A little
confusing Acceptable Clear Perfectly clear
e educational platform 1.8% 2.3% 10.5% 12.3% 31.6% 41.5%
General instructions of the project 0.6% 2.3% 6.4% 15.8% 35.1% 39.8%
Lesson plan instructions 0.6% 2.3% 5.3% 18.1% 31.6% 42.1%
Tutorials on recommended soware 0.6% 0% 7.0% 18.7% 28.1% 45.6%
Answer keys to the lesson plan sample 1.2% 0.6% 8.2% 19.9% 38.0% 32.2%
e enrolment process 1.8% 4.1% 9.4% 15.8% 31.6% 37.4%
Instructions of the modalities 1.2% 1.8% 4.1% 18.7% 39.2% 35.1%
In response to Question 6, which inquired about
students’ interactions with their teacher, the project
coordinator at their institution, and fellow students, it
was observed that, given the individual nature of the
project, a signicant proportion of students (39.2%)
reported having no contact with other colleagues. In
interactions with teachers or the project coordinator,
the level of contact remained relatively low. Notably,
teachers were the individuals with whom students had
engaged more frequently, with 62 students (36.3%)
indicating “contact a couple of times.”
Concerning the average time allocated to each lesson
plan, the predominant response was “between 60 and
90 minutes,” chosen by 84 students (49.1%), aligning
with the anticipated time frame during lesson plan
preparation. When evaluating the overall duration of
the entire project, 114 students (66.7%) perceived it as
adequate, while 51 students (29.8%) deemed it excessive,
a consideration worth noting.
In the process section, the following question (see
Table 4) presented students with six statements that they
had to rate from totally disagree to totally agree. Most
students expressed satisfaction with their work on the
AVT tasks, as evidenced by 91.7% of students agreeing,
strongly agreeing, or totally agreeing with the statement.
Additionally, a substantial number of students (76%)
acknowledged using the provided resources by claiming
to have corrected their results with the keys. Regarding
their perceived progress, a signicant portion (92.9%)
agreed, strongly agreed, or totally agreed. Furthermore,
students endorsed the instructional approach, stating
that the sequencing of lesson plans and, consequently,
of the AVT modalities was appropriate.
Addressing the topic of placement tests, most
students (76%) agreed, strongly agreed, or totally agreed
that the pre- and post-tests facilitated awareness of their
progress throughout the course. However, opinions on
the necessity of placement tests were more varied, with
92 students considering them necessary and 79 students
suggesting they could be dispensable. Nevertheless, 114
students thought that the duration of the project (15
lesson plans plus the placement tests and questionnaires
in 5 months) had been adequate, reinforcing the idea
of a good planning of the project.
Discussion
e initial phase addressed the rst research ques-
tion, focusing on acquiring insights into learners’ existing
knowledge and experiences regarding AVT and its
potential in language learning. Methodologically, an
initial questionnaire was strategically employed to
gather pertinent information systematically. Speci-
cally, the questionnaire aimed to capture insights into
learners’ familiarity with distinct AVT modes and their
potential impact on understanding and embracing the
TRADILEX methodology.
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
Table 4. Participants’ Responses Regarding Their Evaluation of the Learning Process
Totally
disagree
Strongly
disagree Disagree Agree Strongly
agree
Totally
agree
I have corrected the results of my
work with the keys in each lesson
plan.
5.3% 4.1% 14.6% 32.2% 25.1% 18.7%
In general, I am satised with the
work I have done on the AVT task. 0.6% 1.2% 6.4% 25.1% 37.4% 29.2%
e outcome of my work on the
AVT tasks has improved as the
project has progressed.
0.6% 0.6% 5.8% 25.1% 41.5% 26.3%
I found the sequencing of the AVT
tasks to be correct (1st subtitling,
2nd voice-over, 3rd dubbing,
4th audio-description, and 5th
subtitling for the deaf).
0.6% 1.8% 8.2% 21.1% 33.3% 35.1%
e level tests (pre- and post-tests)
have helped me know my progress
in learning English throughout the
project.
5.8% 7.0% 11.1% 28.7% 25.7% 21.6%
I would have preferred to do the
project without the (pre- and post-)
placement tests.
17.5% 12.3% 24.0% 12.3% 15.8% 18.1%
Upon probing their initial perceptions about how
AVT could enhance language skills, most students
(approximately 96%) acknowledged its potential in
improving fundamental language learning skills such as
listening, speaking, reading, writing, and grammar and
vocabulary acquisition. However, articulating specic
expectations regarding mediation and intercultural
competence proved challenging for students, suggesting
a gap in comprehending the connection between
these skills and language learning. is divergence in
perception contrasts with the perspectives of teachers
participating in the TRADILEX project, as outlined
by Sánchez-Requena et al. (2022), who recognised the
benets of DAT, including mediation and interculturality.
Despite this recognition, teachers expressed intimidation
towards the technological aspects of DAT, a sentiment
not shared by students, who perceived themselves as
technologically procient. Additionally, discussions on
the potential of AVT in fostering creativity (Talaván,
2019) did not resonate with students, as they did not
perceive themselves as creative individuals nor recognise
DAT’s role in cultivating creativity.
The initial survey highlighted learners’ self-
perceived competency with technology. However,
challenges during the process emerged not in translation
itself but in synchronisation and technical aspects,
particularly with specic soware programs. is initial
perception is anticipated to evolve as students become
more acquainted with the specic soware. A similar
pattern was observed in creativity, where participants
initially regarded themselves as creative individuals but
faced challenges in nurturing their creativity throughout
the process. Notably, learners extensively used AVT
materials for autonomous language learning, indicating
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
a favourable reception of the TRADILEX approach to
encourage autonomous engagement with audiovisual
content.
Furthermore, ndings revealed that students mini-
mally used DAT, predominantly relying on subtitles to
aid comprehension of spoken words in the target lan-
guage rather than explicit language learning objectives.
is observation resonates with contemporary research
and the TRADILEX project framework, emphasising the
potential of AVT in language learning, as highlighted in
scholarly works such as Lertola (2019), Talaván (2020),
and Fernández-Costales et al. (2023).
e second research question aimed to discern
which specic modes of AVT were perceived by students
as most eectively developed within the tasks formulated
in the TRADILEX project. Despite the intention for all
TRADILEX tasks to comprehensively cultivate various
language skills, learners’ perceptions of each mode
varied according to their familiarity with these diering
methods. As anticipated, students gravitated towards
subtitling and dubbing, deeming them more eective
for language acquisition due to their pre-existing
acquaintance. Subtitling emerged as the primary mode
used, while students’ familiarity with dubbing positively
inuenced their perception of its potential for FLL.
ese AVT modes were notably eective in honing both
oral and written language skills, recognised by learners
as pivotal for the integrated development of linguistic
competencies. In contrast, alternative modes such as
audio-description and SDH held secondary positions
in students’ perceptions. ese ndings resonate with
prior scholarly investigations into language learning
facilitated by dubbing and subtitling (Danan, 2010;
Lertola, 2015; Price, 1983; Sokoli, 2006; Talaván, 2006;
Vanderplank, 1988; Williams & orne, 2000).
e prominence of dubbing and subtitling in the
1980s stemmed primarily from technological constraints.
Yet, the evolution of digital technology expanded AVT
to encompass diverse modalities like audio-description
and SDH, as later explored by scholars (Ibáñez Moreno
& Vermeulen, 2013). Learners expressed ease and enjoy-
ment with these latter modes, contributing to reduced
anxiety levels and heightened motivation. Audio-
description and SDH involve translating paralinguistic
elements, posing challenges yet intriguing learners as it
enhances their sensitivity to diverse cultural nuances.
is aligns with Krashen’s aective lter hypothesis
(1985), emphasising the critical role of an emotionally
conducive state in successful second language acquisi-
tion (Fernández-Costales, 2021).
Signicantly, the under-recognition of the learning
potential of voice-over contrasts with positive outcomes
reported in Fernández-Costales et al.’s (2023) study,
attributed to learners’ initial biases against this mode.
Students found voice-over technically challenging and
struggled to comprehend its purpose within the AVT
context, a factor also observed in the scant attention
given to voice-over within the literature review on AV T.
In essence, modes familiar to students are perceived
as contributors to the comprehensive development
of language skills, whereas those less familiar are
compartmentalised in their perceived impact on skill
development.
e third research question delved into identifying
the specic tasks within the TRADILEX sequence that
posed notable challenges concerning technical complex-
ity, translation skills, and the clarity of instructions and
guidelines. is inquiry aimed to dissect and discern
the elements of the TRADILEX methodology that
presented hurdles in technical intricacies, prociency
in translation, and the comprehensibility of instruc-
tions and guidance necessary to execute the sequence
successfully. According to the analysis, voicing tasks
are perceived as the most challenging by learners, with
blame placed on performance demands rather than
competence. ese activities aid the development of
paralinguistic elements, which raise awareness of issues
such as intonation, a crucial means of conveying mean-
ing. Additionally, the diculty of such tasks increases
learner sensitivity to the signicance of paralinguistic
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
elements in acquiring a new language. It is worth noting
that the two methods mentioned, dubbing and voice-
over, are essential for improving intonation, which is
relevant as, historically, pronunciation has been an
overlooked area when analysing and planning foreign
language teaching (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996).
During the process, it became evident that learners
only interpreted interlingual translation (L2-L1) as
translation, especially in the most familiar modes.
e learners may be averse to voicing tasks, like voice-
over, which they perceive as technically challenging.
It is worth noting that whilst undertaking the process,
learners were unaware of the paralinguistic elements
implicated in translation. Only one learner correlated
these elements with sociolinguistic aspects by reecting
on and interpreting the translation of these elements:
It has been equally challenging because my diculty
has not been the type of AVT being performed but the
translation process itself, that is, adapting one reality
(the reality perceived through English) to another (the
reality perceived and understood from Spanish). So, it
is more of a sociolinguistic issue.1
Finally, one of the most signicant concerns when
discussing the technical complexity of the translations
is technological competence, highlighting that the
students did not know the soware at the beginning.
Upon analysing the process, it becomes evident that
what was viewed initially as an obstacle is not so in
the subsequent activity, as the tool usage experience
indicates that once users become accustomed to it, it
is not dicult to work with, as can be seen in articles
such as Hornero Corisco et al.’s (2023), which contra-
dicts the teachers’ opinions on the use of technology
highlighted in Sanchez-Requena et al. (2022). Although
students may encounter challenges when rst using
new technologies, their technological literacy and age
1 Student comment translated from Spanish for publication
purposes.
enable them to overcome these issues. erefore, dif-
culty with technology is not a trigger for dropping out
of the course and not wanting to continue but rather a
simple handicap that students can overcome within the
methodology. is is further substantiated by Plaza-Lara
and Bobadilla-Pérez’s (2024) analysis, which identies
external factors as the primary cause of the dropout
rate rather than technological factors inherent in the
TRADILEX sequence implementation. ese external
elements include voluntary participation and lack of
time on the part of the participants.
e nal research question centres on learners’
assessment regarding the execution and implementa-
tion of the TRADILEX sequence. is investigation
aimed to capture the perspectives of learners on the
practical application and execution of the TRADILEX
methodology, seeking their evaluations and feedback on
various aspects detailed in Questions 6 to 9 of the nal
questionnaire. Most students reported satisfaction with
DAT implementation in their language learning, which
suggests a positive experience with the TRADILEX
methodology. Furthermore, most learners demonstrated
an active engagement with the course material by using
the provided resources. A signicant proportion of
students reported notable progress throughout the
course, contributing to a positive evaluation of their
learning experience. e approval of the teaching meth-
odology was evident in the lesson plan sequencing and
the implementation of AVT modalities, with students
expressing their concurrence with the appropriateness
of the chosen approach.
Regarding the placement tests, most students
armed that the pre- and post-tests aided them in
tracking their progress during the course. Nevertheless,
there was a discrepancy in opinions regarding the
indispensability of these tests, with a considerable
number of students arguing that the course could be
completed without them. us, this possibly derives
from students’ distaste for language tests. In this line,
some ndings suggest that instructors should recognise
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Buil-Beltrán & Bobadilla-Pérez
that quizzes, despite their educational benets, may
induce more stress than other alternative learning
activities (Yang et al., 2023). Moreover, a few students
admitted to not using the keys aer the units, indicating
that they may have completed the assignment but
preferred to have it reviewed by a teacher instead of
independently putting in the eort.
Despite these discrepancies, many students felt the
overall project duration was appropriate. is promising
evaluation indicates the successful planning and execu-
tion of the project, which reinforces the idea that this
is a well-organised educational initiative. e students
also recognised that, due to the design of each lesson
plan, their results progressed and that their outcomes
improved over the course of the units, which means that
the lesson plans were well-designed and the sequences
were correct.
Conclusion
is study’s focus on the TRADILEX methodology
navigated through several research questions, illuminat-
ing various facets of student engagement, perceptions,
challenges encountered, and overall assessment of
the implemented sequence. e principal aim of this
investigation lies in examining the procedural imple-
mentation of the TRADILEX learning sequence. e
initial inquiry underscored students’ limited awareness
of AVT modes, marking the commencement of the
study with an indication of minimal enthusiasm among
participants. Despite this, a resounding acknowledge-
ment of the potential of AVT tasks to enhance essential
language learning skills emerged.
Interestingly, contrasts arose between student and
teacher perceptions within the TRADILEX project,
revealing divergent viewpoints on the benets and chal-
lenges of DAT. While teachers recognised its benets,
particularly in mediation and interculturality, they
expressed concerns regarding technological complexi-
ties, unlike the students, who perceived themselves as
technologically adept. Age appeared as a potential
inuencer, with students viewing technology as a moti-
vator for engagement.
roughout the process, students showcased a shi
in perception. ey initially considered themselves
technologically competent but encountered synchro-
nisation and soware challenges. However, as they
became familiar with specic soware, this initial bar-
rier diminished, fostering a positive reception of the
TRADILEX approach.
In terms of AVT modes, subtitling and dubbing
were perceived as the most eective for language acqui-
sition due to students’ familiarity and were deemed
conducive to developing oral and written language skills
in an integrated manner. Conversely, voice-over, which
was less recognised and understood initially, faced
biases and challenges from students, contrasting with
positive outcomes reported in other studies. Regarding
technical complexities, voicing tasks emerged as the
most challenging, inuencing learners’ sensitivity to
paralinguistic elements like intonation. e struggle
with such tasks stemmed more from performance
demands than translation competence. Learners tended
to interpret interlingual translation mainly in familiar
modalities.
Despite challenges, most students expressed satis-
faction with DAT implementation, actively engaging
with course material and reporting progress. How-
ever, discrepancies existed regarding the necessity
of placement tests and independent use of review
keys, highlighting nuanced perspectives on assessment
methodologies.
While this study presents valuable insights into
the ecacy of the TRADILEX methodology in AVT
for language learning, it is essential to acknowledge
certain limitations. The sample size, though infor-
mative, might not fully represent diverse educational
contexts, potentially limiting the generalisability of
ndings. Future research endeavours could address
these limitations by conducting larger-scale studies
encompassing a more diverse participant pool across
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
varied educational settings. Additionally, longitudinal
studies tracking learners’ progress over an extended
period could shed light on the long-term eective-
ness of AVT methodologies in language acquisition.
Investigating the inuence of cultural and contextual
factors on learners’ engagement stands as a promising
avenue to enhance our understanding of optimal AVT
practices in language education.
In summary, the TRADILEX sequence evoked
varied student responses, from initial hesitancy to
eventual appreciation. e study delineates the evolving
landscape of student engagement, challenges encoun-
tered, and overall positive evaluation, arming the
methodology’s potential effectiveness in language
learning while shedding light on areas warranting
further exploration and renement.
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Factors Inuencing Language Learning in Didactic Audiovisual Translation Within the TRADILEX Project
About the Authors
Paula Buil-Beltrán is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education at the Universidad de Zaragoza
(Spain), where she teaches courses in FLL and ESP. She holds a PhD in English Studies from the Universidad de
Zaragoza. Her research interests encompass English for specic purposes and didactic audiovisual translation.
María Bobadilla-Pérez is an associate professor at the Faculty of Education at the Universidade da
Coruña (Spain), where she teaches FLL courses. She holds a PhD in Languages and Literature from the State
University of New York (USA). Her research interests encompass language teaching, bilingual education,
and didactic audiovisual translation.
Acknowledgements
We want to express our sincere thanks to the TRADILEX team for their consistent enthusiasm and
invaluable support during this research. eir commitment has signicantly enhanced the quality of this
work and has played a key role in advancing the eld of DAT.
