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Comparison Between the Sustainably- and Unsustainably-Managed Pastures: The Case of Urad-Middle Banner in Inner Mongolia, China
Abstract
In order to compare the herd size, income level, and the vegetation in the sustainably-managed grazing pasture with unsustainably-managed grazing pasture, this study selected the two pastures that receive heavy-load of camel population and other two pastures receiving light-load of camel herds. In desert having xerophyite Zygophyllum xanthoxylum, the pastures were classified into unsustainably-managed herdsman pasture (UHPZ) and sustainably-managed herdsman pasture (SHPZ). In addition, pastures were ccategorized into unsustainably-managed herdsman pasture (UHPK) and sustainably-managed herdsman pasture (SHPK) in deserts dominated by Krascheninnikovia ceratoides. The vegetation volume of Zygophyllum xanthoxylum at SHPZ, UHPZ and the gravelization sample at UHPZ is 1560 cm3, 480 cm3 and 4 cm3, respectively. On the other hand, the vegetation volume of Krascheninnikovia ceratoides at SHPK, UHPK and the gravelization sample at UHPK is 840 cm3, 510 cm3 and 8 cm3, respectively. In addition, the herdsmen grazing animals in UHPZ and UHPK responded almost no income obtained over the past five years. In conclusion, the vegetation situation and the income level of the sustainable-managed pasture are significantly better than the unsustainable-managed pastures. The local ecological community maybe the major player in decision-making in favour of the Indigenous people, pastures’ vegetation management, and the livelihoods.
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The livelihood transformation for farmers and herdsmen based on the perspective of ecological protection is an important means of achieving green sustainable livelihood-ecological development. Based on survey data from 309 farmer and herdsmen households in the agro-pastoral ecotone of Tianzhu County, a coupled coordination model was used to measure the degree of coordination between livelihoods and ecology, and a multivariate logistic regression model was used to analyse the influencing factors of the transformation of different livelihood strategies of farmers and herdsmen. (1) The coupling coordination degree the four types of livelihoods with the ecology for the pure pastoral, semi-agricultural types, agricultural-industrial types and nonagricultural types and that with semipastoral farmers and herdsmen are 0.3776, 0.3611, 0.3992 and 0.5378, respectively, which belonged to the categories of mildly dysfunctional, mildly dysfunctional, verging on dissonance and barely coordinated, respectively. (2) Natural and physical capital have an inhibiting effect on the transition from purely pastoral, semiagricultural and semipastoral farmers and herdsmen into the agro-industrial or nonagricultural, with impact coefficients of − 5.604, − 6.742, − 8.784, − 9.389 respectively; Human and social capital contribute to the transition from purely pastoral, semiagricultural and semipastoral farmers and herdsmen into the agro-industrial, with impact coefficients of 5.244, 3.100, 4.260 and 3.735, respectively. (3) Grassland area per capita, the source of family income, the number of family labourers and their health condition positively promote the transition from pure pastoral, semiagricultural and semipastoral types to agro-industrialism and non-farming; livestock numbers and financial assistance hinder the transition from the pure pastoral, semiagricultural and semipastoral types to nonagricultural type. The livelihoods of farmers and herdsmen are highly dependent on local resources and the environment. livelihood transformation is imperative. The factors that affect the transformation of farmers’ and herdsmen’ livelihoods are different, thus differentiated livelihood transformation strategies should be developed.
1. How biodiversity underpins ecosystem resistance (i.e. ability to withstand environmental perturbations) and recovery (i.e. ability to return to a pre-perturbation state), and thus, stability under extreme climatic events is a timely question in ecology. To date, most studies have focussed on the role of taxonomic diversity, neglecting how community functional composition and diversity beget stability under exceptional climatic conditions. In addition, land use potentially modulates how biodiversity and ecosystem functions respond to extreme climatic conditions.
2. Using an 11-year time-series of plant biomass from 150 permanent grassland plots spanning a gradient of land-use intensity, we examined how taxonomic and functional components of biodiversity affected resistance and recovery of biomass under extreme drought.
3. The association between biodiversity, land use and biomass varied across years, especially in the driest years. Species-rich or functionally diverse communities (associated with low land-use intensity) buffered extreme droughts better, while species-poor communities or those dominated by fast-growing species (associated with high land-use intensity) had higher recovery capabilities after a moderate-to-extreme drought.
4. Synthesis. Our results show that plant community functional and taxonomic components determine grasslands resistance and recovery under moderate-to-extreme drought. In turn, this points to the importance of designing landscapes with both extensively and intensively managed grasslands. Functionally or taxonomically rich communities (favoured under low land-use intensity) would preserve biomass under extreme droughts, whereas species-poor or fast-growing communities (favoured by high land-use intensity) would restore biomass after extreme droughts.
Camels are vital to the daily life of all desert dwellers, especially Bedouins, for whom they form a source of food, a means of transportation and recreation. To appreciate the unique contribution that Arabian camels make towards the community life and the history of the desert lands, in this paper, the pastoral production systems observed across three major regions - Butana, Kordofan and Darfur - are discussed. The field survey based study was conducted from August 2011 to May 2014 using structured interview method to determine the limitations and challenges faced by camel pastoral community in main camel production regions of Sudan. The results revealed that the average of calving interval was 30 months; male camel is rutting for 3 months during rainy season. She-camel gives birth to 6-8 calves throughout the life. The average milk yield was 3 liters per day with the lactation period extended to more than 10 months. The calf is weaned for 10 months or more. Social prestige and continuity of traditional heritage are the major reasons for keeping animals rather than economic revenue. However, it was found that the security issues are limiting camel breeding practices and pastoralists’ movement in the semi-desert and mountain regions. Internal conflicts between farmers and pastoralists that often develop into tribal wars also affected pastoral production systems. Such constraints in addition to the lack of government support and favorable policies present major challenges to camel pastoral system in the region.
Extending knowledge on ecosystem stability to larger spatial scales is urgently needed because present local-scale studies are generally ineffective in guiding management and conservation decisions of an entire region with diverse plant communities. We investigated stability of plant productivity across spatial scales and hierarchical levels of organization and analyzed impacts of dominant species, species diversity, and climatic factors using a multisite survey of Inner Mongolian grassland. We found that regional stability across distant local communities was related to stability and asynchrony of local communities. Using only dominant instead of all-species dynamics explained regional stability almost equally well. The diversity of all or only dominant species had comparatively weak effects on stability and synchrony, whereas a lower mean and higher variation of precipitation destabilized regional and local communities by reducing population stability and synchronizing species dynamics. We demonstrate that, for semi-arid temperate grassland with highly uneven species abundances, the stability of regional communities is increased by stability and asynchrony of local communities and these are more affected by climate rather than species diversity. Reduced amounts and increased variation of precipitation in the future may compromise the sustainable provision of ecosystem services to human well-being in this region.
Although coal is difficult to replace in the short term, the large-scale production and consumption of coal have significant impacts on the ecological environment. The severe disturbances, such as land excavation and occupation, that accompany the mining of mineral resources have caused dramatic changes in land cover and a significant pressure on the sensitive and fragile ecological environment. To analyze the temporal and spatial evolution trends and the differences in land use in different typical mining areas in Inner Mongolia, as well as the evaluation system and driving mechanisms of land use evolution, this study takes the typical open-pit coal mines in Inner Mongolia as the research objects and, based on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, analyzes the dynamic evolution characteristics and driving factors of land use in typical open-pit coal mines in Inner Mongolia from 2001 to 2020. The change trend of land use in typical open-pit mining areas in Inner Mongolia for the past 20 years is obvious, with the highest fluctuations for grassland, mining land, cropland, and residential/industrial land. Land use in the open-pit coal mining area is greatly affected by mining factors. From the perspective of spatial variation, the most important driving factor is the distance from national roads and railways, followed by the annual average temperature and annual average precipitation and topographical conditions, such as elevation. In terms of policy, land reclamation and ecological restoration in mining areas have a positive impact on land use change. Improving the mechanism for environmental compensation in mining areas can promote the efficient and rational use of mining areas and the protection of ecosystems.
The ecological status of the grassland is not only closely related to the survival and development of all ethnic groups in China's pastoral areas but also related to the ecological security of North China, Northeast China, and even the whole country. This paper integrates the livestock reduction policy, local government and micro-herders into the same analysis framework and takes the implementation of the " A New Round of Subsidy and Incentive System for Grassland Conservation (2016–2020)"(NSISGC) as a quasi-natural experiment to investigate the influence of changes in the motivation of different herders to reduce livestock on the realization of grass-livestock balance by using a difference-in-difference model. The results indicate that: With the promulgation and implementation of a new round of Subsidy Policy, the local government's ecological governance motivation has been fully stimulated, and the phenomenon that sample herders have not reduced their livestock due to the supervision and protection of local governments has been significantly reduced or even disappeared, and the probability of achieving their household grass-livestock balance in their families has increased remarkably. However, at the same time, there are still a small number of herdsmen who have not reduced their livestock due to inadequate supervision by local governments. Further analysis found that the "one-size-fits-all" livestock reduction policy has promoted the realization of grass and livestock balance in the short term, but the promotion effect of structural livestock reduction in the long term is more obvious. The livestock reduction policy is more effective in maintaining the balance of grass and livestock in meadow steppe and desert steppe, while alpine steppe is not suitable.
Fencing is a globally ubiquitous yet largely underestimated human infrastructure. To date, most fencing‐related research and management has focused on its biophysical outcomes. However, fencing is often part of coupled human and natural systems, and inevitably affects social and ecological dynamics and the links between them. Drawing from three key case studies in the US, China, and South Africa, we delineate five social pathways through which fencing shapes social–ecological dynamics in a landscape. We show that the social functions and physical appearance of fencing conjointly form a positive feedback loop that stimulates the proliferation of fences across entire landscapes, rendering fencing a more impactful feature than expected from its ecological impacts alone. The emerging field of fence ecology and management must embrace the social–ecological complexities of fenced landscapes to minimize unanticipated social consequences.
Camels are exotic elements, which can be comprised within adventure travel companies promoting ecotourism activities. Such recreations contribute to sustainable livelihoods for local communities and educational empowerment towards nature and its conservation. At present, some local camel breeds’ survival reduces to this animal-based leisure industry and its reliability to perform and promote customized services accurately. By conducting an on-site questionnaire to customers participating in camelback riding tours, we assessed the motivational factors affecting participation, satisfaction, and loyalty in this tourism segment that may have made it socially differentiated. The sixfold combination of staff performance, culture geography, diverse and humane close interaction, camel behavior and performance, sociotemporal context, and positive previous experience involves the elemental dimensions that explain customer satisfaction and return intention probability within this entertainment business. Customer knowledge is essential for stakeholders to build personalized riding experiences and align profits with environmental sustainability and biodiversity mainstream concerns into their everyday operations. In turn, domestic camel tourist rides could be managed as a viable path to nature conservation by helping endangered local breeds to avoid their functional devaluation and potential extinction.
Krascheninnikovia ceratoides (Chenopodiaceae) is a steppe and semi-desert plant with two subspecies, K. ceratoides subsp. ceratoides, which is widespread in Eurasia, and K. ceratoides subsp. lanata, which grows in western and central North America. A few disjunct populations of K. ceratoides subsp. ceratoides are found in Anatolia, Europe and North Africa to the west of its otherwise continuous Eurasian distribution. To understand the evolutionary history of this characteristic steppe and semi-desert plant, we analysed its phylogeny and biogeography. We sequenced several loci including ITS, ETS and the chloroplast intergenic spacer regions atpB-rbcL, rpl32-trnL and trnL-trnF to establish a time-calibrated phylogeny and reconstruct intraspecific relationships. Furthermore, we identified the ploidy level of individuals. While diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid individuals have been reported in the literature, we were only able to find diploids and tetraploids. The diploids were found in the east of Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and the USA. The tetraploids were located in the west of Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Russia, and Europe. Populations were uniformly di- or tetraploid. Our results indicate that the species may have spread from the area of Mongolia, northern China and Middle Asia (i.e., the Altai Mountains region) in two opposite directions – on the one hand, diploids migrated to the east, to eastern Asia and North America, and on the other hand diploids and tetraploids migrated to the west, to western Asia and Europe. Fossil-calibrated gene trees were used to estimate the age of the species. Diversification within the species is probably of Pleistocene age. Our dated analysis indicates that the first split among extant lineages of the species took place in the Early Pleistocene (Gelasian). The spread of the main lineages is likely related to major phases of steppe and semi-desert expansions during glacial periods of the Pleistocene.
Land-use and land-cover changes have important effects on ecology, human systems, the environment, and policy at both global and regional scales. Thus, they are closely related to human activities. The extraction of more details about land-use change and grassland degradation is necessary to achieve future sustainable development in Inner Mongolia. The current study presents the patterns and processes of land-use changes over space and time, while also analyzing grassland degradation that is based on an analysis of land-use changes using a transition matrix, the Markov chain model and Moran’s I index, and a combination of long-time-scale remote sensing data as the data source. The major results indicate the following. (1) In 1990–2015, 13% (123,445 km2) of the total study area, including eight land-use types, changed. Woodland increased the most and moderate grassland decreased the most. (2) Grassland degradation, which occupied 2.8% of the total area of Inner Mongolia, was the major land-use conversion process before 2000, while, after 2000, 8.7% of the total area was restored; however, grassland degradation may still be the major ecological issue in Inner Mongolia. (3) Environmental protection policies show a close relationship with land-use conversion.
Northern China's grasslands have been losing productivity since the 1980s, when a policy known as the "grassland contracting policy" allocated commonly used grazing lands to individual herder households. Examined here is the connection between implementation of the grassland contracting policy and the loss of grassland production using the analytic concepts of ability to benefit and community failure. A gacha (village) of the Sunite Left Banner of the Xilingol League in Inner Mongolia is used as a case study to compare herder ability to benefit from rangeland resources during adverse climate events before and after policy implementation. Social-ecological resilience, access to social and ecological assets, and institutions supporting crisis relief have been affected. We find that the privatization of grassland use rights has weakened pastoralist ability to benefit from rangelands by weakening or dismantling what are identified as the rights-, structure-, and relations-based abilities that enabled pastoralists to cope with nonequilibrium conditions. This has led to a community failure that engenders feedbacks of increased impoverishment and environmental deterioration. The inflexible boundaries of quasi-private household property rights have caused the pastoral system to lose capacity to respond to drought and weather events through the flexibility of "otor" and other forms of herd movement, increasing vulnerability to environmental change.
The floristic and structural differentiation of vegetation along the altitudinal gradient in four subalpine forests of different developmental stages on Mt. Fuji has been studied. Near the forest limit a micropattern of vegetation corresponding to the altitudinal zonation has been observed which elucidated the mechanisms of development of the vegetation zonation.
As to early stages of vegetation development only two types can be distinguished: the volcanic desert above 1500 m and the pioneer forests below. As to later stages a differentiation of subzones includes from higher to lower altitudes: the Alnus maximowiczii, Betula ermanii, Abies veitchii and Tsuga diversifolia forests. Larix leptolepis and Sorbus americana ssp. japonica, appear as co-dominants in ecotonal communities between the principal subzones and are also important pioneers in early stages. Similarity analyses reveal that the upper subalpine Alnus-Betula forests can be regarded as early successional phases of the climax Abies-Tsuga forests of the lower subalpine zone.
The regular arrangement of A. maximowiczii-B. ermanii-A. veitchii is studied along the gradient from the margin to the interior of the forest growing near the forest limit where locally favourable conditions prevail. Growth form, height growth, photosynthetic activity, seed supply, and seedling distribution of the three principal species have been compared, as well as biomass and production relations in contiguous forests of these species. The marginal Alnus type community is productive and disturbance-tolerant, and has a wide ecological and sociological amplitude along the gradient, while the central Abies community is accumulative and disturbance-intolerant, and has a narrower tolerance range, but is superior in competition under stable habitat conditions. A vegetation organization, ‘temporal multi-storeyed structure’, is suggested which means that a zonal pattern of vegetation within a climax region develops by successive replacement of successional species along an environmental gradient.
Early successional patterns of herbaceous communities in forest clear-felling sites were investigated along a topographical
gradient, which included ridge, slope and valley habitat types, in warm-temperate evergreen forest regions of central Japan
for 5 years. Three dominant species with wind-dispersed seeds played a major role in the succession: an annual,Crassocephalum crepidioides, a biennial,Erigeron canadensis, and a perennial,Miscanthus sinensis. Pioneer herbs that have a seed-bank strategy, which are common in old field succession, were not found in the mountainous
sites. The persistence of the annual or biennial dominants during the very early stages of secondary succession was different
in the three topographical habitat types. In the ridge habitat,M. sinensis dominated from the first year state, andC. crepidioides andE. canadensis were less prominent.Crassocephalum crepidioides andE. canadensis became dominant as one moved down the slope. In the valley habitat,C. crepidioides dominated in the first year stage, was succeeded byE. canadensis in the second year, and thenM. sinensis gradually replaced it in later years. As all three wind-dispersed dominants simultaneously invaded in all the habitat types
after clear-felling, the different successional patterns along the topographical gradient might have resulted from differences
in the establishment ability and the growth rate of the three dominants depending on the three habitat types.
The ecological consequences of biodiversity loss have aroused considerable interest and controversy during the past decade. Major advances have been made in describing the relationship between species diversity and ecosystem processes, in identifying functionally important species, and in revealing underlying mechanisms. There is, however, uncertainty as to how results obtained in recent experiments scale up to landscape and regional levels and generalize across ecosystem types and processes. Larger numbers of species are probably needed to reduce temporal variability in ecosystem processes in changing environments. A major future challenge is to determine how biodiversity dynamics, ecosystem processes, and abiotic factors interact.
Numerous studies have suggested that biodiversity reduces variability in ecosystem productivity through compensatory effects; that is, a species increases in its abundance in response to the reduction of another in a fluctuating environment. But this view has been challenged on several grounds. Because most studies have been based on artificially constructed grasslands with short duration, long-term studies of natural ecosystems are needed. On the basis of a 24-year study of the Inner Mongolia grassland, here we present three key findings. First, that January-July precipitation is the primary climatic factor causing fluctuations in community biomass production; second, that ecosystem stability (conversely related to variability in community biomass production) increases progressively along the hierarchy of organizational levels (that is, from species to functional group to whole community); and finally, that the community-level stability seems to arise from compensatory interactions among major components at both species and functional group levels. From a hierarchical perspective, our results corroborate some previous findings of compensatory effects. Undisturbed mature steppe ecosystems seem to culminate with high biodiversity, productivity and ecosystem stability concurrently. Because these relationships are correlational, further studies are necessary to verify the causation among these factors. Our study provides new insights for better management and restoration of the rapidly degrading Inner Mongolia grassland.
Pastoral nomadism is on the retreat globally and is being displaced by sedentary land use systems. We analysed the socioeconomics and socioecological feedbacks of mobile livestock-keeping at two sites in the forest-steppe of western Mongolia. Our study areas differed in the herders’ responses to recent changes in the socioeconomic conditions and in climate. One difference was in the spatiotemporal exploitation of the available pastureland with seasonal movements. In one region, most pastoralists have reduced or even stopped seasonal movements. This made the pastoral social-ecological systems (SES) less resilient to climate warming. A key factor fostering the herders’ mobility and market opportunities was the ownership of trucks.
Environmental justice is a key concept for understanding the contested relationship between pastoralism and conservation. Our study adopted a political approach to examine conservation, pastoralism, and justice in the context of the grazing ban policy in China. Employing a qualitative, in-depth case study, we investigated the local political actors and processes that lead to environmental (in)justice. The evidence shows how injustice is perpetuated by both centralized and decentralized political processes and how herders use their knowledge and strategies in resistance to the injustice. In addition, the study contributed to a pluralistic understanding of justice by examining the different notions of justice held by the herders. We found that herders perceive injustices through different lenses, namely economic, ecological, and cultural aspects. Further, the similarities and differences between Han and Mongolian herders are discussed in terms of their notions of environmental justice and counteractions.
This paper investigates how land tenure reform has affected livestock production in the pastoral
areas of China. County-level data for Inner Mongolia between 1985 and 2008 are used in a fixed
effects model to disentangle the effects of land tenure reform on livestock production from factors
related to market forces, grassland condition, technological development and environmental
heterogeneity. The results show that the implementation of the land tenure reform slowed down
the increase in livestock production, although it did not completely stop this increase. It therefore
appears that land reform is in itself unable to offset the impact of other factors that accelerate the
increase in livestock production. Moreover, the constraining effect of the land tenure reform on
the increase in livestock production decreases over time, and ultimately disappears. Finally, the
constraining effect of the land tenure reform was shown to be stronger on the increase of the
livestock population than on that of meat output. This indicates that the land tenure reform has
helped to improve livestock productivity.
Species diversity is a major determinant of ecosystem productivity stability invasibility, and nutrient dynamics. Hundreds of studies spanning terrestrial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems show that high-diversity mixtures are approximately twice as productive as monocultures of the same species and that this difference increases through time. These impacts of higher diversity have multiple causes, including interspecific complementarity, greater use of limiting resources, decreased herbivory and disease, and nutrient-cycling feedbacks that increase nutrient stores and supply rates over the long term. These experimentally observed effects of diversity are consistent with predictions based on a variety of theories that share a common feature: All have trade-off-based mechanisms that allow long-term coexistence of many different competing species. Diversity loss has an effect as great as, or greater than, the effects of herbivory, fire, drought, nitrogen addition, elevated CO2, and other drivers of environmental change. The preservation, conservation, and restoration of biodiversity should be a high global priority.
China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region is experiencing a marked decline in grassland quality partially as a result of government policies to sedentarize nomadic pastoralists and privatized collective grasslands. Previous research suggests that traditional forms of cooperation among Inner Mongolian pastoralists have deteriorated as a result of privatization and sedentarization. Herders in New Barag Right Banner (n = 50) representing both sedentary and mobile livestock management strategies were asked to respond to a scaled survey regarding their attitudes towards cooperation with other pastoralists. Inter-rater reliability and Mann-Whitney U Tests were utilized to compare the attitudes towards cooperation across sedentary and mobile settlement categories and to assess whether or not sedentary and mobile herders share the same cultural model regarding cooperation. The authors show that there is both high intra- and inter-group agreement on the survey variables across settlement categories, indicating that sedentary and mobile herders share the same cultural model regardless of their settlement pattern.
This article reviews how the European Union Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) currently addresses pastoralists' needs in Europe, and could further contribute to sustainable management of pastoral areas. The CAP provides a set of financial subsidies to farmers in the form of market, income and rural development support. We first present a brief overview of the CAP, its basic principles, the available instruments, recent developments and finally discuss the future challenges and potentials for pastoralists in the European Union.
We surveyed the floristic composition and analyzed the patterns of floristic composition under different grazing intensities in the semi-arid area of Bulgan, in the South Gobi of Mongolia. We sampled 90 quadrats at six points (15 quadrats each) along a transect from a spring and grouped them into five vegetation types by using TWINSPAN. All or most of the quadrats at each point corresponded to one of the five vegetation types. The DCA axis 1 arranged all the quadrats in order of grazing intensity, and the floristic composition changed dramatically in a lopsided stepwise-pattern along this axis. The composition ratio for five groups clustered by TWINSPAN according to plant functional types (toxicity or palatability, and life-form) and family varied to a greater or lesser extent. Background environmental factors such as soil moisture or landform did not effect much on the pattern of the floristic composition at this site. The patterns of floristic composition were determined by grazing intensity (determined as distance from the spring) together with palatability, which was the dominant environmental effect at the site.
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