ArticlePublisher preview available

Intensification of valorization of cooked rice water through energy-efficient synthesis of drop-in biofuel (butyl levulinate): engine performance, emission profile, and environmental impact assessments

Authors:
Ritika Samanta at Jadavpur University
Ritika Samanta
Rajat Chakraborty at Jadavpur University
Rajat Chakraborty
Read publisher preview
Download citation
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract and Figures

For the first time, an energy-efficient and eco-friendly technology for the conversion of abundantly available kitchen waste, specifically waste cooked rice water (WCRW) to drop-in- biofuels, namely, butyl levulinate (BL), has been explored. The synthesis of BL was accomplished employing butyl alcohol (BA) and WCRW in an energy-efficient UV (5W each UVA and UVB)-near-infrared (100W) irradiation assisted spinning (120 rpm) batch reactor (UVNIRSR) in the presence of TiO2-Amberlyst 15 (TA15) photo-acidic catalyst system (PACS). The optimal 95.81% yield of BL (YBL) could be achieved at 10 wt% catalyst concentration, 60 °C reaction temperature, 80 min time, and 1:10 WCRW: BA concentration as per Taguchi statistical design. Moreover, additional combination of different PACS such as TiO2-Amberlyst 16, TiO2-Amberlyst 36, and TiO2-Amberlite IRC120 H rendered 86.72% YBL, 90.04% YBL, and 93.47% YBL, respectively, proving superior efficacy compared to individual activity of the acidic catalysts and photocatalysts. The heterogeneous reaction kinetics study for TA15 PACS suggested Langmuir–Hinshelwood model to be the best fitted model. A significant 63.33% energy could be saved by UVNIRSR as compared to conventional heated reactor at the optimized experimental condition using PACS TA15. An overall alleviation in environmental pollution with 59.259% reduction in GWP, 15.254% decline in terrestrial ecotoxicity, 18.238% diminution in marine ecotoxicity, 17.25% decrease in ozone formation affecting human health, 5.865% reduction in human non-carcinogenic toxicity, 18.65% diminution in ozone formation affecting terrestrial ecosystem, 55.17% significant decrease in terrestrial acidification, and 25.619% mitigation in fresh water ecotoxicity could be observed. Furthermore, BL-biodiesel-diesel blends (3% BL, 7% biodiesel, and 90% diesel) exhibited significant reduction (25.45% and 36%, respectively, for CO and HC) in harmful engine exhaust emissions demonstrating environmental sustainability of the overall process.
Figures - available from: Environmental Science and Pollution Research
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
A preview of this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
Learn more
Content available from Environmental Science and Pollution Research
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2024) 31:67706–67724
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34255-0
ROLE OFCHEMICAL ENGINEERING INMITIGATION OFENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTANTS
Intensification ofvalorization ofcooked rice water
throughenergy‑efficient synthesis ofdrop‑in biofuel (butyl
levulinate): engine performance, emission profile, andenvironmental
impact assessments
RitikaSamanta1· RajatChakraborty1
Received: 21 July 2023 / Accepted: 2 July 2024 / Published online: 10 July 2024
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024
Abstract
For the first time, an energy-efficient and eco-friendly technology for the conversion of abundantly available kitchen waste,
specifically waste cooked rice water (WCRW) to drop-in- biofuels, namely, butyl levulinate (BL), has been explored. The
synthesis of BL was accomplished employing butyl alcohol (BA) and WCRW in an energy-efficient UV (5W each UVA
and UVB)-near-infrared (100W) irradiation assisted spinning (120rpm) batch reactor (UVNIRSR) in the presence of
TiO2-Amberlyst 15 (TA15) photo-acidic catalyst system (PACS). The optimal 95.81% yield of BL (YBL) could be achieved
at 10 wt% catalyst concentration, 60°C reaction temperature, 80min time, and 1:10 WCRW: BA concentration as per Tagu-
chi statistical design. Moreover, additional combination of different PACS such as TiO2-Amberlyst 16, TiO2-Amberlyst 36,
and TiO2-Amberlite IRC120 H rendered 86.72% YBL, 90.04% YBL, and 93.47% YBL, respectively, proving superior efficacy
compared to individual activity of the acidic catalysts and photocatalysts. The heterogeneous reaction kinetics study for TA15
PACS suggested Langmuir–Hinshelwood model to be the best fitted model. A significant 63.33% energy could be saved
by UVNIRSR as compared to conventional heated reactor at the optimized experimental condition using PACS TA15. An
overall alleviation in environmental pollution with 59.259% reduction in GWP, 15.254% decline in terrestrial ecotoxicity,
18.238% diminution in marine ecotoxicity, 17.25% decrease in ozone formation affecting human health, 5.865% reduction in
human non-carcinogenic toxicity, 18.65% diminution in ozone formation affecting terrestrial ecosystem, 55.17% significant
decrease in terrestrial acidification, and 25.619% mitigation in fresh water ecotoxicity could be observed. Furthermore, BL-
biodiesel-diesel blends (3% BL, 7% biodiesel, and 90% diesel) exhibited significant reduction (25.45% and 36%, respectively,
for CO and HC) in harmful engine exhaust emissions demonstrating environmental sustainability of the overall process.
Keywords Alkyl levulinate· Biodiesel additives· Waste cooked rice water· LCA analysis· Engine performance and
exhaust emission· Heterogeneous reaction kinetics· UV-near infrared irradiation
Abbreviations
WCRW Waste cooked rice water
5-HMF 5-Hydroxymethyl furfural
A120 Amberlite IRC120 H
A15 Amberlyst 15
A16 Amberlyst 16
A36 Amberlyst 36
D100 100% Diesel
BL1B9 1% BL, 9% biodiesel, and 90% diesel
BL2B8 2% BL, 8% biodiesel, and 90% diesel
BL3B7 3% BL, 7% biodiesel, and 90% diesel
BP Brake power
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
BTE Brake thermal efficiency
BA Butyl alcohol
BL Butyl levulinate
CC Catalyst concentration
ERM Eley Rideal mechanism
Responsible Editor: Ta Yeong Wu
* Rajat Chakraborty
rajat_chakraborty25@yahoo.com;
rajat.chakraborty@jadavpuruniversity.in
1 Chemical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata700032, India
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
Environmental impact scenarios of organic fraction municipal solid waste treatment with Black Soldier Fly larvae based on a life cycle assessment
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
  • ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R
Biowaste treatment with Black Soldier Fly (BSF) larvae is an alternative option for organic waste valorization. Its environmental impacts should be assessed and compared with conventional treatment options. The research aims to evaluate the treatment of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) with BSF larvae through a life cycle assessment (LCA). This study employed data inventories from literature and aimed to provide a wide range of production parameter values to identify the potentialities of BSF treatment in the best-case and worst-case scenarios. The SimaPro9, the database Ecoinvent3.5, and the impact assessment method IMPACT 2002+ have been employed for the analysis. A sensitivity analysis of relevant parameters was conducted, considering the avoided impacts that can be obtained thanks to the exploitation of larvae proteins for bioplastics or fishmeal production. Research findings highlight six main environmental impact indicators: respiratory inorganics (kg PM2.5-eq), ozone layer depletion (kg CFC-11-eq), terrestrial ecotoxicity (kg TEG soil), land occupation (m² organic arable), global warming (kg CO2-eq), and non-renewable energy (MJ primary). The most relevant process generating impacts is BSF breeding, followed by boiling, storage, and OFMSW treatment. The environmental performance is better when the conventional fishmeal substituted, thanks to BSF larvae production, is made from areas 10,000 km far, implementing a 100% renewable energy scenario, reducing the energy consumption by 50%, increasing the lifespan of the equipment to 15 years, and products are employed locally. The current study represents the first attempt to evaluate the global higher or lower environmental impact scenario related to OFMSW treatment through BSF larvae. Graphical Abstract
View
Environmental life cycle assessment (E-LCA) and social impact assessment (SIA) of small-scale biorefineries implemented in rural zones: the avocado (Persea Americana var. Americana) case in Colombia
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2022
  • ENVIRON SCI POLLUT R
The objective of this study is to compare the environmental and social performance of two small-scale avocado biorefineries implanted in a rural zone in the North of Colombia. Two small-scale biorefineries were proposed. Small-B1 addressed to produce avocado oil and animal feed, and Small-B2 focused on the guacamole production. The environmental analysis was done by applying the life cycle assessment methodology. Then, agronomic information and process simulation were required to complete the analysis. Moreover, the water footprint of the avocado crops was estimated. Both biorefineries were compared with the direct avocados production and commercialization. The social assessment was achieved by the estimation of quantitative indicators related to wages, jobs, and working hours. The agricultural carbon and water footprints of the creole avocado crop were 0.59 kg CO2-eq/kg and 2.13 m³/kg. In the same way, Small-B1 and Small-B2 obtained a carbon and water footprints of 8.99 kg CO2-eq/kg and 6.63 m³/kg and 0.72 kg CO2-eq/kg and 1.38 m³/kg, respectively. The hotspots of the creole avocado crop are related to the use of fertilizers and fungicides. Then, new strategies should be implemented to reduce the farmer’s dependency. The social analysis exhibit a high resilience of the Small-B1 biorefinery since a salary increase to worker about 50% can be proposed. In addition, the installation of this biorefinery can create more than ten jobs. A disjunction was found between the economic, environmental, and social analyses. Thus, the need to establish a multidimensional strategy to design sustainable biorefineries is presented.
View
Sustainable Exploitation of Residual Cynara cardunculus L. to Levulinic Acid and n-Butyl Levulinate
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2021
Hydrolysis and butanolysis of lignocellulosic biomass are efficient routes to produce two valuable bio-based platform chemicals, levulinic acid and n-butyl levulinate, which find increasing applications in the field of biofuels and for the synthesis of intermediates for chemical and pharmaceutical industries, food additives, surfactants, solvents and polymers. In this research, the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of the waste residue of Cynara cardunculus L. (cardoon), remaining after seed removal for oil exploitation, was investigated. The cardoon residue was employed as-received and after a steam-explosion treatment which causes an enrichment in cellulose. The effects of the main reaction parameters, such as catalyst type and loading, reaction time, temperature and heating methodology, on the hydrolysis process were assessed. Levulinic acid molar yields up to about 50 mol % with levulinic acid concentrations of 62.1 g/L were reached. Moreover, the one-pot butanolysis of the steam-exploded cardoon with the bio-alcohol n-butanol was investigated, demonstrating the direct production of n-butyl levulinate with good yield, up to 42.5 mol %. These results demonstrate that such residual biomass represent a promising feedstock for the sustainable production of levulinic acid and n-butyl levulinate, opening the way to the complete exploitation of this crop.
View
Methyl levulinate synthesis from rice husk employing e-waste derived silica supported nano CuO–CdSO4 photocatalyst: Assessment of production environmental impacts, engine performance and emissions
Article
  • May 2023
  • RENEW ENERG
Applications of E-waste recovered silica (support) and copper citrate (precursor) for the synthesis of nano CuO–CdSO4 doped photocatalyst (NCCP) for subsequent employment in sustainable conversion of rice husk (RH) to drop-in biofuels viz. methyl levulinate (ML) have been explored. The prepared NCCP (low Eg = 2.0 eV) was employed for alcoholytic depolymerization (AD) to produce ML from holocellulose (HOC) extracted from RH through infrared assisted delignification. Taguchi orthogonal design predicted the optimal values of the AD viz. HOC: Water (1:5 w/w), NCCP concentration (1 wt%), HOC: methanol (1:30 w/w) and AD time (125 min) rendering 96.97% ML yield deploying combined ultrasonication-UV energies at 60 °C; saving 30% energy compared to conventional heating system. Noticeably, this is the first insightful investigation on the application of ML as a diesel additive demonstrating significant diminutions (25.92% and 83.33% for CO and HC) in harmful emissions. The LCA of the overall ML synthesis indicates remarkable reduction in environmental pollution with 63.63% and 66.66% mitigations in GWP and ecotoxicity respectively. Thus, a sustainable ML synthesis protocol encompassing the development of E-waste derived nanophotocatalyst through conversion of rice husk and its successful use as a diesel additive could be established.
View
View
Kinetic Study and Model Assessment for n -Butyl Levulinate Production from Alcoholysis of 5-(Hydroxymethyl)furfural over Amberlite IR-120
Article
  • Jul 2022
Alkyl levulinates such as n-butyl levulinate (BL) can play an important role in the fuel sector. Classically, BL is produced from the esterification of levulinic acid, but the butanolysis (or alcoholysis) of sugars requires less stages. The industrialization of this process requires the development of process flow diagrams and thus the knowledge of reaction kinetics and thermodynamics. To the best of our knowledge, there are no kinetic models for the production of BL from sugar butanolysis over heterogeneous catalysts. The kinetics of sugar monomer butanolysis is complex over heterogeneous catalysts due to several side reactions, for example, esterification and humin productions. Hence, developing a kinetic model strategy is vital by primarily focusing on the butanolysis of 5-HMF over Amberlite IR-120. The butanolysis of 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (5-HMF) is the crucial step for the production of BL. The effects of temperature, catalyst, and 5-HMF loadings and catalyst deactivation on the kinetics of the different species were investigated. Then, different kinetic models were developed and tested by cross-validation. Special attention was given to vary widely the reaction temperature, catalyst, and 5-HMF loadings. To increase the accuracy of the estimation stage, independent experiments of levulinic and formic acid esterification, side products of 5-HMF dehydration, were included. It was found that the developed model with more reaction steps and by considering the reaction of humin production from 5-HMF as first order was the most reliable model.
View
A critical review on suitability and catalytic production of butyl levulinate as a blending molecule for green diesel
Article
  • Jun 2022
  • CHEM ENG J
Butyl levulinate (BL), derived from bio-renewable resources, is a potential blending molecule for diesel fuel. Thus, essential characteristics such as boiling point, melting point, flash point, cetane number, calorific value, kinematic viscosity, density, and surface tension of different biorenewable molecules have been assessed. It is found that the BL can be the most suitable blending molecule for diesel fuel. Post this, the current state of the art for BL production via bio-chemo-catalytic routes has been reviewed. In particular, mechanistic insight into the role of feedstock structure such as levulinic acid, furfuryl alcohol, monosaccharides including fructose, glucose, xylose, polysaccharides including cellulose, inulin, sucrose and lignocellulosic biomass on BL production have been developed. It is followed by a critical discussion of the catalyst's physicochemical properties such as physical state, structure, functional groups, acidity, surface area, and pore size to elucidate their effect on each reactant conversion and BL yield. Thus, the current review focuses on the suitability of BL as a potential blending molecule and its production methods for application in green diesel.
View
Role of solvent in enhancing the production of butyl levulinate from fructose
Article
  • Jun 2022
  • FUEL
The use of alkyl levulinates is growing interest in fuels. Adding n-butyl levulinate (BL) to fuels presents some benefits compared to ethyl levulinate. The conventional production route of BL is from the esterification of levulinic acid, but the latter compound presents some corrosion issues. Alcoholysis of fructose by butanol over cation exchange resins (solid catalyst) seems to be a better alternative. The effect of water addition, solvent, swelling effect (from the cation exchange resin), and fructose solubility at temperatures higher than 25 °C are unclear on this reaction. To understand these effects, the alcoholysis of fructose by butanol at 110 °C in different solvents, e.g., gamma-valerolactone (GVL), were studied in a pressurized autoclave in an inert environment. The dissolution study was conducted in a temperature range of 20–120 °C in different solvents. The concentration profiles of fructose, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF), 5-(butoxymethyl)furfural (BMF) and BL were analyzed in different solvents: butanol/water, butanol, butanol/GVL/water and butanol/GVL. We found that using a butanol/GVL (70/30 wt%) solvent is better from the conversion and dissolution viewpoints.
View
Catalytic production and application of bio-renewable butyl butyrate as jet fuel blend- A review
Article
  • Feb 2022
  • J ENVIRON MANAGE
Butyl butyrate (BB) derived from bio-renewable resources is the most promising jet fuel blend. This review highlights essential properties of jet fuel, including calorific value, kinematic viscosity, freezing point, flash point, auto-ignition temperature, and density to compare with different bio-renewable chemicals, which are compatible to be blended with the jet fuel. A detailed discussion follows on the importance of intermediate formation, reaction mechanism, and catalyst properties that are critical towards the production of bio-renewable resource-derived BB. BB is primarily produced via the esterification of butyric acid (BA) in butanol (BuOH) with or without using a catalyst. The corresponding reactions are carried out in both homogeneous and heterogeneous phases, provided it has acidic properties. Thus, a wide range of acidic catalysts such as [HSO3-pmim] HSO4 ionic liquids, heteropolyacid, methanesulfonic acid, Dowex 50 Wx8-400 resins, and sulfonated char causes up to 98%, 97.9%, 93.2%, 95.3%, and 90% of BB yield, respectively are critically reviewed. Moreover, reaction mechanism, product, and by-product formation that primarily dictate the BB yield and selectivity have been comprehensively reviewed. In addition, catalytic and mechanistic insights on BB production from other bio-renewable resources such as butyric anhydride, butyraldehyde, dibutyl ether, and methanol have been discussed in this review.
View
Sustainable HMF synthesis from waste cooked rice water using fly-ash based Al2SiO5 supported nanophoto catalyst under halogen-ultrasound synergistic-energy: LCA and DFT based simulation
Article
  • Nov 2021
Unique Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺/Al2SiO5/Ti⁴⁺ nano-photocatalyst (FA_NPC*) was successfully prepared employing fly ash (FA)-based unique nano-Al2SiO5 and nano-Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ in an innovative assimilated energy-system comprising tungsten-halogen radiation and ultrasound (THUS). The energy-efficient THUS activated optimal FA_NPC* (FA_NPC*O) possessed favourably higher specific surface area (142.11 m²/g), finer nanoparticles (47.50 nm) and lower band gap energy (2.78 eV) compared (89.72 m²/g, 62.43 nm, 2.97 eV respectively) to its conventionally prepared analog (FA_NPCCO). The FA_NPC*O rendered a significantly higher HMF yield (38.37 mol %) from a kitchen waste viz., cooked rice water (CRW) under THUS at 70 °C in only 60 min compared to 21.67 mol % HMF yield provided by FA_NPCCO. The DFT based study revealed that the CRW conversion process to HMF occurred through water adsorption on FA_NPC* surface for H3O⁺ formation, followed by H3O⁺ induced CRW hydrolysis, subsequent glucose isomerization on -Ti active sites and finally fructose dehydration by H3O⁺. The LCA of the overall process confirmed that the FA_NPC*O catalysed CRW conversion process could appreciably alleviate harmful environmental parameters, viz. global warming, fossil depletion, human toxicity and metal depletion by 7.65%, 4.15%, 8.56% and 13.57% respectively in comparison with FA_NPCCO. Thus, the THUS stimulated system could favourably demonstrate the efficient and eco-friendly utilisations of two abundant waste resources, viz. fly ash and cooked rice water for a sustainable production of HMF.
View