Transportation of Hydrogen: Hydrogen Usage

Abstract

For large-scale hydrogen use for alternative fuel problems, hydrogen transportation must be solved. Hydrogen can be transported as compressed gas, liquid, or bound in carriers. The chapter describes current transportation technologies—gaseous hydrogen via pipelines or special trucks, and liquid hydrogen in cryogenic tanks. The potential of using existing natural gas pipelines is analyzed; the need for modern pipeline material complex research is emphasized. Transportation in solid or liquid carriers, disadvantages and advantages of transportation methods, and problems and ways to solve them are analyzed. Hydrogen facilitates the conversion of low-grade crude oils into high-energy transport fuels by catalytic cracking and desulfurization. Ammonia production, essential for fertilizers and explosives, relies heavily on hydrogen synthesis from nitrogen and hydrogen. Methanol and dimethyl ether fuels offer alternatives to hydrogen storage and transportation, while liquid hydrocarbon fuels from coal and biomass utilize hydrogen in conversion processes like Fischer-Tropsch. Proton exchange membrane and alkaline fuel cells depend on hydrogen for electricity generation in transportation. Additionally, hydrogen serves as a reductant in metallurgy, with advancements in direct iron reduction and green steel initiatives driving sustainable practices in the steel industry. These applications underscore in modern processes and its potential for addressing energy and environmental challenges.

Full text


Chapter
Transportation of Hydrogen:
Hydrogen Usage
AkbarDauletbay
Abstract
For large-scale hydrogen use for alternative fuel problems, hydrogen transpor-
tation must be solved. Hydrogen can be transported as compressed gas, liquid,
or bound in carriers. The chapter describes current transportation technolo-
gies—gaseous hydrogen via pipelines or special trucks, and liquid hydrogen in
cryogenic tanks. The potential of using existing natural gas pipelines is ana-
lyzed; the need for modern pipeline material complex research is emphasized.
Transportation in solid or liquid carriers, disadvantages and advantages of trans-
portation methods, and problems and ways to solve them are analyzed. Hydrogen
facilitates the conversion of low-grade crude oils into high-energy transport
fuels by catalytic cracking and desulfurization. Ammonia production, essential
for fertilizers and explosives, relies heavily on hydrogen synthesis from nitrogen
and hydrogen. Methanol and dimethyl ether fuels offer alternatives to hydro-
gen storage and transportation, while liquid hydrocarbon fuels from coal and
biomass utilize hydrogen in conversion processes like Fischer-Tropsch. Proton
exchange membrane and alkaline fuel cells depend on hydrogen for electricity
generation in transportation. Additionally, hydrogen serves as a reductant in
metallurgy, with advancements in direct iron reduction and green steel initiatives
driving sustainable practices in the steel industry. These applications underscore
in modern processes and its potential for addressing energy and environmental
challenges.
Keywords: transportation technologies, pipeline network, carriers, liquid hydrogen,
usage of hydrogen, fuel cells
. Introduction
The environment has suffered from the greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, NO2,
CH4, and O3) that result from burning natural resources (natural gas, coal, and
oil), which cause global warming. Moreover, these natural resources will soon
run out due to their finite availability in nature. Hence, a new way of producing
energy that is clean and sustainable is needed to ensure future energy security,
which requires a gradual shift away from natural resources. To address these
challenges, various renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, and nuclear have
been investigated recently. However, these sources cannot meet the global energy

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demand due to weather and location limitations. In addition, this energy is not
always accessible and requires transportation. Therefore, hydrogen has been the
focus of extensive research as an energy carrier. Also, this energy is not always
available and needs to be solved in terms of transportation as well as production
and storage issues.
Hydrogen is the most plentiful element in the universe; it has high energy
efficiency and is eco-friendly [1, 2]. Hydrogen is the energy carrier [2–4], which
means it can store and deliver electrical energy through chemical reactions instead
of combustion [5]. It can also be easily implemented in transportation to fuel cars,
heat homes, and many other applications [6]. Its byproduct is only water and heat.
Hydrogen has a higher energy content per mass (120MJ/kg) than 44MJ/kg for gaso-
line [7, 8]. However, hydrogen needs to be produced in a cost-effective way before it
can be used in a practical form for application. Hydrogen is not naturally available
in nature. Therefore, it needs to use a primary energy source, such as non-renewable
energy sources like fossil fuel and renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind
energy, and biomass. Also, hydrogen can be used instead of secondary energy
sources like electricity or heat. In addition to the production and storage issues, the
hydrogen that is produced must be transported safely for future use. Therefore,
various features need to be considered, such as its high flammability limit in the
air (4–74%) [9] compared to gasoline vapor (1.4–7.6%) and natural gas (5.3–15%).
Also, its high explosion limit in the air (H2=18.3–59%) compared to gasoline vapor
(1.1–3.3%) and natural gas (5.7–14%). In addition, its low ignition energy (0.02MJ)
[9] compared to gasoline vapor (0.20MJ) and natural gas (0.29MJ) has to be con-
trolled. Finally, its lower boiling point (−253°C) and low density in the liquid state
(70.8g/L) [10] compared to gasoline vapor (37e205°C) with a density of 700g/L and
natural gas −162°C) with a density of 423g/L, require additional safety measures for
hydrogen fuel.
Hydrogen is a versatile and clean energy carrier that can be used for various
applications. It is the simplest and most abundant element in the universe, but
it is not naturally available in a pure form on Earth. Hydrogen can be stored and
transported in different ways, such as in pressurized or cryogenic tanks, pipelines,
or blended with natural gas. Hydrogen can also be converted into electricity or
heat through fuel cells or combustion or used as a chemical feedstock for many
industries. Some of the benefits of hydrogen are that it has a high energy den-
sity, it produces no harmful emissions when used, and it can be integrated with
renewable energy sources. However, some of the challenges of hydrogen are that
it requires high capital costs, it has safety issues due to its flammability and low
density, and it has a low efficiency of conversion and storage [11–14]. Therefore,
hydrogen is a promising energy carrier that needs further research and develop-
ment to overcome its technical and economic barriers. According to the safety
guideline, hydrogen can be transported traditionally in gaseous or liquid form
in the pressurized or cryogenic tank. Also, finding a suitable means to transport
hydrogen is a crucial part of the hydrogen economy. There are various means of
hydrogen transport such as pipeline, blending natural gas, and cryogenic liquid
tankers. Therefore, this chapter will try to summarize the state of the art of
primary hydrogen transportation methods and uses of hydrogen. Also, identify
the most promising techniques to improve hydrogen usage and transportation
developments.

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Transportation of Hydrogen: Hydrogen Usage
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. Transportation of hydrogen
Determining an effective mode of hydrogen transportation is a crucial step for
implementing hydrogen fuel across diverse industrial applications. The transporta-
tion of hydrogen requires a thorough understanding of its properties to prevent
potential explosion and leakage incidents. Given that hydrogen can exist in different
states based on temperature and pressure, the transportation methods vary.
At low temperatures, hydrogen assumes a solid state with a density of 70.6kg/
m3 at −262°C, while at higher temperatures, it transforms into a gas with a density
of 0.089kg/m3 at 0°C and 1bar. In the region highlighted in blue in Figure ,
between the triple point (13.8K) and the critical point (33K), hydrogen exists
in a liquid state with a density of 70.8kg/m3 [15]. At standard temperature
(25°C) and 1-atm pressure, hydrogen is a gas, and its low critical temperature
(Tc=33K) is attributed to the strong repulsion interaction between H2 molecules.
Consequently, storing and transporting H2 necessitate addressing the challenge of
the large volume occupied by hydrogen gas. For instance, 1kg of H2 at standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure fills a volume of 11m3. While the Joule-
Thompson effect causes a pressure reduction in natural gas leading to a tempera-
ture drop of 0.5°C, hydrogen experiences an increase in temperature of 0.35°C for
each rise in bar pressure. Therefore, the development of a hydrogen transportation
system requires careful consideration of various conditions to ensure safety during
transportation. Various methods for hydrogen transportation have been proposed,
with the most common ones being compressed gas cylinders, cryogenic liquid
tankers, pipelines, and blending with natural gas.
Transporting hydrogen to its intended destination poses challenges due to its
status as the least dense gas and its flammability when combined with even small
amounts of air. The low volumetric energy density of hydrogen makes its transpor-
tation, storage, and eventual delivery to the point of use potentially costly. Safety
concerns also arise in this process. Currently, hydrogen is predominantly conveyed
Figure 1.
Various states of hydrogen under different temperature and pressure conditions [15].

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from its production site to the utilization site either through pipelines or over the
road, utilizing liquid tanker trucks or gaseous tube trailers and special carriers.
. Pipelines
It is worth noting that throughout the operational history of hydrogen pipeline
systems in North America and Europe, no issues related to hydrogen embrittlement
or safety have been reported [16]. However, the considerable capital investments
required for pipeline construction make this method the most costly and feasible only
for consistent and significant hydrogen consumption scenarios, where the pipeline
construction expenses can be recouped within an acceptable timeframe.
The recommended pressure for the primary transportation of hydrogen,
considering its physicochemical properties, is in the range of 7–14MPa [17]. For
instance, in the USA, hydrogen pipelines operate within the range of 3.5–10MPa [18].
Distribution networks, with smaller pipe diameters, operate under lower pressure
conditions (in the USA, p=0.03 to 1.4MPa [18]). However, gas stations and power
plants require higher inlet pressures, suggesting that the pressure in distribution
networks should be higher than in natural gas distribution lines, falling within the
range of 1.4–2.8MPa [18].
In low-pressure pipelines (0.1MPa and below), the gas speed is 10m/s, while in
main pipelines (6 to 8MPa), it is twice as high [17, 19]. With identical pipe diameters
and pressure drop, the flow rate of hydrogen is nearly three times higher than that
of methane. The specific cost of hydrogen transportation decreases with an increase
in distance. For example, when the distance increases from 8 to 100km, the cost
decreases by an order of magnitude.
The construction costs for new hydrogen gas pipelines are relatively high, with
labor and material expenses constituting around 70% of the total construction costs.
Consequently, current priorities include developing new metallic, non-metallic, and
composite materials, along with advancing technologies for applying thin barrier
coatings to pipe surfaces.
The internal coating is designed to diminish the surface concentration of hydrogen
on steel. Research on hydrogen diffusion in a multilayer pipe, featuring an internal
coating based on reinforced polyamide, and external coatings made of polyurethane,
has indicated that existing polymer and fiberglass materials may not extend the
service life of pipelines by more than 10years.
Reinforced plastic pipelines present a promising alternative to steel pipelines in
terms of technical characteristics and cost. Typically, they consist of (1) an internal
impermeable barrier pipe or liner, (2) a protective coating, (3) an intermediate
coating, (4) composite layers made of glass or carbon fibers, (5) an external barrier
layer, and (6) a protective coating (Figure ). These pipes exhibit high compressive
strength, can endure longitudinal deformations, facilitating their transport, and can
be wound on large diameter reels (Figure ). The multilayer design can incorporate
sensors for real-time condition monitoring.
Polymer materials like polyethylene, polyamide, and polyvinylidene difluoride can
be used for liners, and the hydrogen permeability of these materials determines the
potential hydrogen leakage from the pipeline. Although most tests are conducted on
films, the results may not universally apply to actual liners. Comparisons of perme-
ability measurements for high-density polyethylene samples used in pipes and liners
with published data for films indicate that the hydrogen losses from such pipelines
are expected to be minimal—less than 0.1% of the transmitted volume [20]. The total

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capital investment for a polyethylene pipeline of this nature is approximately equiva-
lent to that of a pipeline made of 16-inch steel pipes [22].
The pipeline system serves as a transportation network for natural gas or oil, con-
nected by compressor stations, city gate stations, and storage facilities. Particularly
suitable for large power plants (around 1000 metric tons/day), pipelines offer a
cost-effective option [23]. Compressor stations utilize the heat from the transmission
system to maintain consistent gas flow rates and pressures, meeting the specified
requirements. The pipeline network encompasses both onshore and offshore com-
ponents, covering transmission, transportation, and distribution pipelines. Utilizing
pipelines for hydrogen transport is viewed as the most efficient means for extensive
delivery and utilization as an energy carrier, presenting various advantages.
Hydrogen transportation through pipelines proves to be the most cost-effective for
large-scale power plants, with a savings of $2.73 per kg of hydrogen transport [24].
Additionally, large-scale pipeline transport is considered the most environmentally
friendly method of hydrogen delivery [24]. The pipeline’s longevity, spanning sev-
eral decades, contributes to its reputation for safety and reliability, given that most
pipelines are buried underground. This minimizes the likelihood of accidents due to
leakage, explosions, or environmental interference, avoiding disruptions and traffic
on roads. Despite the significant initial capital investment for pipeline installation,
subsequent maintenance and operation costs are comparatively low. Moreover, exist-
ing pipelines can transport pure hydrogen, and new pipelines for hydrogen delivery
can be manufactured using low carbon steel.
However, challenges persist in establishing a hydrogen pipeline infrastructure.
Hydrogen gas in a pipeline may experience losses compared to other fuels, and the
need for compressing hydrogen to high pressures (around 10–20 bars) to enhance
Figure 3.
Fiberspar LinePipe [21].
Figure 2.
Diagram of a multilayer plastic pipe (a) Fiberspar LinePipe, LLC and the fiber winding stage (b) [20].

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications
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delivery speed poses a logistical hurdle due to its low density (1/8th of natural gas).
The porosity of polymer materials used in gas pipelines makes them unsuitable for
delivering pressurized hydrogen, as hydrogen’s efficient escape, given its small size,
poses safety risks. Furthermore, the embrittlement of pipeline steels and construction
materials, leading to degradation and cracking, poses a risk of pipeline failure, depen-
dent on material and operating conditions [25]. To address these issues, an alternative
approach involving blending hydrogen with natural gas is proposed to mitigate risks
and ensure a more secure distribution and delivery of hydrogen.
The first main hydrogen pipeline was put into operation in 1938 in Germany. This
pipeline has been in operation for more than half a century without any accidents
[19]. As of March 2023, Germany possessed the most extensive planned hydrogen
transmission pipeline network in Europe, spanning a total of 3827 km [26]. Based on
available information, the construction of hydrogen pipelines is gaining momentum,
propelled by the increase in green hydrogen initiatives in China. A collective 1000
km of hydrogen pipelines are currently in the construction phase. This includes the
development of two long-distance pipelines along with several shorter-distance
pipelines [27].
Like natural gas currently, gaseous hydrogen has the capability to be trans-
ported through pipelines. The SoutH2 Corridor is a project that aims to connect to
a “European Hydrogen Backbone” that will help Europe to achieve its green energy
goals. The Backbone plan expects Europe to have 11,600km of hydrogen pipelines by
2030 and almost 40,000km by 2040 (Figure ) [28].
China is currently constructing all of Asia’s hydrogen pipelines, with three lines in
the pipeline—Ulanqab Beijing, Shandong Hydrogen, and Ningxia Hui Autonomous
Region Hydrogen. Additionally, there are plans for a hydrogen pipeline in the pro-
posed India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, targeting exports to the EU.
Figure 4.
Map of Europe’s hydrogen pipeline plan until 2040 [28].

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Over the past year, the Middle East has significantly increased its planned clean
hydrogen capacity, the region has 83 low carbon or renewable hydrogen/ammonia
projects with combined production of nine million metric tons hydrogen per year,
S&P Global Commodity Insights’ data show, and aims to become a key exporter to
other countries by 2030. Saudi Arabia aims to be the leading global hydrogen supplier,
while the UAE and Qatar are actively enhancing their capacities to meet the growing
global demand [28].
In North America, both the United States and Canada are considering the imple-
mentation of hydrogen pipelines. The U.S. currently possesses 2600km of hydrogen
pipelines, and its HyBlend initiative is investigating methods to repurpose existing
natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transportation. These pipelines are in places where
there are a lot of hydrogen users, such as oil refineries and chemical factories, espe-
cially in the Gulf Coast area.
Canada’s hydrogen initiatives involve a project in Quebec, anticipated to contribute
to a 3% reduction in the province’s carbon emissions over the current decade.
Latin America’s significant potential for renewable energy positions it as a promi-
nent provider of cost-effective, environmentally friendly hydrogen, according to the
International Energy Agency (IEA). In the region, a total of 11 countries have devised
strategies for hydrogen.
Chile aims to achieve the production of the world’s most economical hydrogen by
2030 and strives to be among the top three hydrogen exporters by 2040. Similar to
the United States and numerous other nations, Chile is exploring the possibilities of
utilizing its natural gas pipelines for the safe transportation of hydrogen or for blend-
ing hydrogen with natural gas [28].
The World Economic Forum’s Industrial Clusters initiative is establishing global
hubs for hydrogen-related activities, fostering collaboration among stakeholders
throughout the entire hydrogen value chain and uniting them around shared objec-
tives. This initiative facilitates cluster members in accessing hydrogen from various
producers, providing suppliers with a readily available pool of potential customers.
. Compressed gas containers
Hydrogen gas is usually transported in cylindrical steel containers under pressure
up to 20MPa [19]. Such containers are delivered to the place of hydrogen consump-
tion on automobile or railway platforms. Canadian company FIBA Canning Inc. offers
various trailers with cylinders that can transport approximately 100 to 700kg of
hydrogen at pressures of 16–24MPa (Figure ) [29]. The cost of transporting com-
pressed hydrogen by truck is quite high—slightly less than by pipeline, due to the low
density of hydrogen.
Trailers for transporting hydrogen under pressure are effective in meeting the
needs of small consumers, and the high cost of delivery can be offset by the absence
of losses [30]. Currently, delivering hydrogen gas by trailer is the easiest way, espe-
cially in areas where there are no pipelines [30]. It is also convenient for delivery to
fueling stations, where hydrogen trailers remain on site, without the need for perma-
nent hydrogen gas storage infrastructure.
Recently, some researchers are also considering the option of delivering “cold gas”
by trucks (trailers). For example, it is proposed to transport hydrogen gas at 35MPa
and 90K in composite container pipes on trailers [31]. This will increase capacity and
at the same time reduce liquefaction costs. The method is promising for delivering
hydrogen to gas stations.

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications
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Depending on the required quantity, truck transportation is a feasible method for
moving gaseous hydrogen in moderate amounts using compressed gas containers,
such as cylinders or tubes pressurized within the range of 200–500bar. In assessing
the viability of hydrogen transportation by truck, factors such as transport capacity,
tank weight, greenhouse gas emissions, and non-renewable energy consumption need
careful consideration. For larger quantities, multiple pressurized gas cylinders or
tubes are typically mounted on specialized trailers known as compressed gas hydro-
gen tube trailers, securely enclosed within protective frames for safety. The maximum
transportable hydrogen load depends on the high weight of these cylinders or tubes.
For example, a tube trailer equipped with steel cylinders can store up to 25,000 liters
of hydrogen compressed to 200bar, equivalent to 420kg of H2 [29].
To enhance the transported hydrogen quantity, lighter tank materials, such as
composite materials for gas cylinders or tubes, are designed to handle higher pres-
sures, allowing for the transportation of larger quantities of hydrogen per trailer. The
cost-effectiveness of transporting hydrogen with tube trailers without liquefaction is
evident, with a savings of $2.86 per kg delivered H2 in small-scale power plants [30].
For instance, superlight cylinder materials made of carbon fiber composite with high-
density polyethylene liners can accommodate up to 39,600 liters of hydrogen. These
containers, pressurized to a maximum of 200bar, can carry about 666kg of H2 [31].
In the case of transporting liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC), trucks
wait during the unloading and loading process, requiring only one trailer per truck.
However, storage tanks are necessary at the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation sites
for the liquid organic hydrogen carriers. Additionally, the LOHC delivery chain is
reported to significantly enhance the economics of long-distance road transport [31].
. Cryogenic liquid tankers
Various alternatives, including the transport of liquid hydrogen, have been
suggested to address the challenges associated with compressed gas containers.
Hydrogen, in liquid form, can be conveyed using trucks or other transportation
modes. In contrast to compressed gas container, a liquid hydrogen trailer has the
advantage of carrying more hydrogen due to the higher density of liquid hydrogen
compared to hydrogen in a gaseous state. However, before storage in large insulated
tanks at the liquefaction plant, gaseous hydrogen undergoes liquefaction by cooling
Figure 5.
Transportation of compressed hydrogen gas [29].

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it below −253°C through a process known as the liquefaction process [32]. The
truck responsible for transporting liquid hydrogen is referred to as a liquid tanker.
The effectiveness of thermal insulation significantly impacts the tank’s operational
parameters and operating costs [33].
Nevertheless, the road shipment of liquid hydrogen and its dispensing at a vehicle
filling site add costs ranging from $2.42 to $1.40 per kg of H2 to the production costs.
Additionally, approximately 40% of energy is lost during the liquefaction process
[34]. Furthermore, there is a loss of stored hydrogen through evaporation or boil-off
of liquefied hydrogen, which is more pronounced when using a small tank with large
surface-to-volume ratios. Lowering the liquefaction cost for hydrogen can have a posi-
tive impact on its shipment cost via truck, ship, or rail, and can also be advantageous
for storage at plant sites to prevent plant shutdowns. This approach holds promise for
near-term investments, particularly as the shipment plan can be a potential invest-
ment in the early stages of fuel cell vehicle introduction. The hydrogen boil-off point
is a critical consideration during its delivery [35].
The creation of cryogenic complexes for hydrogen liquefaction, its long-term
storage and transportation by railways and highways began in the 1960s of the last
century in connection with the use of liquid hydrogen as fuel for rocket and space
systems [36].
Hydrogen liquefaction is a very energy-intensive process and, therefore, expen-
sive, but transportation costs for liquid hydrogen are minimal. The technology of
hydrogen transportation by road, including safety measures, has been sufficiently
developed. In the USSR, tank trucks TRZHV-20 (capacity 20 m3) and TRZHV-24
(24m3) were created to transport liquid hydrogen over long distances [17]. Currently,
JSC “Cryogenmash” produces custom-made tank cars with a capacity of 25 and 45 m3
for the transportation of liquid hydrogen (Figure ) [36, 37].
Figure 6.
Automobile tank of JSC “Cryogenmash” for liquid hydrogen transportation [37].

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications
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The tank is equipped with sophisticated systems for refueling and dispensing liq-
uid hydrogen that meet Russian and European safety requirements and include a set
of safety valves, rupture membranes, purge lines with pure nitrogen gas or vacuum-
ing before refueling with hydrogen. In addition, the tank is equipped with effective
wave dampers.
When transporting liquid hydrogen in tank trucks, losses caused by continuous
evaporation of hydrogen and due to the performance of technological operations
are inevitable. During one-time cooling of a tanker truck, up to 15% of hydrogen is
lost from the volume of the tank, and cooling is carried out at least two times a year.
Losses due to imperfections in the vacuum thermal insulation of the tank are 0.5%/
day from its volume. Taking into account the fact that not all hydrogen is taken from
the tank (a certain amount of liquid hydrogen remains for cooling), then for a tank
with a capacity of 4.5 tons, the losses are about 8.2 tons/year.
At each refueling of the tanker, there are losses associated with the evaporation
of the first portion of hydrogen. According to estimates, this is ~4%, that is, with a
weight of 4.5 tons, they amount to ~180kg. The losses for creating a pressure drop
between the liquefaction plant and the capacity are approximately 1.5% [17].
Tanks for liquid hydrogen are made either cylindrical or spherical. Large contain-
ers are usually made spherical to reduce evaporation losses.
Liquid hydrogen is transported by tankers to a distance of more than 1.6
thousand km.
BMW specialists have created several prototype models of cars powered by liquid
hydrogen fuel stored in special cylinders, in which the loss of hydrogen mass by
evaporation is reduced to 1.5%/day [38]. BMW considers liquefied petroleum gas to
be the most convenient type of fuel for promising cars.
Railway transport for the transportation of liquid hydrogen is used rather sparsely.
In refrigerated railway tanks, hydrogen losses are about the same as in tank trucks. At
present, JSC Cryogenmash offers customers high-speed hydrogen tanks with a capac-
ity of 100 m3. The tanks are equipped with a reinforcement cabinet and devices that
ensure the safety of transportation [37].
Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan has developed a ship capable of holding
160,000m3 of liquefied hydrogen, equal to 11,200 tons, making it similar in size to a
typical liquefied natural gas (LNG) carrier. This vessel would be 128 times larger than
the tank on Kawasaki’s Suiso Frontier, which transported the world’s first liquefied
hydrogen cargo from Australia to Japan in February.
Prior to this, only within the framework of the NASA space program, liquid
hydrogen for refueling launch vehicles was transported on a special barge at a distance
of about 100km. However, the USA, Japan, South Korea and other countries have
extensive experience in transporting liquefied natural gas in tankers. This experience
will certainly be used in the creation of marine tankers for the transportation of liquid
hydrogen.
. Blending with natural gas
The incorporation of hydrogen into a natural gas pipeline network is considered a
method for delivering pure hydrogen to the market. To extract hydrogen from natural
gas closer to the end-use point, various separation and purification technologies have
been employed. Three techniques—pressure swing adsorption (PSA), membrane
separation, and electrochemical hydrogen separation—can be utilized to extract
hydrogen from hydrogen-natural gas blends. It is noted that blends containing less

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than 5–15% hydrogen (volume) typically pose minor issues, dependent on site-
specific pipeline conditions and natural gas compositions. However, blending in the
range of 15–50% hydrogen requires more substantial modifications, such as convert-
ing large household appliances or enhancing compression capacity along the distribu-
tion path for industrial users [39].
When transporting natural gas, approximately 0.3% of the pumped natural gas
volume is consumed at compressor stations every 100–120km to facilitate movement.
To estimate energy costs for transporting hydrogen and natural gas through the same
pipeline, accounting for the viscosities of hydrogen and methane at equal energy
flows, let us analyze the power required for pumping N (W).
2 22
o
1
NVp
4 42
Dv p Dv v= ∆= ∆=
ππ
ρξ
(1)
where Vo – volumetric flow, m3/s; Δp – pressure drop, Pa; D – pipeline
diameter,m; v – gas speed, m/s;
ρ
– gas density, kg/m3;
ξ
– resistance coefficient;
Re =
ρ
vD/μ – Reynolds number; n=0.25 – for turbulent gas flow in the pipe; μ –
dynamic viscosity, Pa•s.
Energy flow through the pipeline (J/kg)
ρ
=ov
QV H
(2)
where HV is the highest calorific value of the transported gas.
From Eqs. (1), (2) we obtain the ratio of power (energy consumption) required for
pumping hydrogen and methane Eq. (3):
ρ
ρ
−
 
=
 
 
 
2 24 4
4 42 2
23
v
v
nn
H H CH CH
CH CH H H
NN H
NN H
(3)
Due to the low density of hydrogen, the flow rate needs to be increased by about
three times. While the increase in flow resistance is partially offset by viscosity differ-
ences, transmitting an equivalent amount of energy in the form of hydrogen through
a pipeline demands approximately 4.6 times more energy than natural gas (Figure )
[40]. During transportation, only 70–80% of the original hydrogen will be trans-
ferred over distances ranging from 2.5 to 4 thousand km.
Li et al. [41] conducted a numerical investigation on the Joule-Thompson (J-T)
coefficient of natural gas at different hydrogen blending ratios, demonstrating a
roughly linear decrease in the J-T coefficient of the natural gas-hydrogen mixture with
increasing hydrogen blending ratio. Their findings also indicated a 40–50% reduction
in the J-T coefficient when the hydrogen blending ratio reached 30% (mole fraction)
compared to that of natural gas. Zhou et al. [42] reported on the hydrogen-blended
gas-electricity integrated energy system, emphasizing the superiority of hydrogen
blending in the upper line of the natural gas network over the lower line. They found
that a concentrated hydrogen blending strategy is more effective than a dispersed one.
Wu et al. [43] summarized recent research on the hydrogen-induced failure of high-
strength pipeline steels in hydrogen-blended natural gas transmission. Zhang et al.
[44] established a mathematical model for Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas (HBNG)

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications
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transportation, exploring the influences of hydrogen blending on hydraulic and
thermal characteristics of natural gas pipelines and networks. Their results indicated
that hydrogen blending could reduce pipeline friction resistance and increase vol-
ume flow rate. Additionally, they observed performance degradation of centrifugal
compressors with increasing hydrogen blending ratio, leading to a shift in the operat-
ing point toward higher volume flow rates and lower pressure [44]. According to the
European Naturally project [39], introducing hydrogen into the natural gas network
holds potential advantage.
Utilizing the existing network of natural gas pipelines for hydrogen transport is
a crucial aspect of the future hydrogen economy. Presently, the Unified Gas Supply
System (UGSS) of JSC NC “QazaqGaz” possesses a significantly greater energy trans-
mission capacity than power transmission networks and is fundamentally prepared to
receive hydrogen and its mixtures with other flammable gases. The UGSS, the world’s
largest gas transportation system, is a unique technological complex encompassing
gas production, processing, transportation, storage, and distribution facilities. It
ensures a continuous gas supply cycle from the well to the end consumer. The group
of companies of JSC “NC “QazaqGaz” operates gas pipelines with a total length of
about 76 thousand km. Including 20 thousand km of main gas pipelines with an
annual capacity of up to 267.8 billionm3 and gas distribution networks with a length
of about 56 thousand km, transportation gas is provided by 42 compressor stations
and 238 gas injection units [45]. Consequently, most conditions necessary for hydro-
gen transportation have already been established. However, the UGSS is currently
fully loaded, and the use of the existing gas pipeline network seems feasible only
during the transition period to the hydrogen economy. To use a mixture of hydrogen
and natural gas, creating cost-effective and efficient technologies for gas separation
and hydrogen purification will be essential.
Experimental studies investigating the possibility of transporting hydrogen using
steel pipelines designed for natural gas [41] revealed that hydrogen losses from the
system are 3–3.5 times greater than the volume of natural gas losses. However, given
that the heat of combustion of hydrogen is approximately three times greater, the
energy losses are roughly equivalent. Notably, during the 6-month experiment, there
were no instances of self-ignition due to hydrogen leakage through fittings, and the
materials of the pipelines and seals remained unchanged.
Figure 7.
Dependence of gas consumption for pumping on distance.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1005066
Nevertheless, the potential hydrogen embrittlement of steel structures remains a
focal point of concern [15, 30, 46]. The current natural gas infrastructure may not be
suitable for transporting and distributing hydrogen due to the utilization of insuf-
ficient quality metals in these systems. To draw definitive conclusions about the suit-
ability of existing gas transmission systems for pumping hydrogen, comprehensive
research and development are necessary to study the materials of modern gas pipe-
lines. This research is crucial, especially considering that energy transmission through
a gas pipeline in the form of hydrogen over distances of 2–3 thousand km is 2–4
times more economical than energy transmission through power lines. Additionally,
pumping hydrogen through pipeline transport offers the advantage of accumulating
and storing hydrogen in underground and above-ground facilities under pressure,
delivering it to consumers at the required time and quantity.
Despite the numerous advantages of blending hydrogen with natural gas, higher
blend levels pose considerable challenges in terms of pipeline materials, safety
considerations, and modifications required for end-use applications. Evaluating the
substantial costs associated with accommodating elevated hydrogen blends in a spe-
cific pipeline system is crucial, and these expenses must be carefully weighed against
the benefits of incorporating hydrogen as a component in natural gas blends. Beyond
a 50% blend level, more complex issues arise in multiple aspects, including pipeline
materials, safety concerns, and the adjustments needed for end-use appliances or
other applications [25].
Despite the promising results offered by hydrogen transportation, significant
efforts are required to address various safety issues, such as material embrittlement
and container leakage. Challenges include its wide flammability range and the mini-
mal energy needed for ignition. These safety concerns present potential barriers that
must be effectively addressed to fully open up the hydrogen market.
. By carriers
Physical transportation of hydrogen is usually done in various high-pressure and
cryogenic tanks made of different types of materials, which should not interact with
the hydrogen or perform any other reactions. We mentioned above that the traditional
transportation techniques for hydrogen are high-pressure gas cylinders and liquid
hydrogen that belong to the category of physical transportation. There is a possibility
of material-based hydrogen transportation consisting of chemical and physical car-
riers. Using these types of transportation methods, the existing infrastructure would
avoid many problems associated with the delivery of hydrogen in gaseous or liquid
forms and reduce costs. In chemical carriers, hydrogen molecules are split into atoms
and integrated with the chemical structure of the material. Among all, metal hydrides
(for example, LiAlH4) are the most famous group of materials that can be used for
chemical carriers [47]. Metal hydride carriers have the ability to absorb and desorb
hydrogen at either room temperature or through heating of the tank. The main chal-
lenges of chemical carriers’ materials are the cost, weight, and operating temperature,
enhancing the charge-discharge rate and controlling the formation of unwanted gases
during decomposition. Metal hydride carriers are also called “rechargeable” carriers;
which are transported to a fuel station, where hydrogen is extracted from them, and
then returned for a new refueling. Such carriers include, for example, metal hydrides.
When using metal hydrides as carriers, it is advisable to use the same hydrides in the
giving and receiving water system, then the heat released by the receiving system can

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications

be used to separate the water from the delivery system. A promising chemical carri-
ers alternative is also LOHCs such as N-ethyl carbazole, methanol, dibenzyltoluene,
toluene, and others, where the hydrogen is bonded chemically with hydrogen-lean
molecules and is released through a catalytic dehydrogenation (Re. (4)) [48].
+
10 18 10 8 2
CH CH 5H
(4)
These transportation options are attractive due to their easy manageability under
ambient conditions, the transport and release processes do not emit CO2, and the car-
rier liquid is not consumed and can be used repeatedly. These carriers are non-toxic and
non-corrosive but have a low storage capacity which can limit their applications [49].
Alongside organic hydrogen carriers, ammonia is a compound where hydrogen is
similarly bonded with a lean hydrogen molecule and released through dehydrogena-
tion. Typically, hydrogen can be accumulated in ammonia through the conventional
Haber-Bosch ammonia production process, which is responsible for around 85% of
total worldwide ammonia production. The produced ammonia can then be trans-
ported through pipelines, tank cars, and tanker vessels. Thus, at normal temperature,
ammonia liquefies at a pressure of 1.0MPa and it can be transported through pipes
and stored in liquid form (ammonia liquefaction temperature −239.76K, critical
temperature 405K). After shipment, the hydrogen is released from ammonia through
the catalytic decomposition process at a temperature of 527–627K and atmospheric
pressure (Re. (5)), which is a highly energy-intensive process. Therefore, efforts are
necessary to improve their energy efficiency, reliability, and scalability [50].
NH322
1/ 2N 3 / 2H= +
(5)
To produce 1kg of hydrogen, 5.65kg of ammonia is required.
Another approach to material-based transportation involves using porous
materials as physical carriers. The most promising options include Metal-Organic
Frameworks (MOFs) and porous carbon materials, such as carbon nanotubes. This
technique offers advantages such as a large surface area, low binding energy for
hydrogen, quicker charging and discharging rates, and cost-effectiveness. However,
challenges persist, including the weight of the carrier materials, the need for low
temperatures and high pressures, and limitations in both gravimetric and volumetric
hydrogen density. Despite these challenges, both methods could enhance safety
during transportation by allowing for lower accumulation pressures and manageable
properties. Nonetheless, they may not be suitable for high-demand scenarios and are
typically transported via roads.
It appears that various methods of transporting hydrogen will be employed during
its development as an energy source, with different degrees of utilization. These
methods may be combined and utilized at different stages of market development,
depending on how hydrogen is produced.
During the initial phase of transitioning to a hydrogen economy, trailers equipped
with specialized containers under pressure could be utilized since the demand for
hydrogen would likely be relatively low, and this approach minimizes hydrogen loss
during transportation.
The advantages and disadvantages of the main methods of transporting hydrogen
are reduced to Tab le  . Using cryogenic tankers for hydrogen delivery proves to be

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1005066
the most cost-effective for the average consumer, especially when transporting larger
quantities of hydrogen compared to trailers with pressure containers, and it enables
delivery to all geographical regions.
Pipeline systems are best suited for transporting hydrogen to areas with high
demand, especially as more production facilities connect to the network. Economic
considerations will always influence the preferred method of delivery. For instance,
establishing gas distribution lines in urban areas may pose challenges. A typical
Transportation method Advantages Disadvantages
Hydrogen gas
Pipeline transport • Highest cost-effectiveness for large
volumes of hydrogen
• No thermodynamic limitations to
reduce transportation costs
• Low power consumption
• Transportation safety
• Environmentally friendly
• Use of existing pipelines systems for
natural gas and oil
• Accumulation and storage in
underground gas storage facilities
under pressure and supply through
gas pipelines to consumers at the right
time in the right quantity
• Large investments in the con-
struction of special pipelines
• Very high transportation costs for
small volumes
• Complex and expensive
procedure for obtaining permits
for land acquisition, construc-
tion, etc.
• The need for comprehensive
R&D to study the hydrogen
resistance of existing pipe steels,
the features of underground gas
storage facilities, the creation of
new materials, fittings, compres-
sors, etc.
Container
transportation
• No hydrogen loss
• No need to create storage infrastruc-
ture at the point of consumption
• Suitable only for small consumers
• High cost of transportation
Liquid hydrogen
Cryogenic tanks • High energy density and small volume
• Relative cheapness and efficiency of
cryogenic tanks
• Minimizing the need for compression
at points of consumption
• High power consumption and
high cost
• Impossibility of reducing cost
when long-term use
• Difficulty in handling cryogenic
liquids
Bound hydrogen
Carriers • Minimum cost of transportation in
the future
• Use of existing infrastructure
• Moderate pressures and temperatures
in the system delivery
• Possibility of reducing storage costs
• Difficult to use on site due to
the need for transformation for
unloading
• Increased energy consumption
• Possibility of impurities entering
hydrogen gas
• Availability of idle range of the
carrier for recharging The need
to conduct comprehensive R&D,
including ensuring safety and
impact on the environment
Tab le 1 .
Main methods of transporting hydrogen.

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications

delivery scenario might involve transmitting hydrogen via a pipeline from a central
plant to a terminal, from which further delivery could occur via trailers, cryogenic
tanks, or cargo transport vehicles.
When selecting hydrogen transportation methods, safety considerations must be
taken into account. Significant risks include potential disruptions to power supplies
for large populations due to technogenic disasters, systemic accidents, or deliber-
ate acts such as terrorism. Therefore, employing cutting-edge technologies, such
as durable pipeline materials and remote-controlled sensors, for constructing new
underground pipelines is particularly pertinent. This approach would necessitate
implementing pipeline patrol programs (potentially different from those for natural
gas), safety regulations for excavation, and other measures. Transporting hydrogen
through underground pipelines is preferable in terms of ensuring the safety of the
population, especially in the face of potential terrorist threats.
. Hydrogen usage
Hydrogen, the most abundant and simplest element in the universe, is primarily
found on Earth in compounds form with other elements. For instance, it combines
with oxygen to create water (H2O) and with carbon to form hydrocarbons, which
are present in fossil fuels and various other resources. Although hydrogen has been
utilized in chemical and industrial applications for over a century, recent investments
by both markets and governments in hydrogen as an energy source have sparked
increased interest in hydrogen production. When hydrogen is combusted, it mainly
emits water vapor, making it a crucial component in efforts to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. Additionally, hydrogen is seen as a key solution for storing energy gener-
ated from conventional sources such as renewable energy, natural gas, and nuclear
power. The International Energy Agency’s (IEF) 2023 Global Hydrogen Outlook
(GBO – 2023) reported that the Global hydrogen use reached 95 Mt. in 2022, and
which is nearly 3% increased from their revised estimate for 2021 [51]. Hydrogen
use has grown mainly in all countries except Europe. The only reason for the decline
in the use of hydrogen in Europe was attributed to the Russian invasion of Ukraine
because as a result of the war, European chemical plants reduced production vol-
umes, which led to a 6% reduction in the use of hydrogen in Europe. However, there
was a strong growth of 7% in North America and the Middle East. China remains
the world’s largest consumer of hydrogen with a 0.5% increase in hydrogen use
(Figure ). Areas of wide hydrogen uses are briefly as follows:
. Oil refining
Hydrogen plays a crucial role in the refining of petroleum, aiding in the desul-
furization and catalytic cracking of long-chain hydrocarbons. Approximately
one-quarter of global production is dedicated to converting low-grade crude oils
(particularly from tar sands) into high-energy transport fuels like gasoline and diesel.
The process involves converting heavy aromatic feedstock into lighter alkane hydro-
carbon products under intense pressures (7000–14,000kPa) and high temperatures
(400–800°C), using hydrogen and specialized catalysts [52]. Moreover, hydrogen is
essential for eliminating impurities such as sulfur from these fuels. In 2022, the use
of hydrogen in oil refining exceeded 41 million metric tons, surpassing the previous
peak in 2018. The most significant rise in year-over-year demand originated from

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North America and the Middle East, collectively representing over 1 million metric
tons, or approximately 75% of global growth in 2022 [51].
. Production of ammonia
The production of ammonia through the synthesis of hydrogen and nitrogen,
accounting for approximately 180 million metric tons per year or 1 petawatt-hour,
constitutes more than half of the global demand for pure hydrogen. Of the 53 Mt.
of hydrogen used in industry in 2022, about 60% was for ammonia production [53].
This process relies on the Haber-Bosch method (Re. (6)). Primarily, ammonia is
utilized for agricultural fertilizers, with a portion being employed, in the form of
ammonium nitrate combined with diesel fuel, for mining explosives. Additionally,
it can be utilized as a transportation fuel or subjected to cracking to yield hydrogen
for fuel purposes. The Haber process uses 3–5% of the world’s natural gas to produce
the hydrogen, and the nitrogen is extracted from the air by cooling it [54]. Looking
ahead, ammonia could play a significant role in hydrogen storage and transporta-
tion, as discussed in upper sections. It also holds potential as a fuel source. In Japan,
initiatives are underway to explore the co-firing of ammonia with coal in boilers and
with natural gas in combustion turbines [55]. Moreover, ammonia shows promise as a
maritime fuel, requiring only minor modifications for use in ship engines, and it can
also be utilized in certain fuel cell technologies.
22 3
N 3H 2NH H 92 kJ/mol∆−+
(6)
. Production of methanol and DME fuels
Given the problems of storage and transportation of hydrogen itself, as well as
the radical change of fuel cell cars, methanol (CH3OH) can be obtained by reacting
hydrogen gas with atmospheric CO2 gas (Re. (7)) [56]. Methanol has several own
potentials. First, dimethyl ether (DME) can be obtained from methanol, which is
made by dehydrating several methanol molecules (Re. (8)). It is a gas but can be
stored under low pressure as a liquid. Second, methanol is preferred for gasoline
Figure 8.
Usages of hydrogen across various sectors and regions, both historically and within the context of the net zero
emissions by 2050 scenario, 2020–2030 [51].

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications

engines, dimethyl ether (CH3-O-CH3) for diesel engines [57]. Methanol and DME
production is at relatively low temperature. Third, the energy density of methanol
and DME is 16MJ/L and 18–19MJ/L, respectively, which is lower than petroleum-
based fuel, but usable and easy to store.
CO °
22 3 2
3H CH OH H O H 49.5 kJ/mol at 25 C
+ ⇒ + ∆− (7)
3 3 32
2CH OH CH OCH H OH23kJ/mol⇒+
(8)
. Liquid hydrocarbon fuels
Coal and biomass have long served as the foundation for liquid hydrocarbon
fuels, relying on hydrogen for their conversion [58]. Originating in 1920s Germany,
the Fischer-Tropsch process, primarily coal-based, fueled a significant portion of
Germany’s World War II efforts and later became instrumental in South Africa’s oil
production, notably by Sasol. This process, requiring substantial hydrogen, catalyzes
carbon monoxide to yield liquid hydrocarbons, now facilitated by coal gasification.
Approximately 14,600 tons of coal yield 25,000 barrels of synfuel “oil”, alongside
25,000 tons of CO2. Nuclear power offers avenues for enhancement: nuclear hydrogen
sources coupled with process heat could boost hydrocarbon output and slash CO2
emissions, while a hybrid system utilizes nuclear electricity for water electrolysis,
yielding hydrogen for coal gasification. Conversely, biomass undergoes hydrotreating
or Fischer-Tropsch processing to produce liquid biofuels, demonstrating sustainable
alternatives in liquid fuel production [59].
. Fuel cells
Hydrogen is predominantly utilized in fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) for
transportation purposes. Unlike conventional batteries, fuel cells generate electric-
ity through a chemical reaction using external hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the
air. Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, the primary type used in cars and
heavy vehicles, operate at temperatures of around 80–90°C [60]. They offer high
volumetric power density and long life but require high-purity hydrogen and costly
noble metal catalysts, typically platinum. Although they theoretically achieve about
60% efficiency in converting chemical energy to electrical energy, practical efficiency
is approximately half of that. Alternatively, alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) operate at
around 200°C, boasting efficiency above 60%. Developed since the 1960s, AFCs have
been employed by NASA in space missions due to their reliability [61]. They are cost-
effective, utilizing non-noble metal catalysts and tolerating less-pure hydrogen from
ammonia cracking. However, commercialization is limited by CO2 poisoning, which
leads to insoluble carbonate formation.
. Reductant for metallurgy
Metallurgical coke, primarily carbon, plays a crucial role in steelmaking as a
reductant, yet advancements in utilizing natural gas for direct iron reduction are
emerging to mitigate CO2 emissions [62]. Currently, blast furnaces, fueled by coke,
dominate steel production, while electric arc furnaces (EAFs) and direct-reduced

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iron (DRI) methods are gaining traction. EAFs, predominantly powered by electric-
ity, offer synergy with nuclear energy, while DRI, facilitated by hydrogen, presents
an avenue for clean production. The steel sector accounts for a substantial portion
of global hydrogen usage, with green steel initiatives, such as hydrogen in Europe’s
vision and projects like HYBRIT in Sweden, driving innovation. Plans for green steel
production in Australia and Russia underscore the industry’s shift towards sustainable
practices [63], utilizing electrolysis and renewable energy sources to meet hydrogen
demands and reduce carbon footprint.
. Conclusion
In the realm of transportation, transporting hydrogen via tube trailers without
the need for liquefaction proves to be more economically efficient, resulting in a
savings of $2.86 per kilogram of delivered H2 in smaller-scale power plants. The issue
of hydrogen boil-off during transport stands out as a critical concern. The extent
of embrittlement largely hinges on factors such as the material composition of the
pipeline and the prevailing temperature and pressure conditions. Furthermore, the
embrittlement of pipeline steels and other construction materials can lead to deterio-
ration in mechanical properties and the development of cracks, ultimately resulting
in pipeline failures. Additionally, it is observed that blending hydrogen into the upper
line of the natural gas network yields superior results compared to blending it into the
lower line. Moreover, a strategy focusing on concentrated hydrogen blending outper-
forms a dispersed approach.
Hydrogen stands as a pivotal element in various industrial processes and
emerging technologies, playing a vital role in sectors ranging from oil refining to
metallurgy and transports. Its versatility as an energy carrier enables its use in the
desulfurization and catalytic cracking of petroleum, as well as in the production of
essential chemicals like ammonia and methanol. Moreover, hydrogen facilitates the
synthesis of liquid hydrocarbon fuels from coal and biomass, offering sustainable
alternatives for the future. In the realm of transportation, hydrogen fuel cells present
an efficient and clean solution, though challenges remain in terms of infrastructure
and cost-effectiveness. Furthermore, hydrogen’s significance in metallurgy, par-
ticularly in steel production, highlights its potential to drive the transition toward
greener industrial practices. With ongoing advancements and initiatives aimed at
harnessing its potential, hydrogen emerges as a key player in the pursuit of a more
sustainable and low-carbon future. Consequently, these challenges have the poten-
tial to disrupt the distribution and delivery of hydrogen. Therefore, the successful
realization of a hydrogen-based economy is contingent upon the ability to identify
the most promising areas for future advancements in hydrogen transportation,
usage, production, and storage.

Hydrogen Technologies – Advances, Insights, and Applications

Author details
AkbarDauletbay
Farabi University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
*Address all correspondence to: akbar.dauletbay@kaznu.kz
© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.

Transportation of Hydrogen: Hydrogen Usage
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1005066

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