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Vol.:(0123456789)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-024-01697-9
REVIEW ARTICLE
Comprehensive review onparasitic infections reported inthecommon
fish found inUT ofJammu andKashmir, India
RashaidAliMustafa1· ShabirAhmadRather1· RukhsanaKousar1· MohammadVikasAshraf3· AliAsgharShah2·
ShoebAhmad3· M.A.HannanKhan1
Received: 10 November 2023 / Accepted: 17 June 2024
© Indian Society for Parasitology 2024
Abstract
The people of Jammu and Kashmir rely heavily on fish as a source of nutritional protein. Fishes also contribute significantly
to the local economy of this area. However, several infectious disorders, some of which are brought on by helminth parasites,
constitute a persistent threat to fish. The primary goal of the present review is to find out the parasites in common fishes
found in Jammu and Kashmir as well as the impact of parasites on fishes and sickness on human health. Like other animals,
fishes are susceptible to several diseases, many of which are external in origin while others are internal in origin. Fishes
are known to be susceptible to parasites, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and other external agents that can cause disease, and they
also commonly experience organic and degenerative problems internally. Fish parasites have significant impact on both fish
and human health. These diverse organisms, including protozoa, helminths, and crustaceans, can infest various fish tissues,
leading to detrimental effects. Infested fish often experience reduced growth, weakened immune system, behavioral changes,
physical damage, and even mortality. Economically, fish parasites can diminish the value of fish in markets and increase
production costs in fisheries and aquaculture. Moreover, fish parasites pose potential human health risks. Consumers who
ingest raw or undercooked fish containing certain parasites, like Anisakis spp., may develop gastrointestinal discomfort or
anisakiasis. Proper cooking and freezing can mitigate this risk. While fish parasites are primarily harmful, they also play
ecological roles, contributing to biodiversity and ecosystem stability by controlling fish populations. Understanding the
complex interactions between parasites, fish, and their environment is vital for effective fisheries management, aquaculture
practices, and public health measures. Striking a balance between controlling parasite infestation and maintaining ecological
integrity is crucial for sustaining both fish populations and human well-being.
Keywords Fish· Parasite· Health· Control
Introduction
Fish is the most diverse group of vertebrates, accounting for
around 32,000 species or 40% of all vertebrate spp. world-
wide—more than all other vertebrates put together. Fishes
are vital component of our ecosystem because they play a
crucial function between the primary producer and various
tiers of food chain consumers (Goldman 1997). Due to the
substantial amount of protein, a low amount of saturated
fat and a large amount of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid, fish is among the finest foods for human consumption
(mainly docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid). The
biochemical makeup of fish tends to make it preferable to
red meat since eating fish and fish oil helps lower blood
cholesterol (mostly docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic
* M. A. Hannan Khan
hannan7334@gmail.com
1 Biochemical andMolecular Parasitology Lab, Department
ofZoology, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University,
Rajouri, JammuandKashmir, India
2 Nematode Biodiversity andGenomics Research Lab,
Department ofZoology, Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah
University, Rajouri, JammuandKashmir, India
3 Microbial Biotechnology Lab, Department ofBiotechnology,
Baba Ghulam Shah Badshah University, Rajouri,
JammuandKashmir, India
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
acid) (Gautam etal. 2018), cardiovascular disease risk, and
serum cholesterol level (Stansby 1985).
In addition, fish protein, which contains 10 essential
amino acids in a good ratio, has a relatively high human
digestion compared to other kinds of protein. All of these
characteristics place fish meat into the same group as
chicken protein, which makes it preferable to the proteins
found in eggs, milk and cattle (Mahanta etal.1995; Sriv-
astava 1999). That is why fisheries have emerged as one of
the key industries aimed at generating animal protein and
eradicating hunger. Fishes are crucial to the health of the
environment and the economy of the country in addition
to being valuable as food (Mangolsana and Bijayalakshmi
2016). In addition, fish not only serve as a dietary supple-
ment but also as a source of income and a job opportunity
for both skilled and unskilled workers, both of whom are in
high demand in the contemporary economy.
India is a predominantly agricultural country, and
research about aquaculture and fish plays a crucial role in
influencing the country’s economic success. A sizeable sec-
tion of the Indian population makes their living from farm-
ing and the sale of agricultural products (Mahanta etal.
1995). About 28 million people in India depend on fishing as
their primary source of income, particularly the most vulner-
able and marginalized groups. Around 7.96% of all fish pro-
duced worldwide is produced in India, the third-largest fish
producer in the world. About 14.73 million tons of fish was
produced overall in the financial year 2021–2022 (Fig.1).
(Annual report 2021–2022 Department of Fisheries Ministry
of Fisheries. The fishing industry's overall GDP contribution
is 1.07%. According to the National Fisheries Development
Board, the industry's export earnings are estimated to be
Rs. 334.41 billion (Annual report 2021–22, Department of
Fisheries Ministry of Fisheries).
Due to the abundant supply of water resources and favora-
ble agro-climatic conditions, Jammu and Kashmir offers a
delectable habitat for a range of fishes, which paves the way
for the state's successful culture and growth of the indus-
try of fisheries. In the state of Jammu and Kashmir, there
are around 1,248 water bodies with a total spread area of
about 57,000 hectares, of which about 24,000 hectares are in
the form of reservoirs, lakes, and marshy areas, and 23,000
hectares are in the form of rivers (Qayoom etal. 2015). In
the fiscal year 2020, Jammu and Kashmir, the most north-
ern state in India, generated about 21,000 metric tons of
fish. Notably, throughout the previous five years, the output
volume in the state had varied between 20,000 and 21,000
metric tons (Fig.2); (Keelery 2023).
The aquatic environment of the freshwater resource is
made up of a variety of elements, including physiochemical,
biological and ecological factors, almost all of which have
an impact on the fish's ability to maintain homeostasis and
develop and reproduce (Wali etal. 2016).
Parasites and diseases, however, can have an impact on
the productivity, quality of the product, variety and acces-
sibility of fish supplies, which can negatively impact both
the national economy and diet (Chiary etal. 2014). Study-
ing these pathogens that affect the nation's socioeconomic
development and the fish sector is therefore necessary. The
main fish caught in the Jammu and Kashmir is the endemic
Fig. 1 Indicates the growth of
fish production in India from
2015 to 2021 (Department of
fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries
2021–2022)
0
5
10
15
20
2015-162016-172017-18 2018-19 2019-2020 2020-21
In million metric tons
Years
Fig. 2 Shows the growth in
fish production in Jammu and
Kashmir from 2015 to 2021
(Keelery 2023)
17
18
19
20
21
22
2015-16 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-2020 2020-21
Volume in thousand
metric tons
Years
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
freshwater fish Schizothorax richardsonii. They were dis-
covered to have the monogenean Dogielius forceps infec-
tion. According to Cable etal. (1998) monogeneans are
hermaphroditic flukes that often dwell as ectoparasites on
the gills, fins and skin, of fishes and cause a variety of symp-
toms. Numerous parasites that live on fish cause a significant
reduction in fish production. One of the major subgroups of
these parasites is represented by the three main helminth
groups Platyhelminthes (Flatworms), Nematoda (Round-
worms) and Acanthocephala (Spiny headed worms). The
productivity of fish suffers greatly due to the 20,000–30,000,
kinds of helminths that have been reported worldwide Kime,
(1995).
The productivity of fish is negatively impacted by para-
sites and disease outbreaks, but it is difficult to calculate
the monetary losses resulting from these problems. Lack of
information on illness, death, and other costs related to the
finfish production makes it difficult to properly analyze the
impact of diseases. Illness that can also hurt ovarian function
and negatively impact feed conversion effectiveness can hurt
the growth and general performance of farmed fish. The eco-
nomic loss caused by particular disease has been calculated
in some regions with large expenditures. Due to illnesses,
finfish aquaculture experienced enormous economic losses
worldwide (Monir etal. 2015).
Fish parasites reported inJammu
andKashmir
Ahmed etal. (2019) made a significant discovery by docu-
menting the presence of Myxozoan parasites in Schizotho-
rax richardsonii for the first time in the Poonch River of
Jammu and Kashmir, India. Their research also unveiled a
novel species of Myxobolus, namely Myxobolus himalay-
aensis (Fig.3). In the Kashmir valley, an Ectoparasite called
Diplozoon kashmirensis was identified in the gills of cru-
cian carp (Shamim and Ahmad 2018). Similarly, Tak etal.
(2014) investigated the Schizothorax niger and Labeo rohita
of Jammu and Kashmir, India and recorded an ectoparasite
of two groups viz. ciliophora (chilodonella) and crustacean
(Argulus). Furthermore, Dogielius forceps (Monogenea), an
ectoparasite from Schizothorax richardsonii gills, was dis-
covered for the first time in District Poonch in Jammu and
Kashmir (Ahmed etal. 2016). Previously, this species had
been reported by Koyun (2011). In addition, Ahmed etal.
(2016) reported the first record of Dactylogyrus racotora-
bus (Monogenea) ectoparasite found on Garragotyla (Pisces
cyprinidae) in the Poonch river of Jammu and Kashmir,
India. Similarly, Dar etal. (2017) recorded the first myxo-
zoan parasite from the Schizothorax spp. and Labeo rohita
of the Jammu and Kashmir.
Shahi etal. (2013) gave the first report of blood para-
sites in the fishes of the Kashmir valley. He collected Tri-
plophysa marmorata, Schizothorax curvifrons, Carassius
carassius, Communis linnaeu and Cyprinus carpio species
of fishes from the Anchar lake and river Jhelum of Kash-
mir Himalaya and reported Bebesiosoma and Trypanosoma
mukasi. Farooq etal. (2016) studied some economically
important food fishes of river Jhelum, Kashmir i.e. Schizo-
thorax plagiostomus, Schizothorax curvifrons, Schizothorax
esconius, Schizothorax niger and recovered four different
species of endoparasites which include Adenoscolex kash-
mirensis (Fig.4b), Bothriocephalus archeilognathi (Fig.6
a,b,c), Echinorhynchus spp., (Fig.4a), Pomphorhynchus
kashmirensis (Fig.5) belong to phylum Platyhelminthes
and phylum Acanthocephala. In addition, Qayoom etal.
(2015) reported the infection of helminth parasites in cold
water fishes (Schizothoracine) of river Jhelum Srinagar
Jammu and Kashmir and found two parasites Pomphorhyn-
cus kashmirensis (Acanthocephalaon) (Fig.5) and cestode
(Adenoscolex). Furthermore, Wali etal. (2016) examined
three freshwater fishes of Kashmir in which he found three
parasites i.e. Acanthocephalan parasite, Pomphorhynchus
kashmirensis and two intestinal cestodes Bothriocephalaus
acheiolognathi and Adenoscolex oreini in the intestine of
Schizothorax spp.
Upon examination of 126 specimens of Schizothorax
plagiostomus and 216 specimens of Salmo trutta from
the Gurez valley of Jammu and Kashmir, India, Sheikh,
(2018) found that the species were infected with different
types of helminth parasites i.e. Adenoscolex oreini (Fig.5),
Fig. 3 Fresh gills of Schizothorax richardsonii having intrafilamen-
tal type of plasmodia infected with Myxobolus himalayensis (Ahmed
etal. 2019)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
Rhabdochona guptii and Camallanus fotedariin (Fig.6 a&
b). Ahmed etal. (2019) studied Myxobolus himalayaensis
in the Schizothorax richardsonii from the river of Poonch
Jammu and Kashmir, India. Nabi etal. (2020) studied Cypri-
nus carpio communius and Schizothorax plagiostomus from
Nallah Sukhnag, Kashmir and recovered five helminth para-
sites i.e. Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis (Fig.5), Diplozoon
kashmirensis and Adenoscolex oreini (Fig.7) from Schizo-
thorax plagiostomus, Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis (Fig.5)
and Bothriocephalus acheilognathi (Fig.8) from Cyprinus
carpio cummunis.
A study was conducted by Rajput and Langer, (2022) to
study the trematode infection in the inland water fishes of
some of the water bodies of Jammu region and a total of
4 digenetic trematode parasites i.e. Bucepholopsis karvei,
Genarchopsis pisicola, Phyllodistomum tripathi and Euclin-
ostomum heterostomum were detected (Fig.9).
Moreover, Hudha etal. (2021) studied 103 Schizothorax
and 114 carp spp. from the lake of Kashmir for helminthes
infection in which they found 50 Schizothorax, 47 carp
fishes infected and from the Anchar lake 101 Carp fishes
and 108 Schizothorax were examined for helminth infec-
tion wherein 51 carp fishes and 58 Schizothorax were found
infected. During this study, Hudha etal. (2021) also reported
three parasites viz., two Acanthocephalans (Pomphorhyncus
and Neoechinorhyncus) and one cestode (Adenoscolex). The
whole information regarding the above data is provided in
tabulated form (Table1).
Eects ofparasite onsh
Parasitic diseases pose a significant threat to fish popula-
tions, although they generally do not pose a major concern in
the context of wild fish stocks, as they often do not appear to
inflict significant harm. However, when it comes to farmed
fish, parasites can trigger severe disease outbreaks. Evaluat-
ing the impact of parasite infections on natural fish popu-
lations is a challenging task primarily due to the presence
of predators or scavengers that swiftly eliminate ailing or
deceased fish. The majority of fish parasites are categorized
into: protozoans and helminths.
Protozoan parasites
Protozoan parasites can be found both externally and inter-
nally with in fish, inhabiting areas such as the skin, gills, or
internal organs with the primary groups encompassing flag-
ellates, ciliates, myxozoans and microsporidians (Table2).
When fish are densely packed, these parasites can proliferate
significantly, resulting in weight loss, weakened health, and
even death (Klinger and Floyd 2013). Notably, flagellates
Fig. 4 a Echinorhynchus spp.
(Farooq etal. 2016), b Cestode
parasite (Adenoscolex kashmi-
rensis) (Farooq etal. 2016)
Fig. 5 Photomicrograph of Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis (Acantho-
cephalan) in Schizothorax intestine (Nabi etal. 2020)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
and ciliates follow direct life cycles and primarily impact
fish populations reared in ponds. Hypertrophic infected cells,
which can grow to macroscopic sizes, often exhibit distinct
visible signs of disease. These signs may include the pres-
ence of multiple whitish nodules in various tissues or, in
the case of the bladder, a significant thickening of its walls,
as reported by FAO (1996). The impact of microsporid-
ian infection on fish hosts can vary significantly. Some fish
hosts appear to survive even when large xenomata, which
are abnormal growths caused by the parasites, exert pressure
on their organs. In contrast, microsporidian infections can
have detrimental effects on other fish hosts, as observed in
studies by Abdel-Ghaffar etal. (2011); Abowei and Ezekiel
(2011). In cases where microsporidian infections affect hae-
mopoietic cells within the nucleus, they are often associated
with acute anemia, as documented by Elston etal. (1987);
Sudhagar etal. (2020). Myxozoan parasites are known to
affect various fish families and are particularly prevalent
in Cyprinidae, Mugilidae, and Cichilidaeas as reported by
FAO (1996). The research by Sakiti etal. 1999 observed
and described 17 distinct species, with notable parasitic pro-
tozoan genera such as Myxobolus, Henmeguya, Parahen-
meguya and Myxobilatus.
Furthermore, Icthyophthirius multifilis induces icthy-
ophthiriasis, commonly referred to as "Itch" or "white
spot" disease, and is likely the most notable protozoan
ailment that impacts the early developmental stages of all
freshwater food fish species. These protozoa can reach
Fig. 6 a Photomicrograph of
Rhabdochona guptii (Chisti and
Baskshi 1990). A Anterior end
of Female, B Posterior end of
Female, C Vulva of Female, D
Posterior end of male. b Pho-
tomicrograph of Camallanus
fotedari (Raina and Dar 1972).
A anterior end, B posterior end
Fig. 7 Photomicrograph of Adenoscolex oreini in Scizothorax intes-
tine (Nabi etal. 2020)
Fig. 8 a Photomicrograph of Bothriocephalus acheilognathi b Micro-
photograph of Bothriocephalus acheilognathi. c Infection of Bothrio-
cephalus acheilognathi in Schizothorax
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
sizes of up to 1mm and are distinguished by their promi-
nent horseshoe-shaped nucleus. I. multifilis was isolated
from the gills of Schizothorax niger in Dal Lake during
a parasitological survey conducted in October 2013 and
March 2015 (Dar 2020). Trichodina are one of the most
frequently encountered ciliates discovered on the skin and
gills of fish in ponds. They primarily inhabit the gills and
skin, featuring ring-like chitinous teeth and spiral cilia
around their cytostome. Trichodina is characterized by its
circular body, measuring about 100 microns in diameter,
with cilia encircling its periphery. Trichodina heterodenta
was isolated from the gills of S. niger during a parasito-
logical survey conducted in Dal Lake in October 2013 and
March 2015. Infections occur when there is a high concen-
tration of organic matter in the water or inadequate water
exchange. Low numbers of Trichodina are not harmful, but
when fish are overcrowded or water quality deteriorates,
it paves the way for rapid multiplication and significant
harm, in addition to making the fish more susceptible to
opportunistic bacterial infections (Dar 2020).
Trematoda
The class Trematoda includes two main groups: monoge-
neans and digeneans, as indicated in Table3. Monogenean
trematodes, commonly known as flatworms or flukes, were
previously described as such in Klinger and Floyd's 2002
study. These parasitic organisms are recognized for their fre-
quent infections in the fins, gills and skin of brackish water
and freshwater fish from diverse families belonging to the
Teleostei group, as demonstrated in the research conducted
by Whittington etal. (2000); Abidi etal. (2011). In mono-
geneans, life cycles are linear, meaning they do not require
intermediate hosts, and they are known for their host and
size specificity, which remains consistent across their geo-
graphical distribution, as mentioned in FAO's (1996) report
and supported by Klinger and Floyd's findings in (2002).
According to the research conducted by Whittington etal.
(2000), monogeneans can be found dwelling on various parts
of the body of host, including fins, scales, epidermis, nares
(nostrils), lipfolds, gills and branchiostegal membranes.
Oral sucker
Ventral sucker
Caecal diverticula
Uterus
Ovary
Testis
Anal opening
Oral sucker
Ventral sucker
Caecal diverticula
Uterus
Oral sucker
Oesophagus
Genital pore
ventral sucker
Vitelline gland
ovary
Testis
Egg
ventral sucker
ovary
Testis
Egg
Oral sucker
Oral sucker
Pharynx
Genital pore
Excretory Vesicle
Egg
Ventral sucker
Testis
Ovary
Vitelline gland
Oral sucker
Pharynx
Vitelline gland
Ventral
sucker
Egg
Ovary
Testis
Rhynchus
Egg
Ovary
Pharynx
Cirrus sac
Testis
Genital atrium
Genital lobe
Genital pore
Vitelline follicle
Rhynchus
Testis
Egg
Pharynx
Ovary
Testis
Genital pore
Cirrus sac
Fig. 9 a Euclinostomum heterostomum (Mansour, 2019; Rudolphi (1809). b Phyllodistomum tripathi (Choudhary etal., 2023); Motwani and
Srivastava (1961). c Genarchopsis piscicola (Srivastava (1933). d Bucephalopsis Karvei (Hogue 2006; Bhalerao 1937)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
At their anterior end, monogeneans possess sensory
structures located at the apex, a mouth that may or may
not include accessory suckers, and specialized clamps and
glands for attachment. Additionally, it is important to note
that they are hermaphrodites, as outlined in FAO's (1996)
report. Monogeneans can be classified into three major
groups: Polyopisthacotylea, Capsaloidae, and Dactylogyroi-
dae, as documented by Noble and Noble (1982) and FAO
(1996). The majority of monogeneans found in freshwater
fish belong to the Dactylogyroidae family, while the other
two families are typically larger in size and predominantly
parasitize marine fish, according to FAO's 1996 report. Dac-
tylogyroids are known to be oviparous and possess one or
two pairs of eyespots at the anterior-dorsal region, as well as
a posterior-ventral opisthaptor. They are primarily parasites
of fish in gills. On the other hand, Gyrodactylidae, a subfam-
ily within Dactylogyroidae, are viviparous and lack eyespots.
They have two pairs of anchor hooks and are commonly
found on the skin and fins of fish. Some species within this
group have adapted to become specialized endoparasites,
residing in the stomach, urethra and nasal cavities of fresh-
water fish hosts, as detailed in Table3, with references
including Abidi etal. (2011), Obiekezie and Taege 1991
and FAO (1996).
Fishes are known to coexist with their particular mono-
genean parasites in their natural environments and also in
controlled culture settings, nonetheless in cases of severe
infestation, as documented by the FAO (1996). However,
some monogeneans, particularly the Gyrodactylids, can be
harmful to the fish in which they inhabit, especially affect-
ing younger fish and in conditions of high population den-
sity, as discussed by Tabasum etal. (2023). For instance,
Dactylogyrus vastator infections in the gills of carp fry, as
described by Paperna (1963); Barker and Cone (2000) can
lead to severe hyperplasia of the gill filament epithelium.
This abnormal growth can interfere with respiratory func-
tion, particularly when the proliferation is extensive, and it
appears to be the primary cause of death in affected fish.
In the case of Dactylogyrus extensus, both juvenile and
mature fish have been observed to die from it, as reported
Table 1 Check list of fish parasites found in Jammu and Kashmir
Common fish Parasites reported Location References
Crucian carp Diplozoon kashmirensis Gills Shamim and Ahmad (2018)
Cyprinus carpio Carassius crassius
Schizothorax curvifrons(Heckel, 1838)
And Triplophysa marmorata(Heckel,
1838)
Bebesiosoma and Trypanosoma mukasi Blood Shahi etal. (2013)
Schizothorax plagiostomus(Heckel, 1838),
Schizothorax curvifronsHeckel, 1838,
Schizothorax esocinus and
Schizothorax niger (Heckel, 1838)
Adenoscolex kashmirensis, Bothriocepha-
lus acheilognathi, Echinorhynchus spp.,
Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis
Intestine Farooq etal. (2018)
Schizothorax niger (Heckel, 1838) and
Labeo rohita Ciliophora (chilodonella) and Crustacean
(Argulus)
Gills Irfan-ur-Rauf etal. (2014)
Schizothoracine spp. Pomphorhyncus kashmirensis and Cestode Intestine Qayoom etal. (2015)
Schizothorax spp. Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis, Bothrio-
cephalaus archeiolognathi and Aden-
oscolex oreini
Intestine Wali etal. (2016)
Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray, 1832) Dogielius forceps (Monogenea) Gills Ahmed etal. (2016)
Garra gotyla Dactylogyrus ractotrabus (Monogenea) Gills Ahmed (2016)
Schizothorax spp. and Labeo rohita Myxozoan parasite
(Myxozoan kashmirensis and Myxozoan
rocatalae)
Gills (Dar etal. 2017)
Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel, 1838 Adenoscolexoreini,
Rhabdochona guptii and
Camallanus fotedari
Intestine Sheikh (2018)
Schizothorax richardsoni (Gray, 1832) Myxobolus himalayaensis Gills Ahmed etal. (2019)
Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel,
1838andCyprinus carpiocarpioLin-
naeus, 1758
Adenoscolex oreini, Diplozoon kashmiren-
sis, Pomphorhynchus kashmirensis and
Bothriocephalus archeilognathi
Intestine Nabi etal. (2020)
Schizothorax and Carp spp. Pomphorhyncus, Neoechinorhynchus,
Adenoscolex spp.
Intestine Hudha etal. (2021)
Ophiocephalus punctatus Bloch, 1793 and
Xenentodon concila Euclinostomum heterostomum, Phyllo-
distomum tripathi, Genarchopsis pisicola
and Bucepholopsis karvei
Liver, coelomic cavity,
muscle, intestine,
stomach
Rajput and Langer (2022)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
Table 2 Effects of protozoan parasite on fish
Group Protozoan Infected fish Protozoanreported Symptoms Infectious site References
Myxozoans Labeo rohita Salmon, Mullets,
hanna Heterotis niloticus,
Lates Channel catfish, Clarias,
Distichodus Haplochromis
Myxozoma, Mitraspora
Sphaerospora, Thelohanellus,
Myxobolus
Hennegya
Cell hypertrophy, Creamish
patches on skin, hyperplasia,
turmor- like masses of tissues
Scales, Gills, epithelia lining of
bladder, Cysts in muscles, con-
nective tissue, gut lining and
kidney tubules
Klinger and Floyd (2013), Dar
etal. (2017), Ahmad etal.
(2021)
Ciliates Clarotis, Clarias, Bagrus,
Schilbe, Heterobranchus
Auchinoglanus
Synodontis,
Ichthyophthirius, Tehrahymena,
Chilodonella, Trichodina, Api-
osom, Ambiphyra, Capriniana
Epistylis
Gill and skin irritation displayed
by flashing, breathing rapidly,
rubbing, white spot, enlarged
eye and excessive secretion of
mucus in gill
Intestine, Gills Skin, Fins Klinger and Floyd (2013), Dar
(2020)
Microsporideans Haplochromis Sarotherodon,
Eels, Tilapia,Carps, Clarias
Gold fish, Rainbow trout
Plestophora, Enterocytozo-
ans,Glugea Hypertrophy of tissues, tumour-
like masses of tissues, thicken-
ing of kidney walls
Epithelia cells, swim blad-
der, Cysts in lymphs, kidney,
viscera, gills,
Sakiti and Bouix (1987), FAO
(1996)
Flagellates Angelfish, Channel catfish,
Tilapia
Hexamita, Ichthyobodo,
Piscinoodinum,Cryptobia Mucus secretion Gills, intestine, stomach, fins
and skin
Klinger and Floyd (2013), Sud-
hagar etal. (2020)
Table 3 Impact of trematode parasites on freshwater fish hosts
Group Trematode Infected fish Trematodereported Symptoms Infectious site References
Monogenean Brackish water and fresh water Enterogyrus, Paraguadriacan-
thus, Acolpenteron Dactylo-
gyrus, extensus, Macrogylodac-
tylus, Gyrodactylus groschefti,
Hyperplasia of gill epithelium
and interference with respira-
tory function
Gills, Skin, fins, epidermis, lip-
folds, nares, stomach, urethra
and branchiostegal membranes
Abidi etal. (2011), Barker and
Cone (2000), Obiekezie and
Taege (1991), FAO (1996)
Digenea SynodontisAuchinoglanus
Clarias Oreochromis Chrysi-
chthyes
Sanguinicola, Syphodera, Aspi-
dogaster Anemia due to gills rupture,
epithelium, causing, disruption
of the heart, brain and eye lens
and general disabilities
Tissues, Organs, Blood passages,
Heart, Brain and Eye lens
Paperna (1963), Obiekezie and
Taege (1991), Sandland and
Goater (2000), Kumari and
Nomani (2021)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
by Obiekezie and Taege (1991); Kumari and Nomani (2021)
Severe mortalities, reaching up to 90%, occurred among
two-week-old Clarias gariepinus fry in a Nigerian hatchery
due to a severe infestation of Gyrodactylus groschefti.
Nematoda
Nematodes are found all around the world, particularly the
species that utilize fish as transient or intermediate host, and
they can infect various organs within their host fish. Heavier
infections are often observed in predatory fish species, as
detailed in Table4, and mentioned in the findings by Klinger
and Floyd, (2002) and FAO (1996). In 1971, Khalil reported
the presence of 40 species of adult nematodes from nine dif-
ferent families in African fish. Most of these nematodes were
located in the alimentary system, while a few were found in
internal cavities or tissues, as indicated in Table4. Nema-
tode worms are easily identifiable by their distinct shape,
featuring a solid and resilient cuticle that allows them to
persist longer than flatworms under post-mortem conditions,
as highlighted by FAO (1996). Oxyuroidae are classified
as monoxenous, which means they have a single host, and
they are typically found in the intestines of detritus-feeding
fish like Citharinus and Distichodus, as well as omnivo-
rous species such as Synodontis, Oreochromis, and Barbus,
according to Khalil (1971); Moravec and Thatcher (2001);
Moravec and Van As (2015). On the other hand, Cucullani-
dae, Camallanidae, Anguillicolidae and Philometridae have
copepods as their intermediate hosts, as outlined in FAO's
1996 report. It's important to note that within the copepod
host, nematodes can be quite selective in their preferences
and may not develop in certain copepod species like Clad-
ocerans, Diaptomus or Cyclops.
A novel parasitic nematode species, designated as
Rhabdochona keralaensis sp. nov., is introduced through
the examination of specimens found within the intesti-
nal and visceral organs of fish, resulting in inflammation
and fibrosis of these organs. It is characterized mainly by
absence of basal teeth, the presence of ten anterior pros-
tomal teeth, arrangement of preanal papillae, non-fila-
mented eggs and length of spicules (Moravec and Thatcher
2001; Moravec and Van As 2015).
The host specificity of nematodes can vary significantly
within their definitive hosts. For instance, among the
Camallanidae family, Procamallanus laevionchus has been
observed in fish hosts from six different families, whereas
Spirocamallanus spiralis has only been reported in species
of Synodontis and Clarias. Paracamallanus cyathophar-
ynx, on the other hand, has exclusively been found in spe-
cies of Camallanus kiradensis and Clarias has been exclu-
sively reported in Barbus spp, as documented in FAO's
1996 report. Certain nematode species, such as Oxyurids,
Capillaria, Thwatia bagri and Philometrids, Nilonema,
gymnarchi are known for their high host specificity, as
reported by Khalil (1971); Moravec and Thatcher (2001);
Moravec and Jirků (2015). Infections caused by Camalla-
nids are quite common and can be substantial, sometimes
reaching 20 or more parasites, especially within the stom-
ach of Clarias spp. and various other catfish species. This
prevalence has been documented in studies conducted by
Paperna (1963), Khalil (1971), Gambhir (2018), Justine
(2019). Interestingly, despite the secure bonding of their
oral capsule to the stomach's mucosal lining, none of these
infections have been reported as pathogenic.
Table 4 Impact of Nematode parasites on fresh waterfish host
Group Nematode Infected fish Nematodereported Symptoms Site of Infection References
Rhabdochonidae Synodontis
Clarias
Heterobranchus
Rhaditis
Rhabdochona
Spinitectus
Inflammation and
fibrosis confined to a
specific area of tissue
Larval forms Encyst
in tissues, free in
body cavities
Dam etal. (2014),
Moravec and Jirků
(2015)
Oxyuroidea Distichodus
Synodontis
Citherinus
Oreochromis
Barbus
Ichthyouris,
Spinoxyuris,
Oxyuris,
Enterobius
Severe inflammatory
reactions are trig-
gered when worms
are confined within
the abdomen or
ensnared in tissues
Intestine and Stomach Khalil and Helminthol-
ogy (1971), Moravec
and Thatcher (2001),
Moravec and Van As
(2015)
Camallanidae Marine fishes, sea
snake, Clarias,
Synodontis and other
Cat fishes
Procamallanus,Spiro-
cammallanus Paraca-
mallanus, Camal-
lanus, Cucullanus
The presence of worms
confined within the
abdomen or ensnared
in tissues elicits
strong inflammatory
reactions
Intestine and stomach Boomker (1982),
Gambhir (2018),
Justine (2019)
Anisakidae Synodontis Clarias
Heterobranchus Amplicaecum
Contracaecum,Poro-
caecum
Inflammation and
fibrosis encapsulation
in localized tissue
Free in body cavities,
Larval forms Encyst
in tissues
Al-hoshani etal. (2020)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
Cestode
Tapeworms are prevalent in the significant water sys-
tems across Africa and are notably inclined towards host
specificity, as emphasized in the FAO's report from 1996.
There are two primary forms of tapeworms: the mono-
zoic forms, particularly the Caryophyllaeidae, and the
segmented forms represented by the Pseudophyllideans
and Proteocephalideans as noted in Iyaji and Eyo (2008);
Khalil's research in (1971) and Van As and Basson (1984).
It is worth noting that siluriform fish, commonly known
as catfish, serve as the most frequent hosts for both seg-
mented and monozoic cestodes, as detailed in Table5 in
FAO's 1996 report. Most cestodes are typically found in
the digestive tracts of their host fish. However, there are
exceptions, such as amphilinid Nesolecithus africanus,
which inhabits the coelomic cavity of its fish host, specifi-
cally the mormyrid Gymnachu sniloticus, as documented
by Dönges and Harder 1966. Another exception is Poly-
onchobothrium clarias, which resides in the gall bladder
of Clarias mossambicus, as reported by Wabuke-Bunoti
(1980). The Asian tapeworm, Bothriocephalus achei-
lognothii, is known to affect fish from various families,
including Centrachidae, Poecillidae, Cyprinida and Cich-
lidaeas indicated in Table5 of FAO's 1996 report. Infec-
tions caused by this tapeworm are widespread, occurring
in both farmed fish and various wild fish populations in
Europe and Asia, as mentioned in the research by Iyaji
and Eyo (2008) and Bauer and Hoffman (1976). Infec-
tious diseases that naturally occur in fish in aquatic envi-
ronments in Africa are relatively uncommon to observe
noticeable damage to the host fish, as mentioned in FAO's
1996 report. However, these infections can pose a poten-
tial risk to native fish species, especially when non-native
species like Heterotis niloticus and Clarias spp. are intro-
duced into farming environments. Hanzelová etal. (2005)
emphasized that adult cestodes typically inflict minimal or
no apparent harm to their host fish. Nevertheless, chronic
infections with Eubothrium have been shown to signifi-
cantly reduce the overall fitness of farmed fish.
Cysticercoids and pleurocercoids, which are larval ces-
todes, are recognized as some of the most harmful parasites
that impact fishes of freshwater. Cyclophyllidean cysticer-
coids are prevalent in African fish populations, as detailed
in Table5 and reported by Barson and Avenant-Oldewage
2006 and (Van As and Basson 1984). Ligula infections
are particularly common in Cyprinid spp. and Barbus spp.
within Lake Victoria, and they are rarely found in Cichlid
spp. in Israel. On the other hand, Cyclophyllidean cysticer-
coids are abundant and frequently found in the mesenteries
of Abramtsbrama, siluriforms, including Bagrus spp. and
Clarias, according to FAO's 1996 report. It is worth noting
that Ligula pleurocercoids from African fish are commonly
referred to as L. intestinalis, as indicated in Table5 and
reported by Prudhoe and Hussey 1977; Karanis and Tara-
schewski 2006; Barson and Avenant-Oldewage 2006. Pis-
civorous birds, such as gulls and cormorants, serve as the
definitive hosts for these larval tapeworms.
Acanthocephalan
Acanthocephalans exert their pathogenic effects through two
primary mechanisms: in the digestive system, the adult para-
site is attached and the larval stages are encapsulated within
the tissues of the fish. The extent of damage is directly
related to the depth of penetration of the acanthocephalan's
proboscis, as noted in FAO's 1996 report and Oniye etal.
2004). The damage can become severe when the worms' pro-
boscis anchors itself in the muscle layer or fully perforates
the intestinal wall. This can lead to extensive granuloma
formation and subsequent fibrosis, as documented by Iyaji
and Eyo (2008), Mcdonough (1979) and Pike (1985). The
severity of these effects may vary among different host fish,
as observed by Karanis and Taraschewski (2006). Douellou,
observations in (Douellou 1991) found that a single attached
specimen of Acanthogyrus tilapia in juvenile cichlids, par-
ticularly those less than 60mm in size, could obstruct the
Table 5 Effects of Cestode parasites on fresh water fish host
Group Cestode Infected fish Cestodereported Symptoms Infectious site References
Caryophallaeidae
(Unsegmented)
Abramtsbrama chub,
Leuciscus cephaltis
roach, Rutilus rutilus,
and Siluriform fishes
Caryophylleus
Khawia
Ligula
Nodules in the gall
bladder, Obstruction
of intestines
Digestive tract of hosts Khalil and Hel-
minthology (1971),
As and Basson
(1984), Karanis and
Taraschewski (2006)
Pseudophyllidae (seg-
mented)
Alestes, Tilapia,
Mormyrids, Barbus,
Siluriform fishes
Proteocephalus
Bothriocephallus
Nesolecithus
Inflammation of tissue
and atrophy around
site of bothria pen-
etration
Coelomatic cavity and
digestive tract of
hosts
Iyaji and Eyo (2008),
Van As and Basson
(1984)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
digestive tube in farmed fish without apparent clinical impli-
cations. It is important to note that there is limited informa-
tion available regarding fish infections caused by acantho-
cephalans, as indicated in Table6.
Zoonotic diseases ofsh
Zoonosis, also known as a zoonotic disease or zoonoses in
plural, refers to an infectious disease that can be transmitted
from animals to humans (Han etal. 2016). Various agents
such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites can cause these
diseases, and transmission can occur through different path-
ways, including entry through injured or irritated skin, vec-
tors like insects, animal bites, ingestion, and direct contact
between animals and humans such as inhaling respiratory
particles or contact with skin/mucous membranes (Gauthier
2014; Rahman etal. 2020).
Pathogens typically present in animals can infect humans
either directly or through a vector, as noted by Wolfe etal.
(2007). In the context of aquatic environments, it is gen-
erally believed that there are relatively few zoonotic dis-
eases of significant concern, as highlighted by Shamsi
(2019). Although the number of reported cases for these
diseases may be relatively low as compared to more common
zoonotic diseases like campylobacteriosis or salmonellosis
which could be an underestimate due to limited awareness,
surveillance and inadequate monitoring. Nevertheless, for
those cases that are diagnosed, the consequences can be
severe, potentially leading to fatalities, as indicated by Zor-
riehzahra and Talebi (2021).
In a similar investigation, it was verified that approxi-
mately 260,000 individuals in the United States fall ill each
year due to consumption of contaminated fish. Fish meat
consistently emerges as the most frequently implicated
food category in these outbreaks. The Center for Disease
Control and Prevention's Foodborne Disease Outbreak Sur-
veillance System (FDOSS) plays a role in gathering data
related to foodborne disease outbreaks. Additionally, there
were approximately 857 reported outbreaks associated with
fish, resulting in 4,815 cases of illness, 359 hospitalizations,
and fatalities, as reported by Barrett etal. (2017). These
incidents of harmful zoonotic outbreaks linked to fish, docu-
mented over the years (as shown in Table7), underscore
the significance of monitoring zoonotic diseases originating
from fish.
Over the past few years, the increase in the world’s popu-
lation and the escalating desire for seafood has generated an
elevated demand for seafood. Seafood plays a pivotal role as
a protein source for individuals, contributing to the sustain-
able growth of the global fisheries and aquaculture indus-
try. Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge that this
expansion carries inherent risks, as elaborated by Shamsi
Table 6 Impact of Acanthocephalan parasites on fresh water fish host
Group Acanthocephala Infected fish Acanthocephalareported Symptoms Infectious site References
Acanthocephala Red snapper (Lutjanus
argentimaculatus) Heterotis
niloticus, Tilapia,
Citherinus, Synodontis
Acanthocephalus Paragorgo-
rhynchusTermisentic
Neoechinorhynchus
Peritonitis, Fibrosis and
Granuloma, inflammation,
perforation and obstruction of
the digestive tube
Anchor themselves to the host's
intestinal walls using their
proboscis
Paperna (1963), Khalil (1971),
Oniye etal. (2004)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
(2019) and similarly emphasized by Tran etal. (2019) in
the same year. Apart from the risks associated with food
borne illnesses linked to seafood consumption, there is also
the potential transmission of aquatic pathogens to humans.
Several significant factors concerning fish and their aquatic
habitats have shown the capacity for disease transmission to
humans, as outlined in the 2016 Environmental Health and
Safety (EHS)/Occupational Health report and discussed by
Raissy (2017). The immune system's role is vital in deter-
mining the seriousness of aquatic zoonotic diseases. None-
theless, there are principally two primary routes through
which humans can acquire these illnesses. The first method
involves the consumption of raw or undercooked fish and the
ingestion of water or materials contaminated with the feces
or mucus of infected fish. The second pathway pertains to
direct contact with the infectious agent via open wounds,
scratches on skin, or abrasions. As per Raissy (2017) study,
46% of zoonotic diseases stemming from fish are contracted
through oral consumption, while 15% involve multiple trans-
mission routes. More precisely, 24% of cases result from
ingesting water containing infected organisms, and 19% are
due to skin contact during fish handling.
Even though human exposure to fish pathogens is infre-
quent, it must be considered a substantial risk to human
health, as highlighted by Aggarwal and Ramachandran
(2020). Furthermore, The emergence of infectious diseases
in humans has been linked to zoonotic diseases, as noted by,
Jones etal. (2008). The rise of zoonotic agents presents a
significant global health threat and leads to widespread dam-
age on a global level, as emphasized by the World Health
Organization (WHO) in 2021. The COVID-19 pandemic
has emphasized the necessity of comprehending the role of
human-animal interactions in the transmission of zoonotic
diseases, especially in livestock species and wildlife, which
can serve as potential hosts and reservoirs for viruses.Hence,
it is imperative to pinpoint the precise factors and mecha-
nisms that lead to the emergence of diseases to adequately
tackle emerging infectious diseases. Given in the context of
globalization, habitat degradation, climate shifts, and the
intricate interrelationships among wildlife and livestock sys-
tems, there is an elevated risk for the propagation of zoonotic
diseases, as detailed by Meurens etal. (2021).
The transfer of fish pathogens to humans encompasses
a range of factors, encompassing the type of microorgan-
isms (such as fungi, viruses, bacteria and parasites,), an
individual's health condition (including the existence of
open wounds, susceptibility to infections, and compromised
immunity), and environmental factors (such as contaminated
water). These aspects were explored in the study by Haenen
etal. (2013). Among the pathogens linked to fish, the most
noteworthy infectious agents encompass parasites, viruses
and bacteria as emphasized in research by Shamsi (2019)
and Meurens etal. (2021). Furthermore, protozoan organ-
isms such as Cryptosporidium spp. pose a zoonotic risk to
humans and have been detected in diverse fish types, includ-
ing freshwater, cultured, marine, and ornamental species
across the world, as reported by Golomazou etal. (2021).
Figure10 provides an illustration depicting the various cat-
egories of pathogens that can be transmitted from fish to
humans.
Helminths are the primary cause of many human parasite
foodborne zoonoses. In this overview, freshwater, brackish,
and marine fish-transmitted helminth zoonoses are of par-
ticular concern. Before the expansion of global trade, the
development of transportation infrastructure, and changes
in demographics, the bulk of populations afflicted by these
diseases mainly lived primarily in middle and low-income
countries. Now, however, geographic scope and the number
of vulnerable people is growing. More than 18 million peo-
ple have already contracted fish-borne trematodes, according
Table 7 List of some important fish born zoonotic outbreak in recent years
Name of outbreak Host Pathogen References
Outbreak of severe infections caused by
Streptococcus agalactiae sequence type 283
in Singapore, linked to the consumption of
raw freshwater fish
Snakehead fish (Channa spp.) and Asian
bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys
nobilis)
Streptococcus agalactiae Kalimuddin etal. (2017)
Two outbreaks of listeriosis resulting from
the consumption of smoked fish
Smoked fish Listeria monocytogenes Lassen etal. (2016)
Significant outbreak of Salmonella Thompson
linked to smoked salmon in the Netherlands
Smoked salmon Salmonella enteric Friesema etal. (2014)
Two instances of botulism outbreaks fol-
lowing fish consumption in Germany and
Norway
Rak fish Clostridium botulinum Eriksen etal. (2004)
A fishing village in Sinaloa, Mexico saw an
unexpected outbreak of gnathostomiasis
Spotted sleeper perch (Eleotrispicta) Gnathostoma binucleatum Camacho etal. (2003)
Tularemia outbreak linked to the activity of
crayfish fishing
Crayfish Francisella tularensis Anda etal. (2001)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
to the WHO (1995), but more than half a billion people
throughout the world, including those in wealthy countries,
are in danger. The importance of these zoonoses for public
health, their association with poverty and cultural practices,
agriculture development, degradation of the environment,
and the lack of management mechanisms are all becoming
more widely known (WHO, 1995). This is largely due to the
competitive nature of the processes used to implement ini-
tiatives in national public health systems, as well as the fact
that the case for giving fish-borne parasitic zoonoses more
attention and funding is frequently undermined by the severe
lack of accurate information on their effects on human health
and the economy. This review arose from a desire to increase
public awareness about the problems of these zoonoses and,
hopefully, motivate additional efforts to collect reliable esti-
mates of their global impact and build a stronger scientific
basis for developing prevention and control strategies.
Compared to other parasitic diseases that have been
extensively studied, fish-borne zoonoses have received far
less funding for research, largely because it has not been
sufficiently acknowledged that the majority of them are com-
plexes of parasite species whose transmission is frequently
dependent on well-established human behaviour. Due to the
similarity of human infection routes, these zoonoses may
together have a far greater overall impact than some other
less well-known parasitic diseases in various areas. Due to
the difficulties of diagnosis, the complexity of human cul-
tural patterns, and the lack of understanding of potential
economic consequences, this topic is difficult, scientifically
ambiguous, and so somewhat unwanted to researchers,
especially in wealthy nations. But researchers' ingenuity and
expertise will be put to the test because it is challenging to
develop a preventative and control approach that takes into
account deeply rooted cultural and agricultural traditions.
The inspiration needed to organize a more focused multi-
national effort may come from this intellectual challenge.
A wide range of potential fish born zoonoses could be
covered in this review. Fewer individuals in affluent nations
are aware of parasitic zoonoses that are transmitted by fish,
such as opisthorchiasis, intestinal trematodiasis, anisa-
kiasis, or diphyllobothriasis, compared to diseases that are
spread through meat, such as trichinellosis and cysticercosis
(Table8). Yet, these zoonoses are the cause of a sizable
portion of human infections. Yet, we attempt to point out
numerous more that do appear in various locations. We have
discussed and focused on those that are now regarded as the
most serious (WHO, 1995).
Trematodiasis
Opisthorchiidae, Heterophyidae, Nanophyetidae, and Echi-
nostomatidae are the four families in which fish-borne
zoonotic trematodes (FZT) are found (Hung etal. 2013).
According to their life cycle, fish is the second intermediate
host. In vertebrates, such as humans, FZTs are primarily
found in the liver or intestine (Chai etal. 2005). Depending
on the trematode species involved, humans, fish-eating birds
and animals may serve as the final hosts (Sorvillo 2008).
Fig. 10 A comprehensive cat-
egorization of zoonotic agents
found in fish, encompassing
bacteria, parasites, viruses, and
fungi
Human eat
undercooked fish
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
A person can contract FZT if they consume raw, under-
cooked, or occasionally brackish water fish that has active
metacercaria (Keiser and Utzinger 2009a, b). Metacercariae
are released from the fish tissue during digestion and enter
the small intestine where they excyst, go to the appropri-
ate host internal organs, and eventually develop into trema-
todes. In conjunction with their host's feces, fertilised eggs
are released into the environment, where they may wind up
in bodies of water like ponds, lakes, streams, or rivers. A
free-living miracidium is discharged into the water, eggs
containing a miracidium hatch from their eggs (Echinos-
tomatidae), or eggs containing a miracidium are eaten by
the right snail, where they hatch (for example, species of
Opisthorchiidae, Heterophyidae). The miracidium must find
and infect a snail within a short period. The miracidium
is released in snails' digestive tracts when they eat eggs,
piercing the rectal wall where it develops into a sporocyst
that produces rediae asexually. The rediae then move on to
the digestive gland-gonad complex of the host snail, where
they continue to produce cercariae through asexual repro-
duction for the whole life-span of the snail. The cercariae,
which emerge from the snail, will hunt down a freshwater
fish, puncture its skin, and mature into metacercariae in the
fish's skin or muscle (Keiser and Utzinger 2009a; Toledo and
Esteban 2015) (Fig.11).
Intestinal trematodes are thought to affect 40–50 million
people worldwide, while the exact number of those at risk
is unknown (Fried etal. 2004). In India, where trematode
infections are common, Gastrodiscus hominis, Metagonimus
yokogawai, and Fasciola buski, are the primary species of
human pathogenic relevance (Keiser and Utzinger 2009b).
Fürst etal. (2012) estimated the global burden of FBT to
be 665,352 (range between 479,496 and 859,051) disability
adjusted life years, with 56.2 million persons infected with
trematodiases and 7,000 mortality cases in 2005. (Disability-
adjusted life years (DALYs).
There are more than 1.3 billion people living in India, and
a sizeable part of them are extremely poor. This makes the
population susceptible to several common ailments as well
as a variety of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), which are
particularly prevalent in such populations. There are already
at least 11 NTDs present in the nation, according to worry-
ing estimates from recent research by Hotez and Damania
2018. Nevertheless, there are still no statistics or estimates
of the number of FBT patients in the nation, which shows
how neglected these NTDs are. Tandon etal. 2015 have
Table 8 Fish-borne zoonotic disease in India
Class Species Reported Organs Effected Symptoms References
Trematode Procerovum varium South India Eye Ocular granulomatous
inflammation
Arya etal. (2016)
Trematode Heterophyes heterophyes Assam Intestine Abdominal pain, Diar-
rhea
Mahanta etal. (1995)
Trematode Metagonimus yokogwai New Delhi Intestine Abdominal pain, Ano-
rexia, dyspepsia, Nau-
sea, vomiting, diarrhea
with mucus rich feces
and weakness,
Uppal and Wadhwa
(2005)
Cestode Diphyllobothriasis spp. Pondicherry Intestine Discharge of light
colored segment in
stool, Abdominal Pain
Kanungo etal. (2007)
Cestode Diphyllobothriasis spp. Dharwad, south India Intestine Vague Abdominal Pain Mr etal. (2017)
Cestode Diphyllobothriasis spp. Hyderabad Intestine Undigested food particle
in vomiting, Abdomi-
nal pain
Ramana etal. (2011)
Cestode Diphyllobothrium latum
(Fish tapeworm)
India Intestine Vomiting, Loose stools,
Continuous fever,
Abdominal Pain
Kumar Sahoo and Devi
(2013)
Nematode Gnathostoma spp. Kerala Intraocular Gnathosto-
miasis
Right eye Pillai etal. 2012)
Nematode Gnathostoma spp. Odisha Loss of vision in left eye Left eye Mohanty (2020)
Nematod e Gnathostoma spp. Madhya Pradesh, Indore Pain and redness of
the right eye, Loss of
vision
Right eye Rawat etal. (2016)
Nematode Gnathostoma spp. India Abdominal Pain, altered
behavior, Creeping
sensation, Parathesis
Central Nervous System Kulkarni etal. (2015)
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
published a thorough analysis of the common foodborne
trematodes with zoonotic potential in India.
According to a WHO fact sheet that was revised in Sep-
tember 2013, it is estimated that at least 56 million people
worldwide have experienced one or more FBTs. Children in
South India have recently been the first humans to contact
Procerovum varium by mistake. Children in South India who
swam in ponds or rivers experienced eye irritation that was
linked to the trematode (Arya etal. 2016). The two het-
erophyid species that are most frequently seen in humans
and have the most medical significance are Heterophyes
heterophyes and Metagonimus yokogawai, which cause
metagonimiais and heterophyiasis respectively. Only two
occurrences of heterophyid infection in humans have been
reported in India so far; the first involved two cases of infec-
tion in a Muslim family in Assam, and the other involved
Metagonimus yokogawai in a 6-year-old girl in New Delhi
(Mahanta etal. 1995; Uppal and Wadhwa 2005). Moreo-
ver, the virus has sporadically been linked to canid and felid
hosts across the nation. Abdominal pain and diarrhoea are
the two main clinical and pathological symptoms of hetero-
phyid infections.
Three Opisthorchid spp. Opisthorchis felineus. Opisthor-
chis viverrini and Clonorchis sinensis, are mostly to blame
for human infection. The biliary tract is mechanically
obstructed by the liver flukes Clonorchis and Opisthorchis,
and the bile duct becomes congested. It is now widely
acknowledged that these liver flukes are related to cholan-
gio carcinoma (Choi etal. 2004; Sithithaworn etal. 2014).
Humans and piscivorous birds have Clinostomum compla-
natum, popularly known as "yellow grub," in their pharynx.
When young adult worms attach to the pharyngeal mucosa,
the parasite causes the condition "halzoun" in humans,
which is marked by severe discomfort, edema and bleeding
that can impair breathing. Although Clinostomum meta-
cercariae has been regularly observed in freshwater fish in
numerous regions of India, human clinostomiasis, which has
been documented in countries in eastern Europe, Southeast
Asia and America, has not yet been reported from India
(Shareef and Abidi 2012; Sharma etal. 2011).
Diphyllobothriasis
It is the most common cestode (tapeworm)-caused fish-borne
zoonosis. The majority of known cestode human infections
are caused by species of the genera Ligula intestinalis and
Diphyllobothrium (Family: Diphyllobothriidae, Order: Pseu-
dophyllidae) (Scholz and Kuchta 2016). In areas where raw
or marinated fish is often consumed, zoonosis is a preva-
lent occurrence (Scholz and Kuchta 2016). Fish from both
freshwater and saltwater, especially anadromous spp. act as
Metacercaria
develop into
trematode
Eggs are released into
environment along with host
feces
Egg are eaten by
snail
Egg develop into
miracidium and infect
it
Miracidium develop
into sporocyst and
produce rediae
asexually
Rediae develop into
cercaria
Cercaria discharge
from snail and seek the
fish skin, muscles and
develop into
metacercaria
Human eat fish and
become infected
Fig. 11 Pathway of transmission of trematodiasis in humans
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
intermediary hosts. It appears to be becoming more common
and widespread in some areas, most probably because of
social and economic changes (Dupouy-Camet and Peduzzi
2004). While Ligula intestinalis infestations in fish are rather
prevalent, the most frequently reported species in humans is
Diphyllobothrium latum. According to recent findings, the
Asian tapeworm Bothriocephalus archeilognathi (also seen
in human stool samples) was detected in fish guts and may
pose a zoonotic hazard because it exhibits symptoms similar
to diphyllobothriasis (Yera etal. 2013).
Due to a dearth of reports and studies, diphyllobothriasis
and ligulosis are regarded as mild disorders, making it dif-
ficult to assess their global spread. Though the Scandinavian
countries were once thought to be the "hot-spot" for these
illnesses (Yera etal. 2013) new reports suggested that it
has now spread throughout the entire world (Dupouy-Camet
and Peduzzi 2004), accounting for about 20 million cases
globally. The most dangerous, Diphyllobothrium latum (fish
tapeworm), infects both children and adults globally. While
other species are believed to have descended from marine
fish, freshwater fish are thought to be the epidemiologi-
cal reservoir of Diphyllobothrium latum. Acute abdominal
discomfort, diarrhoea, constipation, intestinal blockage,
subacute appendicitis, cholecystitis, and cholangitis are gas-
trointestinal signs of diphyllobothriasis (Yera etal. 2013).
Megaloblastic anaemia, eosinophilia, pancytopenia, perni-
cious anaemia and vitamin B12 deficiency are a few exam-
ples of haematological symptoms. While severe infestations
can impact the neurological system, skin and eyes causing
symptoms including, optic neuritis, paresthesia, dyspnea and
other allergens (Yera etal. 2013).
The first case of these diseases in human was reported in
India in a 38-year-old housewife from Vellore in south India
who had never travelled outside and had been experiencing
stomach pain and loss of appetite. She described intermit-
tently passing flatworms in her stools for the last 12years.
In the vicinity of Sathanur Dam, where fish farming had
been pioneered, she had grown up eating freshly caught
fish roasted over live coals (Pancharatnam etal. 1998). A
5year-old boy from a fishing hamlet in Pondicherry had
been diagnosed with the rare disease diphyllobothriasis
(Kanungo etal. 2007).
A nine-year-old south Indian girl visitedthe Medical
Sciences Institute in Prathima after complaining of loose
faeces and vomiting that began three days before (Ramana
etal. 2011). Undigested food particles were present in the
vomit, but it did not smell bad, and it did not contain blood
or mucous. The patient talked about having frequent stom-
ach pain in the past. She claimed to be a non-vegetarian
and to have eaten fish in the past (Ramana etal. 2011). A
middle-aged woman with two months of vague abdominal
pain, spontaneous transit of proglottids in stool, intermit-
tent diarrhea, and megaloblastic anaemia was found to have
a rare case of Diphyllobothrium latum from South India,
according to Ashrafulla etal. (2021).
Nematodiasis
Globally, human nematode-related ailments are being
reported, but few of them are prospective new diseases
(Eiras etal. 2018; Herman and Chiodini 2009). When squid
or fish are consumed raw or incorrectly prepared, human
infections can happen. Diseases can also be fatal, especially
for those who are already infected. In general, little is known
about this ailment, and there is currently no data available
for South American nations. Both inland water and saltwa-
ter fish in South America contain nematode zoonotic spe-
cies. A few countries have reported cases of human infec-
tion, and the frequency of these infections varies by nation.
These infections are widespread in areas with heavy seafood
consumption, and they are particularly prevalent in South
America (Eiras etal. 2018).
The popular table fish Chrysophrys auratus was found
to have zoonotic nematodes from the Anisakidae family in
samples taken from New Zealand and Australian waters.
If eaten raw as sashimi the anisakis pegreffii found in the
Chrysophrys auratus will pose a serious threat to people
(Hossen etal. 2021). Moreover, zoonotic nematodes of sig-
nificance (Hysterothylacium spp. and Contracaecum spp.
Anisakis spp.) were found in the Australian edible fish sam-
ples (Suthar and Shamsi 2021). Young patient from India,
(Kulkarni etal. 2015) reported the first incidence of neurog-
nathostomaisis. A three and halfyear-old child was seen for
behavioural problems, parasthesis, fever, and flaccid quad-
riparesis. Haemorrhagic radiculomyelitis with cerebrospinal
fluid eosinophilia was seen on neuroimaging.
The third stage larvae of the spiruroid nematode are
responsible for the unusual parasitic infection known as
intraocular gnathostomiasis. Mostly found in tropical and
subtropical climates are Gnathostoma spp. It is a zoonosis
that is spread through the consumption of reptiles, birds,
mammals, amphibians and freshwater fish that are either raw
or undercooked and are known to have advanced third stage
larvae of Gnathostoma spp. (Pillai etal. 2012).
In the southern state of Kerala, where eating brackish
water fish is regarded as a delicacy, Pillai etal. (2012)
reported the first instance of intraocular gnathostomiasis.
Another intraocular parasite, Dirofilaria spp., is native
to Kerala, and practically all instances of Dirofilariasis
were subconjunctival. Furthermore, from this study are
two instances of diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis
(DUSN) that were successfully treated with laser photocoag-
ulation. Similarly, Rawat etal. (2016) reported the first case
of ocular gnathostomiasis in Central India in a 29-year-old
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
male from Indore, Madhya Pradesh, presented with pain and
redness of the right eye for one month.
A rare instance of intraocular gnathostomiasis from east-
ern India is reported by Mohanty, (2020). With no pain,
lid edoema, or periorbital swelling, a 32-year-old man from
Cuttack, Odisha, reportedwith impaired vision in his left
eye of counting fingers (CF) at 2m. The anterior segment
was healthy. A live motile worm was discovered via indirect
ophthalmoscopy in the posterior vitreous cavity close to the
macula. In India, the e north easter states (Moravec etal.
2012) and have reported the majority of cases, followed by
the northeastern (Barua etal. 2007), the southern (Biswas
etal. 1994) and western and coastal states with two cases
each (Sujata and Renu 2013).
Zoonotic diseases ofsh parasites inJammu
andKashmir
There hasn't been specific reporting on cases of zoonotic
fish parasites in Jammu and Kashmir readily available in the
public domain. However, it is important to note that zoonotic
fish parasites are a concern in regions with significant fish
consumption and where proper food safety and hygiene
practices may not always be followed. Given the ecologi-
cal diversity and the importance of fisheries in Jammu and
Kashmir, it is plausible that cases of zoonotic fish parasites
may occur sporadically. These cases might go unreported
or misdiagnosed due to factors such as lack of awareness,
limited healthcare access in remote areas, and challenges in
surveillance and reporting systems. To obtain accurate and
up-to-date information on cases of zoonotic fish parasites
in Jammu and Kashmir, it would be advisable to consult
local health authorities, research institutions, or academic
publications focusing on public health or fisheries in the
region. These sources may provide insights into any reported
cases, prevalence rates, and associated risk factors related to
zoonotic fish parasites in Jammu and Kashmir.
Control ofsh parasite inaquaculture
Aquaculture has experienced rapid growth as a means of
global food production, as noted by the FAO in 2012. How-
ever, the occurrence of infections in aquaculture represents a
significant challenge that hampers food production, as high-
lighted by Lafferty etal. (2015). Infectious disease outbreaks
have resulted in substantial economic losses within freshwater,
brackish water, and marine aquaculture systems, as reported
by Murray and Peeler (2005). For example, the salmon farm-
ing industry, which has dominated 53% of the world market
according to the FAO in 2007, faces substantial financial bur-
dens due to infestations by the salmon louse (Lepeophtheirus
salmonis). This issue leads to a global annual cost exceeding
$400 million, as indicated by Costello (2009).
The proliferation of parasites within aquaculture sys-
tems prompted the development of various chemical treat-
ments, as outlined by Reverter etal. (2014). Over the years,
fish farmers have traditionally employed methods such as
anti parasitic and chemotherapeutics to prevent or manage
parasitic infections in aquaculture, a practice documented
by Ottesen etal. (2010). Conventional parasiticides have
indeed been widely used for controlling helminths, as seen
with praziquantel (Schmahl and mehlhorn 1985), meben-
dazole (Buchmann etal. 1993) and trichlorphon (Rahuman
2011). However, previous research has uncovered potential
drawbacks of chemical pesticides, including their tendency
to accumulate in fish tissues, as observed by Bulfon etal.
(2015), and their adverse effects on the native microflora
of the fish, as documented by Lazado and Caipang (2015).
The presence of accumulated anti-parasitic and chemical
residues in water bodies has notable environmental repercus-
sions, as underscored by Boyd and McNevin (2015). This
issue is particularly pronounced in open-water aquaculture
settings, where the regulation of drug dispersion is chal-
lenging, as discussed by Ottesen etal. (2010). These chemi-
cal remnants can exert either lethal or sub-lethal effects on
unintended organisms within the environment, as illustrated
in Fig.10 and acknowledged by Pillay (2004). For instance,
when pesticides like Neguvon and Nuvon were utilized to
combat L. salmonis in salmon net-pen farms in Norway,
adverse consequences were observed among various crus-
taceans inhabiting the vicinity of these farms, as reported by
Egidius and Møster (1987)
The utilization of plant-derived compounds has primarily
focused on protozoans, with particular emphasis on monoge-
neans, as emphasized by Valladão etal. (2015). Monogene-
ans, such as Dactylogyrus spp. and the salmon fluke Gyro-
dactylus salaries, as well as protozoans like Ichthyophthirius
multifiliis and Trichodina spp., are prevalent ectoparasites
that inhabit the gills of both freshwater and marine fish, as
noted by Rohde (2005). More recently, a limited number
of studies have harnessed these plant-derived compounds
to manage myxozoan species such as Myxobolus spp. and
Enteromyxum spp., as documented by Athanassopoulou
etal. (2004). For instance, the essential oil derived from
Origanum has demonstrated varying degrees of protective
and therapeutic effects in fish afflicted with myxosporean
parasites, as reported by Athanassopoulou etal. (2004).
Chemotherapeutic agents
In aquaculture, the treatment of fish parasites typically
involves the administration of chemotherapeutic agents to
manage and prevent diseases. To date, a substantial body of
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
research has provided insights into the invivo and invitro
anthelmintic efficacy of drugs from various pharmaceutical
categories. Among the compounds frequently employed in
veterinary medicine for combating cestodes, praziquantel
stands out, as noted by Benavides-González etal. (2014);
Forwood etal. (2016). Veterinarians have the option to uti-
lize praziquantel, which is approved for various vertebrate
species by the regulations outlined in the Animal Medicinal
Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA). Nevertheless, any
additional usage beyond the approved labels should be sub-
stantiated by scientific data, including studies on effective-
ness and the presence of residues in the final products, as
emphasized by Bader etal. (2019).
The application of mebendazole has demonstrated favora-
ble outcomes in terms of controlling invasive diseases and
eliciting a positive physiological response in fish. A parasi-
tological analysis conducted within 7 to 14days after admin-
istering mebendazole at a dosage of 1.0g of the active sub-
stance per 1kg of dry diet for a duration of 14days revealed
an impressive effectiveness rate of 89.2%, as reported by
Alves etal. (2019)..
In vitro testing revealed that albendazole, at concentra-
tions of 2000, 1500, 1000 and 500mg/l, along with ivermec-
tin at 350, 300, 250 and 200mg/l, and levamizole at 125,
100, 75 and 50mg/l, exhibited 100% effectiveness against
Mymarothecium boegeri, Notozothecium janauachensis, Lin-
guadactyloides brinkmanni and Anacanthorus spatulatus.
In contrast, mebendazole (at 200, 175, 150 and 125mg/l)
and praziquantel (at 20, 15, 10 and 5mg/l) were found to
be ineffective in these tests. Regarding therapeutic baths,
when fish were exposed to a concentration of 500mg/l of
albendazole, a 6.6% mortality rate was observed within 24h,
but the behavior of the fish remained unchanged. In the case
of 200mg/l of ivermectin, this concentration induced leth-
argy and signs of hypoxia which resulted in 100% mortal-
ity within 2h. A concentration of 125mg/l of levamizole
did not lead to any mortality. The efficacy of albendazole at
500mg/l was 48.6% in 24-h baths, while the efficacy of lev-
amizole at 125mg/l was notably high at 88.2%. It's impor-
tant to note that despite its invitro effectiveness, the lowest
concentration of ivermectin used in these baths proved to
be highly toxic to the fish, as documented by Morales-Serna
etal. (2019).
In a comparative investigation, the effectiveness of
praziquantel and a combination anthelmintic agent con-
taining praziquantel, ivermectin, pyrantel pamoate, and
fenbendazole against parasites from the Diclidophoridae
and Capsalidae families was assessed. A dosage of 2.5mg/l
of praziquantel demonstrated complete efficacy, resulting
in the eradication of all adult Trypanosoma ecuadori par-
asites within 20h, while a dosage of 3mg/l was respon-
sible for an 87% reduction in N. melleni after 12h. Con-
versely, the combination anthelmintic agent exhibited a
concentration-dependent impact. To achieve the complete
elimination of all parasites in the shortest time frame, a
concentration of 20mg/l of the drug was necessary, taking
12h for Trypanosoma ecuadori and 16h for N. melleni, as
reported by Kang etal. (2016). These findings suggest that
combination anthelmintics can expedite parasite eradication,
but further research is warranted to explore novel combina-
tions of active substances that are effective at lower concen-
trations while maintaining high therapeutic efficacy.
Utilizing plant‑based substances
forcombating parasites insh
Historically, plant-derived compounds have been exten-
sively used in traditional medicine to treat various illnesses,
a fact highlighted by Duke (1987). Researchers, such as
Harikrishnan etal. (2011), have studied numerous plants
to understand the impact of their compounds on strength-
ening immune responses and improving defenses against
pathogens in fish farming. Many research investigations have
presented substantial proof that essential oils, extracts, and
individual plant-derived substances can serve as beneficial
alternative remedies for addressing parasitic challenges in
aquaculture, whether administered orally or through immer-
sion. The study by Valladão etal. (2015) extensively dis-
cusses this. Additionally, these plant extracts are capable
of amplifying immune responses and elevating the disease
resistance of farmed fish, firmly establishing their role as
effective phytotherapeutic agents in the fight against infec-
tions in aquaculture, as emphasized in Bulfon etal. (2015).
Activity againstprotozoan parasites
Plant-derived compounds for the management of protozoans
have been the subject of recent experimentation and testing,
as observed in Valladão etal. (2015). Studies examining the
potential of essential oils to control protozoans that hinder
the growth of fingerlings remain relatively scarce. Moreira
etal. (2017) assessed the essential oil from Lippia alba
leaves at concentrations of 100 and 150mg/L, achieving
effectiveness rates of 40.7% and 50.3% against the proto-
zoan I. multifiliis, which parasitizes Colossoma macropo-
mum (tambaqui).
Promising outcomes from recent studies on medicinal
plants have been found to cure protozoal infections in aqua-
culture. Notably, methanol extracts of Magnolia officinalis
(at 2.45mg/L) and Sophora alopecuroides (pea flowered
tree) (at 3.43mg/L) exhibited the highest mortality rates
against I. multifiliis, a pathogenic ciliate that affects both
marine and freshwater fish farming. These extracts exhibited
impressive anti-protozoal efficacy against theronts, which
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
are the mobile forms released from infective stages (tomites)
as they seek out new hosts.
Additionally, extracts from Trichosanthes kirilowii (Chi-
nese cucumber), Ophiopogon bodinieri, Ecliptaprostrata
(false daisy) and Lycium chinense (Chinese matrimony
vine),) demonstrated significant antiprotozoal activity
against I. multifiliis in fish species like Carassius auratus,
resulting in mortality rates ranging from 80 to 100%, as
reported by Yi etal. (2012). Furthermore, extracts of Allium
sativum (garlic) and Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile)
were found to be effective in controlling I. multifiliis in Poe-
cilia latipinna (sailfin molly), according to the research by
Gholipour-Kanani etal. (2012). These findings suggest that
the utilization of essential oils and medicinal plant extracts
is both practical and significantly efficacious in the manage-
ment of these protozoans in the context of fish farming.
Activity againstmyxozoans
In recent times, a handful of studies have explored the use of
essential oils to combat myxosporean spp., including Entero-
myxum spp. and Myxobolus spp. as documented by Athanas-
sopoulou etal. (2004). For instance, essential oils obtained
from Origanum have shown differing degrees of defense
against myxosporean infections in sharp-snout sea bream
and gilthead within controlled onshore facilities, as docu-
mented in Athanassopoulou etal. (2004). Athanassopoulou
etal. (2004) and their team tested the essential oil of Origa-
num and observed a reduction in the prevalence of Myxo-
bolus spp., albeit with a notable increase in fish mortality in
Puntazzo puntazzo (sharp-snout sea bream). Nevertheless,
the same oil led to a decrease in the occurrence of the myxo-
zoan Polysporoplasma sparis in Sparus aurata (gilthead sea
bream) from 50% to under 4%. In another study by Cojocaru
(2007), there was a documented decrease in the prevalence
of Enteromyxum leei infestation in Schizothor axaurata by
approximately 40% to 20% after a month of bath and oral
treatments employing various essential oils. The essential oil
derived from Origanum minutiflorum, also known as spartan
oregano, was found to reduce the prevalence of Myxobolus
spp. in Puntazzo puntazzo, with a increase from 37 to 39%
observed in all oral treatments when compared to untreated
fish, as reported by Karagouni etal. 2005).
Furthermore, medicinal plant extracts have demonstrated
their effectiveness as anti-myxozoan agents. Methanol and
aqueous extracts from various species, including Calendula
officinalis (marigold), Betula alba (silver birch), Achil-
lea millefolium (milfoil), Crategus monogyna (hawthorn),
Cerasus sativa (sweet chestnuts) Hypericum perforatum (St.
John's Wort), Equissetum arvensis (horsetail), Mentha piper-
ita (peppermint), Matricaria chamomilla, Prunus spinosus
(blackthorn), Ocimum basilicum, Sambucus nigra (elder),
Rosa canina (dogrose), Tilia sp., Vaccinium myrtillus (bil-
berry), Viola tricolor (Johnny Jump up), and Thymus serpyl-
lum (wild thyme) were evaluated in both bath and oral treat-
ments over one month to combat Enteromyxum leei infection
in cultured gilthead sea bream, Schizothorax aurata. These
extracts significantly reduced the Enteromyxum leei infection
in Schizothorax aurata, lowering it from approximately 40%
to 20% compared to the control, as described in Cojocaru
(2007).
Additionally, these extracts were effective in decreasing
the spore levels in the water, suggesting that the extracts
might eliminate certain stages that are released into the
water during the parasite's life cycle.
Activity againsthelminth parasite
Essential oils have been effectively employed in combat-
ing helminths, with a particular focus on controlling and
preventing monogeneans. Research investigating essential
oils derived from various plant species has consistently
revealed their remarkable biological activity when tested
against a range of fish parasites, as highlighted in Valladão
etal. (2015).
For example, essential oils derived from M. piperita and
Lippiasidoides (pepper rosemary) have proven effective at
a concentration of 40mg/L in invivo experiments aimed at
monogenean species like Scutogyrus longicornis, Cichlido-
gyrus. thurstonae, Cichlidogyrus. halli, and Cichlidogyrus
tilapiae, In this context, a therapeutic bath was suggested
as an alternative treatment for monogeneans in Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) culture, owing to a substantial 70%
reduction in parasite prevalence, as reported by Hashimoto
etal. (2015). Furthermore, in the case of a therapeutic bath
using the essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum, also known
as clove basil, researchers reported an impressive against
parasite efficacy, with a percentage reduction in parasite
count reaching approximately 100% on the gills of juvenile
tambaquis (Colossoma macropomum) at concentrations of
10 and 15mg/L, as detailed by de Lima Boijink etal. (2016).
Moreira etal. (2017) also demonstrated anthelmintic
activity against monogenean spp, including Notozothecium
janauachensis, Mymarothecium boegeri, and Anacanthorus
spathulatus, by employing the essential oil of Lippia alba
on the gills of C. macropomum. This effect was observed
after just 20min of exposure to concentrations of 1280 and
2560mg/l. Likewise, Malheiros etal. (2016) found similar
results when using the essential oil of Mentha piperita (pep-
permint), which exhibited an anti-parasitic effect in invitro
assays against Dawestrema cycloancistrioides and Dawes-
trema cycloancistrium. However, in the subsequent invivo
test to assess toxicity, the results were less favorable, as the
oil caused alterations in the gill tissues of the fish. Therefore,
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
it becomes imperative to develop therapeutic strategies that
can enhance the efficacy of essential oil used as phytothera-
peutic agents while mitigating their potential toxicity, espe-
cially in the case of Arapaima gigas (pirarucu).
Moreover, recent reviews have highlighted the effective
anthelmintic properties of plant extracts across various fish
species, as discussed by Reverter etal. (2014). It is worth
noting that alcoholic or organic solvents have proven to
be more efficient in extracting bioactive compounds. For
instance, the ethanol extract obtained from the leaves of
Artemisia annua, commonly known as sweet wormwood,
exhibited significant efficacy. In just one hour of exposure, at
a concentration of 200mg/L, it managed to eliminate 85% of
the parasites without causing any mortality among juvenile
Heterobranchus longifilis, also known as vundu, as reported
by Ekanem and Brisibe (2010).The methanol and aqueous
extracts obtained from Semen aesculi, which is derived
from buckeye seeds (as observed by Liu etal. (2010), along
with methanol, chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts from
Radix Bupleuri chinensis (schisandra fruit) as studied by Wu
etal. (2011), and the methanol extracts of Kochia scoparia
(kochia), Polygala tenuifolia (yuan zhi) and Dryopteris cras-
sirhizoma (thick-stemmed wood fern), (as reported by Lu
etal. (2012), as well as the methanol extracts from Lindera
aggregata (evergreen lindera),Pseudolarix kaempferi and
Cinnamomum cassia (cinnamon), as indicated by Ji etal.
(2012), have demonstrated their efficiency in combating
monogeneans, to serve as a potent anti-parasitic agent in
the aquaculture industry, as described by Ji etal. (2012).
Fridman etal. (2014) utilized an aqueous extract of gar-
lic (Allium sativum) in an invivo assay, administering it
at a concentration of 30mL/L. This treatment led to the
separation and reduced mobility of two monogenean spe-
cies, Dactylogyrus spp. and Gyrodactylus turnbulli. In both
bath (at 7.5 and 12mL/L) and oral (at 10% and 20%) tests,
the extract demonstrated a significant reduction in parasites
when compared to the control group. Previous studies have
shown that the hexane extract of A. sativum displayed 75%
anthelmintic activity against Capillaria spp., a nematode
affecting Cyprinus carpio (common carp), as reported by
Peña etal. (1988). Furthermore, extracts of Dioscorea
zingiberensis (yellow ginger) and Ginkgo biloba (ginkgo)
exhibited potent and synergistic anti-parasitic effects when
used in combination against Dactylogyrus spp. in C. auratus
under invivo conditions, as highlighted by Ji etal. (2012).
Control ofsh parasites inJammu
andKashmir
A variety of parasites affect fish in aquaculture, some of
which are summarized in the Table9. For the successful
culture, prevention is the most important measure; good
Table 9 Some of the control measures taken in Jammu and Kashmir to eradicate fish parasites
Disease Type Agent Control measures Syndrome
Trematode parasite Trematode Diplostomum spathaceum No treatment available, Water supply kept clear of snails
which act as hosts
Eye lens become cloudy
Fluke Trematode Gyrodactylus spp. Formalin bath Parasites attached to caudal and anal fins; leaving lesions/
sores that are attacked by Saprolegnia, body and fins
erode
Hexamitaisis octomitis Protozoan Hexamita truttae Feed calomel to fishes with food Sinking to bottom of the tank where death occurs; Lethar-
gic, some fishes make sudden random movement
Costiasis Protozoan Costiane catrix Formalin bath Blue-grey slime on skin which contain parasites
Whirling disease (Myxosomiasis) Protozoan Myxosoma cerebralis No treatment; eradication of disease done by removal of
infected fishes; water treated with calcium cyanamide
Darkening of skin; deformities around gills and tail fin;
fish swimming in spinning fashion; eventually leads to
death
White spot Protozoan Ichthyophthirius multifilis Formalin bath for surface parasites; copper sulphate
treatment for parasities below surface; also prevented
by fast flowing water
Fish become lethargic; white patches on body; fish rub-
bing on sides of tank and attempt to reduce parasites
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
hatchery sanitation, good quality seed and feed disinfect-
ing equipment etc. reduce the exposure of vulnerable fish
to disease-causing agents. In some cases, antibiotics and
other pharmaceuticals have been used in treatment (Mir
2020a, 2020b).
Kashmir’s rst sh hospital: aninitiative
tocurb farm losses
In a study conducted by Hussain (2018) on fish farms
in Jammu and Kashmir, fishery experts from Sher-e-
Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Tech-
nology Kashmir (SKUAST-K) near Srinagar found a
common issue raised by farmers. They voiced worries
about the mysterious deaths of species like trout. The
experts delved into investigating the causes behind the
unexplained deaths. They quickly identified the culprit
when they discovered pathogens such as Trypanosoma
infiltrating the colder waters of Kashmir. Typically asso-
ciated with fish in tropical regions, this blood parasite had
found its way into Kashmir's aqua tic ecosystems.
As a consequence of the declining fish population,
SKUAST-K took an initiative by inaugurating a fish
hospital within the Aquatic Animal Health Management
Division (AAHMD) in Rangil, located in the Ganderbal
District of Central Kashmir, in May 2018. This marks the
second fish hospital of its kind in the country, modeled
after a similar facility established in Kolkata in 2015. Dr.
Feroz Shah, along with another researcher who special-
ized in fish diseases in 2018, conducted surveys across
three divisions of the state, screened numerous farms and
received numerous complaints from farmers about their
fish, particularly trout, succumbing to unknown causes.
Shah mentioned that they have detected the parasites
in the bloodstream of fish within Dal Lake too. "There
are concerns that with global warming, there is a risk
of deadly pathogens infiltrating our water bodies. If this
occurs, our fish may not be able to withstand these patho-
gens," he stated (Hussain 2018).
To address this and other issues, AAHMD has estab-
lished 20 glass tanks and aquariums designed to admin-
ister various treatments to sick fish. Some tanks are
designated for antibiotic, antiparasitic, and antiviral medi-
cations, while others serve as quarantine tanks to help
fish acclimate to the hospital environment. Additionally,
the hospital is equipped with an experimental fish farm,
a cell culture facility, an aqua clinic, and a pathology
laboratory. Nasir Ahmad, a 45year old fish farmer from
Bandipora District, expressed gratitude towards the hos-
pital for assisting them in minimizing losses.
Research gap
Research on fish parasites in the context of Jammu and
Kashmir is an area that offers significant potential for
exploration due to the region's diverse aquatic ecosystems
and the importance of fisheries for both sustenance and
livelihoods. Here are some research gap areas in the study
of fish parasites in Jammu and Kashmir:
Species diversity and distribution: While some stud-
ies have documented the presence of fish parasites in the
region, there is a need for comprehensive surveys to assess
the species diversity and distribution patterns of parasites
infecting fish populations in various water bodies across
Jammu and Kashmir. This includes both freshwater bod-
ies like rivers, lakes, and ponds, as well as brackish and
marine environments along the coastal area.
Host parasite interactions: Understanding the interac-
tions between fish hosts and their parasites is crucial for
elucidating the dynamics of parasitic infections. Research
could investigate factors influencing parasite prevalence,
intensity of infection, and host susceptibility, including
environmental factors, host physiology, and behavior.
Additionally, studying the impact of parasitic infections
on fish health, growth, and reproductive success can pro-
vide insights into the ecological implications of these
interactions.
Emerging parasitic disease: With changing environ-
mental conditions and anthropogenic activities, there
is a risk of emergence or spread of novel parasitic dis-
eases affecting fish populations in Jammu and Kashmir.
Research could focus on monitoring for the presence of
emerging parasites, identifying potential reservoir hosts
and vectors, and assessing the factors driving the trans-
mission dynamics of these diseases. Early detection and
understanding of emerging parasitic threats are essential
for implementing timely control measures and mitigating
their impact on fish populations and aquaculture activities.
Zoonotic Potential: Some fish parasites have zoonotic
potential, posing risks to human health through consump-
tion of infected fish or occupational exposure among fish-
ermen and fish handlers. Research could investigate the
prevalence of zoonotic fish parasites in Jammu and Kash-
mir, assess the associated health risks to human popula-
tions, and explore strategies for preventing and managing
these infections. This interdisciplinary approach involving
both veterinary and public health perspectives is essential
for safeguarding human health in areas where fish con-
sumption is prevalent.
Impact of climate change: Climate change can influence
the distribution and abundance of fish parasites by alter-
ing environmental conditions such as water temperature,
precipitation patterns, and habitat availability. Research
Journal of Parasitic Diseases
could examine the effects of climate change on the ecology
and epidemiology of fish parasites in Jammu and Kashmir,
including potential shifts in parasite distributions, changes
in host-parasite dynamics, and implications for fisheries
management and aquaculture practices. Understanding
these dynamics is crucial for adapting to the impacts of
climate change on aquatic ecosystems and mitigating asso-
ciated risks to fish health and productivity.
Addressing these research gaps can contribute to a better
understanding of the diversity, ecology, and dynamics of
fish parasites in Jammu and Kashmir, informing efforts to
conserve aquatic biodiversity, promote sustainable fisher-
ies management, and safeguard human and animal health
in the region.
Conclusion
This review reveals a complex interplay between environ-
mental factors, fish spp. and parasitic organisms. The study
sheds light on the diversity of parasites affecting fish popula-
tions in the region and underscores the importance of under-
standing these interactions for both ecological and public
health perspectives. The review identifies several common
parasites infecting fish in Jammu and Kashmir, including
protozoa such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Trichodina
spp., and Myxobolus spp., as well as metazoan parasites like
monogeneans, nematodes, and crustaceans. These parasites
can cause significant morbidity and mortality in fish popula-
tions, leading to economic losses for fishery industries and
potential threats to human health through the consumption
of infected fish.
Environmental factors, such as temperature, pH, and
water quality, play a crucial role in the prevalence and
transmission of parasitic infections in fish. Additionally, the
diversity of fish spp. and their ecological interactions con-
tribute to the variation in parasite communities observed
across different water bodies in the region. The review high-
lights the need for integrated approaches to manage parasitic
infections in fish, including improved aquaculture practices,
regular monitoring of water quality, and the development of
effective treatment and prevention strategies. Furthermore,
there is a call for increased collaboration between research-
ers, policymakers, and stakeholders to address the com-
plex challenges associated with parasitic infections in fish
and promote sustainable fisheries management in Jammu
and Kashmir. In conclusion, the review provides valuable
insights into the current understanding of parasitic infec-
tions in common fish species found in Jammu and Kashmir,
India. By elucidating the factors influencing parasite dynam-
ics and their implications for fish health and human well-
being, this research lays the groundwork for future stud-
ies aimed at mitigating the impact of parasitic diseases on
aquatic ecosystems and enhancing the resilience of fisheries
in the region.
Funding There was no specific funding for this work.
Declarations
Ethics approval Not applicable.
Consent to participate All the people that signed the paper have con-
sented their participation in the paper.
Consent for publication All the people that signed the paper have con-
sented its publication.
Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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