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Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
Available online 8 July 2024
0169-1368/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Geochronological and sulde geochemical evidence for gold mineralization
related to post-collisional magmatism in the Wulonggou goldeld of the
East Kunlun Orogen, northern Tibet
Qilin Wang
a
, Jinyang Zhang
a
,
*
, Liang Pan
a
, Qin Huang
a
, Changqian Ma
b
,
c
, Jianwei Li
a
,
c
,
Yuanming Pan
d
a
School of Earth Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
b
School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
d
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon S7N 5E2, Canada
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Lode gold deposits
Geochronological
Post-collisional
Wulonggou
Kunlun Orogen
ABSTRACT
The relationships among magmatism, orogeny, and gold mineralization in lode gold deposits have been
controversial for a long time. The East Kunlun Orogen in northern Tibet has experienced a complex Paleo-
Tethyan tectono-magmatic evolution and hosts the largest Wulonggou lode gold deposits (>120 t). The
Shuizhadonggou-Huanglonggou (SZDG-HLG) gold deposit is the largest in the Wulonggou goldeld and is an
excellent candidate for solving the controversy through detailed eld observations, magmatic and hydrothermal
mineral in-situ U-Pb dating, and gold-bearing sulde in-situ trace elements and sulfur-lead isotopes. Gold
mineralization in the SZDG-HLG deposit includes sulde disseminations and minor amounts of small quartz-
sulde veins in hydrothermal alteration assemblages along a ductile shear zone. Gold mineralization can be
divided into four stages based on crosscutting relationships and associated alteration assemblages. U-Pb ages
from magmatic zircon, hydrothermal rutile, and hydrothermal monazite support eld relationships that gold
mineralization was later than the ductile deformation but synchronous with the post-collisional porphyries. Gold
mineralization evolved from high to low temperatures (560℃ to less than 300℃), accompanied by markedly
decreased sulfur fugacities (–6.3 to –12.5) and oxygen fugacities (–20.7 to –40.5). The gradual increase of sulfur
isotopes (δ
34
S) from stage 1 (–0.9 to 1.8 ‰ in Py1a) to stage 3 (up to 8 ‰) is ascribed to sulde precipitation from
a nite uid reservoir, while the sharp decrease of δ
34
S values in stage 4 (down to –24 ‰) is caused by the uid
oxidation. The negative covariations of δ
34
S and Se/S values, positive correlations between Au and chalcophile
elements (As, Sb, Te, and Bi) in most suldes, and overlapping lead isotopes of suldes and Late Triassic
granodiorite-diorite conrm a post-collisional magmatic gold and sulfur source. This study demonstrates that
lode gold deposits in Phanerozoic orogens having similar characteristics to their counterparts in Archean
metamorphic terranes can be genetically related to post-collisional magmatism.
1. Introduction
Lode gold deposits provide about a third of the world’s gold pro-
duction. They are structurally hosted lode gold vein systems including
quartz-sulde veins and sulde disseminations in altered wall rocks and
mainly formed in the Neoarchean, the Paleoproterozoic, and the Phan-
erozoic (Frimmel, 2008). Lode gold deposits have been controversial for
a long time over the gold origin (Wang et al., 2021), especially regarding
the magmatic contribution to gold mineralization (Goldfarb and Groves,
2015; Goldfarb and Pitcairn, 2023; Wang et al., 2019). Although ore-
forming uids and materials for lode gold deposits in Archean green-
stone belts have been commonly considered to be derived from meta-
morphic devolatilization of upper crustal rocks, gold mineralization
genetically associated with magmatism has also been proposed based on
robust geochronology (Fabricio-Silva et al., 2021; Vielreicher et al.,
2015), detailed mineralization and alteration patterns (Lawrence et al.,
2013), and multiple sulfur isotope architecture (Godefroy-Rodríguez
et al., 2020). It is usually difcult to conrm the relationships among
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangjinyang@cug.edu.cn (J. Zhang).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ore Geology Reviews
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/oregeorev
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2024.106155
Received 17 February 2024; Received in revised form 19 June 2024; Accepted 6 July 2024
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
2
intrusive magmatism, regional metamorphism, gold mineralization, and
tectonic deformation in Archean greenstone belts (Duuring et al., 2007).
In contrast, Phanerozoic orogens hosting lode gold deposits, for
example, the East Kunlun Orogen (EKO), generally preserve distinct
tectono-magmatic records and are ideal candidates to analyze these
relationships and to reveal the gold origin.
The EKO in the northern Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 1a) hosts the
Wulonggou (>120 t Au) and Gouli (>110 t Au) lode gold deposits (Chen,
2018; Feng et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2017). The timing and gold sources
of these deposits have been debated (Chen, 2018; Liang et al., 2021;
Zhang et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2021a). Gold-bearing pyrite Re-Os
isochron ages of 215 Ma (Yue and Zhou, 2022) and 375–354 Ma
(Chen, 2018) have been reported in the same deposit from the Gouli
goldeld. This is similar to the Wulonggou goldeld with mineralization
ages of 422 Ma by monazite U-Pb dating (Zhang et al., 2022b) and
238–217 Ma by monazite U-Pb, sericite Ar-Ar, quartz or pyrite Rb-Sr,
and pyrite Re-Os methods (e.g., Chen, 2018; Wu et al., 2021; Zhang
et al., 2017). Gold sources of these deposits have been interpreted to be
either magmatic (e.g., Chen, 2018; Zhang et al., 2017) or metamorphic
(e.g., Liu, 2017) based on the ages and C-H-O-S-Pb isotopes. As to the
magmatic origin, gold mineralization is genetically related to either
intermediate-felsic intrusions at ca. 240 Ma (Chen, 2019b; Chen et al.,
2019a; Wu et al., 2021) or porphyries at ca. 220 Ma (Zhang et al., 2017).
Obviously, lode gold mineralization derived from magmatism cannot
last for tens of millions of years (Cathles et al., 1997; Goldfarb and
Groves, 2015; Turner and Costa, 2007) and further studies about the
relationships between intrusive magmatism and gold mineralization are
necessary.
The Shuizhadonggou-Huanglonggou (SZDG-HLG) gold deposit in the
Wulonggou goldeld is representative and the largest with more than
80 t of gold (Liu, 2017). In this paper, we report detailed geological and
petrographical observations, U-Pb dating of magmatic zircon from the
mineralized porphyry and hydrothermal rutile and monazite associated
with gold mineralization, and trace elements, sulfur and lead isotopes of
gold-bearing suldes of the SZDG-HLG gold deposit to elucidate the gold
source and establish its genetic linkage with post-collisional
magmatism.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Geology of the East Kunlun orogen
The EKO is jointed by the Bayanhar Terrane to the south and the
Tarim Block to the north (Fig. 1). It extends for about 1500 km from east
to west, and is truncated by the Altyn Tagh strike-slip fault in the west
and adjacent to the Qinling Orogen in the east (Jiang et al., 1992). The
EKO has an Archean-Paleoproterozoic basement with inherited zircon
ages of 2243–3701 Ma and has witnessed multistage subduction and
collision from Neoproterozoic to Early Mesozoic (He et al., 2016). The
Proto-Tethyan Ocean might have started to subduct at 520 Ma (Dong
et al., 2018; Fu et al., 2022). The 430 Ma eclogites were considered to be
the characteristic product of collision (e.g., Guo et al., 2018a). The Late
Silurian molasses and A2-type granites highlight the post-collisional
extension (Zhang et al., 2021). The subduction of the Paleo-Tethyan
Ocean has been suggested to start as early as 270 Ma and continue to
240 Ma (Zhang et al., 2023a). The syn-collisional stage is indicated by
Middle Triassic granite porphyries and syenogranites, while the post-
collisional extension is signied by Late Triassic molasses, diorites-
granodiorites, and mac dikes (Zhang et al., 2023a).
The EKO is divided into the Northern, Middle, and Southern zones by
North, Middle and South Kunlun faults from north to south (Fig. 1b). The
Northern Zone consists mainly of Ordovician Qimantagh clastic-
volcanic rocks and Devonian Maoniushan molasses intruded by Early
Paleozoic or Early Mesozoic granites (Gao, 2013; Jiang et al., 1992; Yan
et al., 2019). The Middle Zone is characterized by a large number of
Phanerozoic granites (Dong et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2023a) and Pre-
cambrian Jinshuikou and Binggou low to high-grade metamorphic rocks
(Jiang et al., 1992; Li, 2015). The Southern Zone consists of many
Triassic ysch successions underlain unconformably over Mesoproter-
ozoic Kuhai or Wanbaogou volcanic-sedimentary complexes (Liu et al.,
2005; Wang et al., 2007). Early Paleozoic to Late Triassic granites
intruded in the eastern of the Southern Zone (Dong et al., 2018; Zhang
et al., 2023a). The North, Middle and South Kunlun faults were reac-
tivated in multiple stages and have cut through the Moho according to
geophysical characteristics (Tian, 2012 and references therein). Distinct
ophiolites situated along the faults are important lines of evidence for
the Proto to Paleo-Tethyan Ocean (Dong et al., 2018; Pei et al., 2018;
Yang et al., 2009).
Gold mineralization in the EKO is concentrated in the Triassic and
mainly includes Early-Middle Triassic skarn gold-bearing copper or iron
deposits (Chen et al., 2016; Namkha et al., 2014), Middle Triassic vol-
canogenic massive sulde gold polymetallic deposits (Zhao et al.,
2021b), Middle-Late Triassic lode gold deposits (Chen, 2018; Feng et al.,
2021; Jing et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2017), Late Triassic porphyry
copper–gold deposits (Huang, 2021), and Late Triassic lode gold-
antimony deposits (Xing et al., 2022).
2.2. Geology of the Wulonggou goldeld
The Wulonggou goldeld is located 65 km to the east of the Golmud
city (Fig. 1b). The Archean-Paleoproterozoic Baishahe Complex in the
northeast of the goldeld (Fig. 2) is composed of gneiss, schist,
amphibolite, and granulite with lenticular marble. The Mesoproterozoic
Xiaomiao Formation in the southwest of the area consists of gneiss,
schist, marble, and granulite. The protoliths of the Baishahe Complex
and the Xiaomiao Formation are volcanic-sedimentary rocks and con-
tinental clastic-carbonate rocks, respectively (Chen et al., 2011a,b;
Wang et al., 2007) and underwent amphibolite- to granulite-facies
metamorphism at 460–430 Ma and crustal anatexis at 402–396 Ma
(Wang et al., 2003; Yu, 2005; Zhang et al., 2003). The Neoproterozoic
Qiujidonggou Formation in the middle of the area is composed of
conglomerate, sandstone, and marble. The Ordovician Qimantagh
Group in the area consists of tuff, slate, and volcanic breccia (Zhang
et al., 2017). These strata were intruded by magmatic rocks with an age
N
Fig. 1. (a) Tectonic divisions of China showing the location of the EKO (revised after Zhang et al., 2017). (b) Geological map of the EKO showing the distribution of
gold deposits (modied after Dong et al., 2018). NKF =North Kunlun Fault, MKF =Middle Kunlun Fault, SKF =South Kunlun Fault.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
3
span of 427 Ma (Zhang et al., 2021) to 210 Ma (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). The
Late Permian to Middle Triassic diorite and granodiorite in the northeast
and Late Silurian to Early Devonian granodiorite and syenogranite in the
southwest are exposed in the large area of the goldeld (Fig. 2). Minor
amounts of Ordovician mac–ultramac rocks, Middle Triassic mac
dykes, and Late Triassic porphyritic granodiorite and porphyritic quartz
diorite are in the middle of the area (Fig. 3).
Structurally, three folds and three ductile shear zones are regularly
spaced from northeast to southwest in the goldeld (Fig. 2). The
Heishishan synclinorium in the northeast is composed of the Baishahe
Complex. The Yingshigou-Hongqigou (YSG-HQG) overturned synclino-
rium consists of the Qiujidonggou and Xiaomiao formations. The
Dachaigou-Sandaoliang synclinorium in the southwest is composed of
the Xiaomiao Formation. The axes of the Heishishan synclinorium is
NWW-EW, and the other two synclinoria are NWW-SE. The three
sinistral ductile shear zones (Yanjingou, YSG-HQG, and Dachaigou-
Sandaoliang-Zhongzhigou) are 0.3–2 km in width, 10–20 km in
length, NW trending, and 55◦–70◦in dip angle. The Yanjingou and YSG-
N
Fig. 2. Geological map of the Wulonggou goldeld showing the location of the SZDG-HLG gold deposit (modied and simplied after Zhang et al. (2017)). Number
in the rectangle represents the age in previous studies: 1, (Zhang et al., 2017); 2, (Guo et al., 2018b); 3, (Chen, 2019b); 4, (Zhang et al., 2005); 5, (Kou et al., 2010); 6,
(Li, 2014); 7, (Cheng et al., 2019); 8, (Kou and Zhang, 2014); 9, (Xia, 2017); 10, (Li et al., 2023b; Li et al., 2023a). The black, red and yellow colors of the numbers
represent the ages of magmatism, metamorphism, mineralization, respectively. ED: Early Devonian, EO: Early Ordovician, LP: Late Permian, LS: Late Silurian, LT:
Late Triassic. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 3. Geological map of the SZDG-HLG gold deposit showing the location of exploration lines. The base map is from Zhang et al. (2017). Numbers in the rectangle
represent zircon LA-ICPMS U-Pb ages of previous studies: 1, (Zhang et al., 2017); 2, (Ding et al., 2014); 3, (Song, 2019); 4, (Lu, 2011); 5, (Zhang, 2018).
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
4
HQG ductile shear zones dip to NE, while the Dachaigou-Sandaoliang-
Zhongzhigou ductile shear zone dips to SW. The YSG-HQG ductile
shear zone has experienced deep (15–25 km) and high-temperature
(355–600 ◦C) deformation based on studies of quartz electron back-
scatter diffraction (Chen et al., 2018; Qian et al., 1999).
Gold deposits at Wulonggou are mainly distributed along the three
ductile shear zones (Fig. 2) and controlled by the brittle faults formed
after ductile shearing (Zhang, 2018). Gold mineralization is mainly
sulde disseminations overprinted by quartz-sulde veins. The average
ore grade is about 4.42 g/t but the highest grade reaches 385 g/t (Zhang
et al., 2011).
2.3. Geology of the Shuizhadonggou-Huanglonggou gold deposit
The SZDG-HLG gold deposit is located in the southern boundary
thrust faults of the YSG-HQG ductile shear zone. It is the largest and most
representative gold deposit in the Wulonggou goldeld (Zhang et al.,
2011). The host lithologies include schist, gneiss, and marble of the
Xiaomiao Formation, schist and marble from the Qiujidonggou Forma-
tion, and slate, tuff and volcanic breccia of the Qimantagh Group. Late
Silurian-Early Devonian syenogranite were intruded by the Late Triassic
porphyritic granodiorite and the porphyritic quartz diorite along the
ductile shear zone (Fig. 3) (Zhang et al., 2017; Zhang, 2018).
The YSG-HQG shear zone cuts through the YSG-HQG overturned
synclinorium (Fig. 3). It is about 30–100 m wide and is characterized by
ductile deformation with rotated porphyroclasts, asymmetric fold of
quartz veins, and S-C fabrics (Chen et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2017). The
ductile shearing deformation aged at 250–240 Ma (Chen, 2019b; Kou
and Zhang, 2014; Kou et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2017) overprinted
Middle Triassic granodiorites and their hosted mac microgranular
enclaves (Fig. 4a–b), but was intruded by Late Triassic porphyries. The
porphyries remain undeformed and are crosscut by an early thrust
(Fig. 4c) followed by strike-slip and normal faults (Fig. 4d) (Zhang et al.,
2017).
3. Mineralization and hydrothermal alteration
3.1. Ore bodies
A total of 105 ore bodies have been found in the SZDG-HLG deposit,
of which 80 are in the Huanglonggou area (Liu, 2017). Ore bodies are
mainly distributed in the YSG-HQG ductile shear zone in the form of
stratiform-like, banded, lenticular, and vein (Fig. 3). They have a steep
dip to the northeast similar to dip directions of the ductile shear zone
and have characteristics of expansion, narrowing, and pinching in both
strike and dip directions (Zhang et al., 2017). The ore bodies with the
high grades of 1.41–6.60 g/t are commonly 100–200 m in length, 1–15
m in width, and ca. 300 m in depth (Zhang et al., 2017).
Most of ore bodies are hosted in the fragmented syenogranite, tuff-
aceous slate, and few in the schist, gneiss or porphyritic quartz diorite.
They are located at or near the hanging wall of the faults (Fig. 5). The
ores contain arsenopyrite, pyrite, and quartz veins mainly precipitated
in the ductile shearing foliations (Fig. 5g) or thrusting fault zones
(Fig. 6a–b) and thus are controlled by the thrust faults (Fig. 6a, and
Fig. 6c). The undeformed porphyries that intruded in the mylonitic
granite have hydrothermal quartz and sericite and disseminated pyrite
(Fig. 5b), and are apparently altered and mineralized along the north-
dipping ore-controlling thrust faults as in the No. 35 exploration line
at 3555 m (Fig. 5a). The ores and the ore-forming thrust faults were cut
by the strike-slip faults in the No. 19 exploration line at 3595 m
(Fig. 5h–i). The ore-controlling thrust faults evidenced by oblique
scratches were reactivated by the strike-slip faults with horizontal
scratches (Fig. 6c–e).
3.2. Hydrothermal alteration
Mineralization is accompanied by abundant silicication, sericiti-
zation, chloritization, and carbonatization. Silicication and sericitiza-
tion are the most common alteration types. Silicication is extensive in
the orebodies (e.g., Fig. 5g). It mostly occurs in the disseminated ores
(Fig. 7a–b) and altered porphyries (Fig. 7c). The hydrothermal sericite is
Fig. 4. Field photographs showing the sequences of difference in deformation between the Middle Triassic (MT) granodiorite and the Late Triassic (LT) porphyritic
granodiorite. (a–b) Plagioclase porphyroclasts and elongated mac microgranular enclaves in the MT granodiorite. (c) Thrust fault with tectonic lenses in the
porphyritic granodiorite. (d) Sinistral strike-slip fault with horizontal scratches in the porphyritic granodiorite.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
5
Fig. 5. Representative proles showing the spatial relationships between magmatism, deformation and gold mineralization in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. Numbers
in the rectangle represent zircon LA-ICPMS U-Pb ages of this study (216.9 Ma) and unpublished data (414 Ma). (a–b) Altered porphyritic granodiorite (216.9 Ma,
U–Pb) having disseminated sericite and pyrite in the footwall of ore-controlling fault in the No. 35 exploration line at 3555 m. (c) The mylonitic granite having
arsenopyrite and quartz-pyrite veins. (d) The quartz vein in the ores cut by calcite veins. (e) The orebodies in the fault zone in the No. 19 exploration line at 3595 m.
(f-g) Pyrite, sericite, and quartz-calcite veins along the thrust fault. (h) Thrust fault with oblique scratches (i) activated by strike-slip fault with horizontal scratches.
Abbreviations: Apy =arsenopyrite, Cal =calcite, Py =pyrite, Qz =quartz, Ser =sericite.
Fig. 6. Field photographs and photomicrographs of faults with ore bodies. (a) Thrust fault with tectonic lenses cuts ductile shearing deformation. (b) Gold-bearing
pyrite and arsenopyrite in the thrust fault zone. Reected polarized-light (PL). (c–e) Thrust fault with oblique scratches (d) activated by sinistral strike-slip fault with
horizontal scratches (e). (f) Hand specimen showing quartz and pyrite on the hanging wall of the fault. (g) Thrust fault with tectonic lenses. (h–i): Strike-slip fault
lled by calcite-sulde veins (i).
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
6
mainly altered from feldspar and is often accompanied by chlorite in
strongly mineralized ores (Fig. 7a). Two types of sericite are common in
ores: coarse-grained sericite aggregates in the outside of fragmented
quartz and ne-grained sericite veins or bands with suldes (Fig. 7b).
Hydrothermal chlorite is commonly associated with sericite and
quartz in the ores (Fig. 7a) or was mostly altered from pre-existing
amphibole in the porphyries (Fig. 7d). Carbonatization is generally
superimposed on early alteration (Fig. 7e) and is commonly associated
with altered amphibole of the porphyries. Rutile grains are related to
hydrothermal sericite and chlorite (Fig. 7a, c–d) and are coarse-grained
Fig. 7. Transmitted (a–e) and reected (f) photomicrographs showing representative alteration from the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. (a) Chlorite and sericite beside
disseminated arsenopyrite, Cross-polarized light (CPL) image. (b) Filamentous or ne-grained (FG) sericite related to sphalerite. CPL image. (c) Sericitization of
feldspar in the porphyry. Polarized light (PL) image. (c) Chloritization of amphibole and matrix in the porphyry. CPL image. (e) Calcite associated with pyrite cut
sericite. CPL image. (f) Rutile associated with aresopyrite. Reected PL image. (g) Fine-grained monazite around or in apatite cataclasts. BSE image. (h) Coarse-
grained cataclasts of monazite and apatite. BSE image. Abbreviations: Ap =apatite, Apy =arsenopyrite, Au =gold, Cal =calcite, Chl =chlorite, Mon =Mona-
zite, Py =pyrite, Qz =quartz, Rt =rutile, Ser =sericite, Sp =sphalerite.
Fig. 8. Paragenetic sequence of alteration minerals in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. The widths of the solid lines denote relative abundance of minerals. Dashed lines
indicate local presence of a mineral.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
7
in the disseminated mineralization (Fig. 7f) and ne-grained in altered
porphyries. Some coarse-grained rutile grains are associated with ne-
grained monazite and both of them surround cataclastic apatite in the
disseminated ores (Fig. 7g). Some coarse-grained monazite grains are
near cataclastic apatite and also show cataclastic characteristics
(Fig. 7h).
3.3. Paragenetic sequence and ore mineralogy
The crosscutting relationships among different types of veins are
used to distinguish different stages of gold mineralization and associated
hydrothermal alteration. Disseminated arsenopyrite, pyrite and pyr-
rhotite are cut by all types of veins and clearly are the earliest. Quartz-
polymetallic veins cut quartz-pyrite veins (Zhang et al., 2017). Calcite
veins cut quartz-pyrite veins (Fig. 5d). Barren quartz and calcite veinlets
represent the end of hydrothermal uids. In summary, four stages for the
SZDG-HLG gold deposit are recognized: (1) disseminated arsenopyrite-
pyrrhotite (stage 1), (2) quartz-pyrite veins (stage 2), (3) quartz-
polymetallic veins (stage 3), and (4) quartz-calcite veins (stage 4)
(Fig. 8).
Suldes of stage 1 are arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite (Fig. 5c),
as well as small amounts of lollingite, visible gold, and molybdenite. In
general, suldes in stage 2 is smaller in size than its counterpart in stage
3. Five types of pyrite, two types of arsenopyrite, and one type of pyr-
rhotite were recognized in ores based on morphology, texture, and
paragenesis.
Disseminated pyrite (Py1) occurs coarse-grained pyritohedra and is
widely distributed in the ores (Fig. 9a–c). It is associated with hydro-
thermal quartz and commonly shows zonal textures with subhedral to
euhedral cores (Py1a) surrounded by narrow rims (py1b) (Fig. 9a) or
ne-grained subhedral pyrite (Py1c) (Fig. 9b). Pyrite (Py2) in quartz-
pyrite veins is subhedral to anhedral and vein-like aggregates (Fig. 5c
and Fig. 9d). Chalcopyrite and sphalerite are occasionally lled in the
microfractures at the edge of quartz-pyrite veins (Fig. 9d). Pyrite (Py3)
in quartz-calcite-pyrite veins (Fig. 9f–g) is ne-grained, euhedral with
few (Py3a) or many pores (Py3b). Pyrite in quartz-polymetallic veins
(Py3c) is usually coated and replaced by sphalerite or marcasite
(Fig. 9g). Pyrite (Py4) in quartz-calcite veins is sparse, ne-grained
(<30
μ
m), and in fractures (Fig. 9h). Pyrite (Py-p) in altered por-
phyries is coarse-grained, subhedral to euhedral, and usually charac-
terized by zonations with euhedral cores, dirty mantles, and euhedral
rims (Fig. 10).
Abundant arsenopyrite crystals (Apy1) in disseminated ores are
anhedral to euhedral, coarse-grained, coated and cut by pyrrhotite
(Fig. 11a–d). It is commonly overgrown by lollingite. Visible gold occurs
near the contacts or micro-cracks between these two minerals (Fig. 11c).
Arsenopyrite (Apy2) in quartz-polymetallic veins is ne-grained, needle-
like, euhedral aggregates around pyrrhotite and sphalerite (Fig. 11e–f).
Pyrrhotite (Po1a) in disseminated ores occurs as ne-grained in-
clusions in arsenopyrite (Fig. 11b). Pyrrhotite (Po1b) in disseminated
ores is coarse-grained, occasionally encapsulated and metasomatised by
py2 (Fig. 9e), or occurs as veins in arsenopyrite (Fig. 11d). Chalcopyrite
exsolution lamellae (Fig. 11d) and triple junction textures (Fig. 11e)
were observed in Po1b.
4. Analytical methods and results
4.1. Sampling and Analytical methods
Samples with different suldes and alterations from different host
rocks, exploration lines, and elevations were selected for in-situ
geochemical analyses. Different kinds of analyses were made on the
same grains where possible. Uranium-Pb dating of hydrothermal
monazite and rutile closely associated with arsenopyrite was used to
determine the age of gold mineralization. In order to further conrm the
gold source and its relationship with magmatism in the SZDG-HLG gold
Fig. 9. Reected-light photomicrographs showing typical morphologies and textures of pyrite in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. (a) Disseminated pyrite with a core
(Py1a) and euhedral rim (Py1b). (b) Euhedral pyrite (Py1a) wrapped by coarse-grained subhedral pyrite (Py1c). (c) Disseminated euhedral pyrite (Py1a) wrapped by
pyrrhotite (Po1b). (d) Chalcopyrite lled in quartz +coarse-grained pyrite veins. (e) Pyrrhotite encapsulated by pyrite in quartz vein. (f) Pyrite with dissolution
(Py3a) and reprecipitation (Py3b) in quartz-calcite vein. (g) Pyrite (Py3c) in polymetallic veins wrapped by sphalerite and galena. (h) Pyrite (Py4) in quartz-calcite
veinlets. (i) Magnetite after chalcopyrite in calcite veinlets. Abbreviations: Cal =calcite, Ccp =chalcopyrite, Gn =galena, Mrc =marcasite, Mt =magnetite, Po =
pyrrhotite, Py =pyrite, Rt =rutile, Sp =sphalerite.
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Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
8
deposit, zircon U-Pb ages and trace elements and sulde sulfur isotopes
in the altered porphyries, lead isotopes of the fresh porphyries and
hosting mac microgranular enclaves (MMEs) in the deposit were also
studied. Detailed information of representative samples is shown in
Appendix 1 and Table A1.
Analytical methods mentioned above are described in Appendix 2.
Briey, rutile, zircon, and monazite U-Pb dating as well as sulde and
arsenide trace element analyses were conducted by LA-ICP-MS. Sulfur
and lead isotopes of selected sulphides were determined by LA-MC-ICP-
MS. Whole-rock lead isotopes were analysed by MC-ICP-MS. These an-
alyses were completed in the following laboratories or institutions: (1)
the Wuhan SampleSolution Analytical Technology Co., Ltd., Wuhan,
China, (2) the Guangzhou Tuoyan Analytical Technology Co., Ltd.,
Guangzhou, China, (3) the LA-ICP-MS laboratory of National Research
Center for Geoanalysis, Beijing, China, (4) the State Key Laboratory of
Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geo-
sciences, Wuhan, China, (5) the Collaborative Innovation Center for
Exploration of Strategic Mineral Resources, China University of Geo-
sciences, Wuhan, China, and (6) the Nanjing FocuMS Technology Co.
Ltd., Nanjing, China.
4.2. Zircon, rutile, and monazite U-Pb ages
Zircon grains of the altered porphyry (HL12-2) are mostly colorless,
euhedral, columnar, and about 100–200
μ
m long with length–width
ratios of about 2:1 to 5:1. Based on cathodoluminescence (CL) images
and reection-light photomicrographs, U-Pb dating of 22 zircon crystals
with clear zoning was carried out. Dating results and trace elements are
shown in Appendix 1 and Table A2. All analyses have Th/U values of
0.5–1 and give
206
Pb/
238
U ages of 423 ±4 Ma and 270 ±4.5 Ma for two
Fig. 10. Reected-light photomicrographs showing typical morphologies and textures of suldes from the porphyry in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. (a) Pyrite with
core-mantle-rim texture. (b) Quartz-calcite-galena vein cut disseminated pyrite. (c) Fine-grained rutile and chalcopyrite. Abbreviations: Cal =calcite, Ccp =chal-
copyrite, Gn =galena, Py =pyrite, Rt =rutile.
Fig. 11. Reected-light photomicrographs showing typical morphologies and textures of arsenopyrite from gold ores in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. (a) Lollingite in
euhedral arsenopyrite (Apy1). (b) Fine-grained pyrrhotite (Po1a) and lollingite in coarse-grained arsenopyrite. (c) Visible gold at the boundary of coarse-grained
arsenopyrite and lollingite. (d) Fine-grained arsenopyrite aggregates cut by pyrrhotite. (e) Needle arsenopyrite (Apy2) around pyrrhotite with triple junction
texture. (f) Sphalerite wrapped by ne-grained arsenopyrite wrapping pyrite. Abbreviations: Apy =arsenopyrite, Au =gold, Ccp =chalcopyrite, Lo =lollingite, Po
=pyrrhotite, Py =pyrite, Sp =sphalerite.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
9
grains and about 220 Ma for twenty grains (Fig. 12a). Excluding seven
discordant ages of about 220 Ma, the remaining thirteen analyses yield a
weighted mean
206
Pb/
238
U age of 216.9 ±1.8 Ma (MSWD =0.89, n =
13).
Rutile grains of the ores (WL13-4) are mostly subhedral, and about
70–100
μ
m long with length–width ratios of about 2:1 to 3:1. A total of
35 spots in rutile were analyzed and their U-Pb isotopic ratios and trace
element contents are shown in Appendix 1 and Table A2. All points form
an isochron on the Tera-Wasserburg (T-W) diagram tted by the Iso-
plotR software, yielded an age of the lower intersection point at 218.1 ±
3.9 Ma (MSWD =1.4, n =35) (Fig. 12b). Notably, the rutile grains
analyzed have highly variable Zr contents from 32.6 to 564 ppm, of
which only 4 are less than 200 ppm (Fig. 12c).
A total of 28 analyses have been made on monazite from ores (WL13-
Fig. 12. U-Pb ages of zircon (a) and rutile (b), and Zr contents of rutile (c) from the SZDG-HLG gold deposit.
Fig. 13. Backscattered electron images, U-Th-Pb ages, and Pb contents for monazite in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. (a) Age of
206
Pb/
238
U in coarse-grained and
euhedral monazite. (b) Ages of
206
Pb/
238
U in coarse-grained monazite cataclast. (c) Coarse- and ne-grained monazite aged at ~400 Ma and ~210 Ma, respectively.
(d) Coarse-grained monazite giving a concordia age of 400 ±7 Ma. (e) Fine-grained monazite ts an age of 213.4 ±3.7 Ma in the T-W diagram. (f) Ages of
206
Pb/
238
U in ne-grained monazite around or in apatite cataclasts. (g) Age of
206
Pb/
238
U in ne-grained, subhedral monazite related to pyrite. (h) Monazite of
different
208
Pb/
232
Th ages with different lead contents. Abbreviations: Ap =apatite, Mon =monazite, Py =pyrite.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
10
4), including 9 spots in thin sections. Backscattered electron images of
representative monazite grains are shown in Fig. 13 and U-Pb isotopic
ratios and trace element contents in Appendix 1 and Table A2. Five from
9 ne-grained monazite grains occur in the edge or inside of apatite
(Fig. 13f), apparently formed from hydrothermal dissolution-
reprecipitation from the latter (Harlov et al., 2005; Pan et al., 1993).
In general,
206
Pb/
238
U ages of coarse-grained (ca. 100
μ
m) monazite are
mostly 321–415 Ma (Fig. 13b), while
206
Pb/
238
U ages of ne-grained
crystals spatially related to apatite are 202–225 Ma (Fig. 13f). A
concordant age for coarse-grained monazite is 400 ±7 Ma (MSWD =
1.9, n =7) (Fig. 13d). A lower intersection age for ne-grained monazite
related to apatite tted by the T-W diagram is 213.4 ±3.7 (MSWD =
2.2, n =13) (Fig. 13e). Thorium contents are high (to 9 wt%) in coarse-
grained monazite but are low (0.68–1.58 wt%) in apatite-related
monazite, also characteristic of a hydrothermal dissolution-
reprecipitation origin (Harlov et al., 2005; Pan et al., 1993). Monazite
deviating from the concordant line (Fig. 13c) has variable
208
Pb/
232
Th
ages and lead contents (Fig. 13h).
4.3. Trace elements of suldes and arsenides
Pyrite, arsenopyrite, and lollingite are major gold-bearing minerals
in the SZDG-HLG deposit (Fig. 8) and their element contents are shown
in Appendix 1 and Table A3. Some chalcophile elements including As,
Sb, Te, and Bi in these minerals are positively correlated with gold
contents (Fig. 14). Arsenic, Sb, Te, and Bi contents in arsenopyrite and
lollingite are higher than corresponding counterparts in pyrite by an
order of magnitude.
A total of 60 spot analyses in pyrite from 8 samples were performed
by LA-ICP-MS. Py1b has higher Cu (up to 2000 ppm) and Zn (up to 100
ppm) contents than Py1a core. Coarse-grained Py1c wrapping Py1a has
high As contents of more than 2000 ppm. Copper, Zn and As contents in
Py2 from quartz-pyrite veins are low and Au contents in Py2 are typi-
cally less than 0.1 ppm (Fig. 14). Pyrite (Py3) from quartz-calcite-pyrite
veins shows high As contents (more than 1000 ppm). Pyrite (Py3a) ex-
hibits low Cu (10–100 ppm) and Zn (1–10 ppm) contents but high Au
contents of more than 0.1 ppm (Fig. 14). Copper, Zn, and Au contents of
Py3b are higher than Py3a, and Ag, Pb, and Tl contents of Py3b are up to
1 ppm, 10 ppm, and 100 ppm, respectively. Gold contents in other Py3c
are lower than 0.3 ppm. Pyrite (Py3c) from quartz-polymetallic veins
has Cu and Zn contents of 1–10 ppm and As contents of 500–700 ppm.
There are low contents of Cu, Zn, and As but high contents of Au in Py4
in quartz-calcite veins. Gold contents of pyrite cores in the altered por-
phyry is below 0.05 ppm but up to 0.3 ppm in pyrite rims and higher
than most pyrite in ores. Most elements in pyrite rims from the altered
porphyry have higher contents than those in pyrite cores. Pyrite in the
altered porphyry has higher Co/Ni values (>1) than other pyrite (<1)
(Fig. 14f).
A total of 21 analyses from arsenopyrite and 7 analyses from lollin-
gite were carried out. Fine-grained Apy2 is distinguished from Apy1 by
its low Te (below detection limit) and Au (2–10 ppm) contents. Trace
elements in lollingite are relatively uniform with high Au but low Ag
contents. Gold contents in most sphalerite and pyrrhotite analyses are
below 0.05 ppm. Silver contents in sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and
marcasite are higher than most pyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrrhotite and
are up to 100 ppm in marcasite (Fig. 14b).
4.4. Sulfur isotopes of suldes and arsenides
In this study, a total of 61 grains were analyzed for in-situ sulfur
isotopes (δ
34
S), including 33 pyrite, 4 pyrrhotite, 6 sphalerite, 12 arse-
nopyrite, 3 lollingite, and 3 chalcopyrite (App. 1, Table A4). The δ
34
S
values of all investigated suldes vary from –24.2 to 11.4 ‰. The δ
34
S
values of pyrite and sphalerite are 0.9 to 7.5 ‰ and 0.9 to 11.4 ‰,
respectively. Arsenopyrite, lollingite, and pyrrhotite have δ
34
S values of
0 to 2.9 ‰, –1.1 to 2.7 ‰, and 0.2 to 0.9 ‰, respectively, and show
limited variations. The δ
34
S values of chalcopyrite in the edge of quartz-
pyrites veins and quartz-polymetallic vein are 0.8 ‰ and 1.8–2.8 ‰,
respectively.
The δ
34
S values of disseminated suldes are near zero. The δ
34
S
values of pyrite in veins gradually increase from quartz-pyrite veins to
quartz-polymetallic veins (Fig. 15). For example, the δ
34
S values range
from –0.9 to 1.8 ‰ in Py1a, 1.9 to 2.2 ‰ in Py1b, and –1.1 to 2.9 ‰ in
lollingite and arsenopyrite, to 1.6–2.0 ‰ in Py2, 2.5–3.3 ‰ in Py3a, and
4.0–4.5 ‰ in Py3b. Although the δ
34
S values of sphalerite show a large
variation, two spot analyses of sulfur isotopes in sphalerite are about 6
‰, which is close to that in associated pyrite of the same stage (3). The
δ
34
S values of Py4 from the last stage are –11.5 to –24.2 ‰. In addition,
Fig. 14. Binary diagrams showing relationships of gold with As, Ag, Sb, Te, Bi, and Co/Ni in suldes.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
11
the δ
34
S values for the cores and rims of pyrite in the altered porphyries
are 0.6 ‰ and 3.8 ‰, respectively. A spot analysis in veined pyrite in the
altered porphyries shows a δ
34
S value of 1.0 ‰.
4.5. Lead isotopes of suldes and porphyries
Table A5 in Appendix 1 presents Pb isotopes of in-situ suldes and
whole-rock fresh porphyries in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. The
206
Pb/
204
Pb values of 16 pyrite grains vary from 18.321 to 18.558,
207
Pb/
204
Pb values from 15.620 to 15.652, and
208
Pb/
204
Pb values from
38.407 to 38.684. Galena and sphalerite have low radioactive lead and
limited variations of lead isotopes. Three galena crystals and one
sphalerite grain have
206
Pb/
204
Pb values of 18.317–18.338,
207
Pb/
204
Pb
values of 15.616–15.628, and
208
Pb/
204
Pb values of 38.353–38.443. In
addition, the fresh porphyritic granodiorite has a
206
Pb/
204
Pb ratio of
18.7299,
207
Pb/
204
Pb ratio of 15.6656, and
208
Pb/
204
Pb ratio of
38.9029. The MMEs hosted in the porphyry have a
206
Pb/
204
Pb ratio of
18.3845,
207
Pb/
204
Pb ratio of 15.6644, and
208
Pb/
204
Pb ratio of
38.5669. These lead isotopic values of the porphyry and MMEs were
corrected by U, Th, and Pb contents from the corresponding samples
(Zhang et al., 2023b) and are similar to those of suldes in this study
(Fig. 16).
Lead isotopic compositions of suldes analyzed in this study have a
positive correlation (Fig. 16). The slope of
207
Pb/
204
Pb-
206
Pb/
204
Pb is
0.112, and the correlation coefcient R
1
2
0.51 (Fig. 16a). The slope of
208
Pb/
204
Pb-
206
Pb/
204
Pb is 1.251, and the correlation coefcient R
2
2
is
0.93 (Fig. 16b). Lead isotopes of arsenopyrite (Liu, 2017; Song, 2019)
overlap with those of suldes (Fig. 16) and the slope of
207
Pb/
204
Pb-
206
Pb/
204
Pb for these suldes and arsenopyrite is 0.133
(Fig. 16c). The linear lead isotopes are similar to those of Late Triassic
granodiorite-diorite (Fig. 16c–d, Appendix 1 and Table A6). The linear
lead isotopes of Late Triassic granodiorite-diorite are not controlled by
lithologies (Appendix 2 and Figure A1).
5. Discussion
5.1. Temperature-fS
2
-fO
2
constraints on ore-forming uids
The compositional variations of suldes (Table 1) are used to
constrain physicochemical conditions for the different stages of ore-
forming uids in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. The arsenic thermom-
eter of arsenopyrite (Kretschmar and Scott, 1976; Sharp et al., 1985) is
applied to the deposit. Flat boundaries between coarse-grained arseno-
pyrite (Apy1) and lollingite indicate a replacement reaction between
them (Fig. 11b–c). Thus, sulfur fugacities (fS
2
) and temperatures of the
reaction can be limited in the phase boundary of arsenopyrite and lol-
lingite according to arsenic contents of Apy1 (Table 1 and Fig. 17a),
considering Apy1 earlier than pyrrhotite (Fig. 11d–e). Likewise, ne-
grained arsenopyrite (Apy2) is later than sphalerite and pyrite
(Fig. 11f) and sulfur fugacities and temperatures for Apy2 are con-
strained in the phase boundary of arsenopyrite and pyrite (Fig. 17a).
Therefore, based on As contents in arsenopyrite (see box diagram,
Fig. 17a), temperatures for Apy1 and Apy2 are 560–460℃ and
320–270℃, respectively (Fig. 17a), and sulfur fugacities for Apy1 and
Apy2 are –6.3 to –9.1 and –12.0 to –9.1, respectively.
Temperatures for pyrrhotite may be high to 450℃ and similar with
the low temperatures of Apy1 because of the triple junction texture
(Fig. 11e) (Zheng et al., 2012) and may be low to 250℃ based on the
presence of the monoclinic variety with less than 47 atomic percentage
of Fe (Fig. 17a) (Carpenter and Desborough, 1964; Kissin and Scott,
1982). Therefore, sulfur fugacities for pyrrhotite are –8.0 to –12.0 ac-
cording to the phase diagram (Fig. 17a).
Homogenization temperatures of boiling uid inclusion assemblages
(260–300℃) in the quartz-pyrite stage are slightly higher than those of
unboiling uid inclusions (230–260℃) in the quartz-polymetallic stage
from the Wulonggou goldeld (Yu, 2022; Zhang, 2018), reecting that
the temperatures of the two stages are consistent because the homoge-
nization temperature of unboiling inclusions is typically slightly lower
than the actual temperature of the uid. Therefore, homogenization
Fig. 15. Reected-light photomicrographs (a–b) and box-whisker plots (c) showing sulfur isotope composition of the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. (a–b) The increasing of
δ
34
S from the core to rim in pyrite from the ores and porphyries. (c) The δ
34
S values generally increased from stage 1 to stage 3, and decreased from stage 3 to stage 4.
Abbreviations: Py =pyrite.
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
12
temperatures of boiling uid inclusions represent the minimum tem-
peratures of these two stages. This allows us to limit sulfur fugacities for
sphalerite at –10.5 to –12.5 based on the FeS components in the mineral
(Czamanske, 1974) and temperatures (260–300℃) of uid inclusions in
associated quartz.
Oxygen fugacities (fO
2
) corresponding to temperatures at different
stages are also constrained by the phase diagram (Fig. 17b). Oxygen
fugacities of Apy1 are limited in the buffer line of CO
2
and CH
4
from
–21.6 to –25.8 (Fig. 17b) because of two components in the uid (Feng,
2002) and the reduced pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite assemblage (Fig. 11).
Oxygen fugacities for ne-grained Apy2 and sphalerite are constrained
to –30.5 to –36.6 by the upper stability of arsenopyrite. Oxygen fugac-
ities of pyrrhotite may be on the buffer line of CO
2
and CH
4
at high
temperatures and on the boundary of pyrrhotite below ca. 300℃. Pyrite
(Py4) from barren quartz-calcite veins may be more oxidized than others
due to magnetite in the veins (Fig. 9i) and oxygen fugacities for Py4 are
–40.5 to –38.5 (Fig. 17b) based on homogenization temperatures of uid
inclusions in calcite from the SZDG-HLG deposit (Zhang, 2018).
Therefore, the prevailing oxygen fugacities have a clear decrease trend
from stage 1 to stage 4 (Fig. 17b).
5.2. Timing of gold mineralization
The timing of gold mineralization is often difcult to constrain for
lode gold deposits because the ages recorded by accessory minerals may
represent other geological events than gold mineralization. For example,
rutile grains in the Baiyun deposit of the North China Craton yielded two
ages and the young age represents the timing of gold mineralization
(Zheng et al., 2022). Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the rutile and
monazite ages of this study rst.
5.2.1. Hydrothermal origin of rutile
Rutile often occurs as an accessory mineral in metamorphic rocks,
magmatic rocks, clastic sediments and various hydrothermal deposits
(Meinhold, 2010; Sciuba and Beaudoin, 2021). It is a dominating high-
temperature phase of TiO
2
polymorphs above 475℃ (Triebold et al.,
2011 and references therein). Rutile in the SZDG-HLG deposit is related
to arsenopyrite (Fig. 7f) with temperatures up to 560℃ and is hydro-
thermal origin (Sciuba and Beaudoin, 2021). Rutile studied has Zr
Fig. 16. Lead isotopic compositions of suldes and wall rocks from the Wulonggou goldeld as well as Triassic igneous rocks in the East Kunlun Orogen. (a–b) Linear
relationships between
206
Pb/
204
Pb versus
207
Pb/
204
Pb and
208
Pb/
204
Pb in suldes. (c–d) The lead isotope of sulde is most similar to the Late Triassic granodiorite-
diorite in the orogen. Wall rocks composed by gneiss, schist-slate, and marble in the diagram are mainly from the Jinshuikou Complex. The S-D granite is S-type.
Detailed lead isotopes of the wall rocks and Late Triassic granodiorite-diorite are plotted in Appendix 2 and Figure A1. The detailed data are shown in Appendix 1
and Table A6.
Table 1
Statistical table of percentiles and mean values of compositions in minerals from
Shuizhadonggou-Huanglonggou gold deposit.
Contents (at
%)
Percentile
05
Percentile
25
Mean Percentile
75
Percentile
95
As in Apy1 32.20 34.01 34.53 35.79 36.18
As in Apy2 24.60 28.55 28.86 30.31 31.25
Fe in Po 45.83 46.47 46.94 47.13 48.17
FeS in Sp 15.08 16.66 16.73 17.22 17.66
Apy =arsenopyrite, Po =porrhotite, Sp =sphalerite. The atomic percentage is
converted from the mass percentage of minerals reported in Zhang et al. (2012).
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
13
contents less than 100 ppm (Fig. 12c), also indicating the hydrothermal
rather than metamorphic origin (Zheng et al., 2022). Therefore, rutile in
this study was generated by titanium-bearing mineral decomposition
during the ore-forming uid metasomatism (e.g., Rabbia et al., 2009).
5.2.2. Hydrothermal origin of ne-grained monazite
Hydrothermal monazite showing afnities with gold mineralization
has been used to constrain the ages of many gold deposits (Deng et al.,
2020). Monazite in the gold deposits is intricate because of low phos-
phorus contents in ore-forming uids (Feng, 2002; Pei, 2016). It is
difcult to reset U-Pb systems because low Pb diffusion rates in monazite
(Cherniak and Pyle, 2008; Gard´
es et al., 2006). Coarse-grained monazite
and apatite cataclasts in this study were fragmented and rotated
(Fig. 7h) and were experienced the Triassic ductile shearing
deformation. Coarse-grained monazite yielded the concordant age of
400 ±7 Ma represents the magmatic event consistent with zircon U-Pb
age of the mylonitic granite (Fig. 5a). The data deviating from the
concordant line (Fig. 13c) may be related to lead loss in monazite
because of a positive correlation between the ages and lead contents in
Fig. 13h (Li et al., 2021). As mentioned above, ne-grained monazite of
low Th contents surrounding apatite cataclasts (Fig. 7g) is characteristic
of a hydrothermal dissolution-reprecipitation from the latter (Benaouda
et al., 2020; Harlov et al., 2005; Pan et al., 1993). Some ne-grained
monazite grains are spatially related to hydrothermal rutile (Fig. 7g)
or pyrite (Fig. 13g), also suggesting a hydrothermal origin. Such phe-
nomena have been reported in many gold deposits, such as Laowan
(Yang et al., 2021) and Jiaodong (Deng et al., 2020). Therefore, ne-
grained monazite given the age of 213.4 ±3.7 Ma is the time of the
Fig. 17. Temperature versus log fS
2
(a) and log fO
2
(b) diagrams showing uid evolution at the SZDG-HLG gold deposit after (Mikucki and Ridley, 1993; Sharp et al.,
1985). Black arrows indicate the formation of the suldes marked next to them. Y-axis (at %) in the insert of Fig. 17a represents As contents for arsenopyrite
(Kretschmar and Scott, 1976; Sharp et al., 1985) and mol % FeS for sphalerite (Czamanske, 1974). The data are from Table 1. The heavy solid line marked with ① in
the Fig. 17b is the upper stability of arsenopyrite (Mikucki and Ridley, 1993). Abbreviations: Apy =arsenopyrite, Bn =bornite, Ccp =chalcopyrite, Hem =hematite,
l =liquid, Lo =lollingite, Mt =magnetite, Po =pyrrhotite, Py =pyrite, Sp =sphalerite.
Fig. 18. Age error (2
σ
) plots showing the timing of magmatism, deformation, and mineralization in the Wulonggou area. Plots with red error lines are from this
study. The data sources are shown in Appendix 1 and Table A7. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
14
SZDG-HLG gold deposit.
5.2.3. A single gold mineralization event
Gold mineralization in the Wulonggou goldeld of the EKO has
previously been considered to have formed in multistages (Zhang et al.,
2022b) at ~422 Ma, ~250 Ma, ~238 Ma, ~231 Ma or ~220 Ma
(Fig. 18) (Zhang et al., 2017). Monazite of (Zhang et al., 2022b) is
similar with the coarse-grained counterparts in this study and yielded
the magmatic age of 422.2 ±2.4 Ma simultaneous to the granites at
Wulonggou (Fig. 18). Coarse-grained monazite was fragmented and
rotated but gold-bearing pyrite surrounding coarse-grained monazite
cataclasts was not (Fig. 7h), also indicating coarse-grained monazite
formed earlier than the Triassic ductile deformation and gold mineral-
ization. Therefore, the monazite age of 422.2 ±2.4 Ma (Zhang et al.,
2022b) does not represent a gold mineralization event.
Multiple sericite Ar-Ar ages in the ores have been recognized since
sericite Ar-Ar dating was rst used to dene the time of gold minerali-
zation at Wulongggou (Fig. 7b and Zhang et al. (2017)). Hydrothermal
ne-grained sericite cannot be well separated from deformed coarse-
grained equivalent in the ores (Harrison et al., 2009; Kula et al., 2010;
Vanlaningham and Mark, 2011) so that sericite ages vary from the
ductile deformation of ~250 Ma to the true hydrothermal event of
~216 Ma (Fig. 18). The biotite/muscovite Ar-Ar ages earlier than the
true hydrothermal event have been reported in the Haoyaohuerdong
gold deposit in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (Zhang et al., 2022a and
references therein). The sericite Ar-Ar ages of ~237 Ma and ~231 Ma
(Zhang et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2017) may be mixing results (Arehart
et al., 2003; Kula et al., 2010) because of two types of sericite in dating
sample WL30-2 (Zhang et al., 2017). The young plateau may also be
related to the dominated argon release from hydrothermal sericite with
high water contents at low temperatures (Sletten and Onstott, 1998).
Quartz Rb-Sr or pyrite Re-Os isochron ages (Fig. 18) may also be
doubtful because uid inclusions or pyrite are likely to capture com-
ponents of surrounding rocks and yield the old ages (Lyu et al., 2023;
Yao and Zheng, 2001). It is possible that suldes capture Re and Os of
organic matter when uid-rock reaction has an important effect on
sulde precipitation in disseminated ores in this deposit.
The diffusion activation energy of lead in rutile is high so that it has
strong resistance to late isotope reset (Vry and Baker, 2006). Rutile
larger than 50
μ
m in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit (Fig. 7f and Fig. 12b)
indicates the closure temperature is more than 530℃ (Cherniak, 2000;
Vry and Baker, 2006). The rutile U-Pb age is younger than the sericite
Ar-Ar ages at Wulonggou (App. 1, Table A7), suggesting it was not reset
by subsequent thermal events. Most importantly, hydrothermal mona-
zite spatially related to gold-bearing pyrite (Fig. 13g) indicates that it
was directly related to gold mineralization. Therefore, the ages of hy-
drothermal rutile and monazite at ~216 Ma represent the most impor-
tant gold mineralization in the deposit because rutile and monazite used
are associated with arsenopyrite and visible gold (Fig. 7f–g and Fig. 8).
The consistent ages of hydrothermal rutile and monazite also indicate
that gold mineralization at Wulonggou was a single rather than multiple
events (Chen et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2022b).
5.3. Source of gold
Gold in hydrothermal solutions is mainly transported by hydro-
sulde complexes (Goldfarb and Groves, 2015; Pokrovski et al., 2015)
and so sulde sulfur isotopes have always been one of the most effective
tools to trace the sources of ore-forming materials. Uranium/Pb and Th/
Pb values of different reservoirs in the Earth are diverse because of the
inconsistent geochemical behaviors of U, Th, and Pb resulting in
different Pb isotopic compositions in geological processes (Franklin
et al., 1983; Macfarlane et al., 1990), so lead isotopes of metallogenic
carriers can also be used to trace the sources of ore-forming materials
(Fetter et al., 2019; Xiong et al., 2021). In addition, trace elements of
pyrite (e.g. Co, Ni, and Co/Ni values) may be indicative to ore genesis
(Bajwah et al., 1987).
5.3.1. Variations of sulfur isotopes
Pyrite has sulfur isotopes (δ
34
S) higher than pyrrhotite, sphalerite,
and chalcopyrite of the same stage, suggesting that the δ
34
S values of
suldes were in equilibrium with the uids (Ohmoto, 1972). This is also
evidenced by the general absence of any iron oxides (e.g. magnetite or
hematite) overgrown to suldes in most stages (Ohmoto, 1972). The
δ
34
S values of suldes from the same sample or lithology vary greatly,
indicating an effect by ore-forming hydrothermal uids rather than
uid-rock reaction or different sulfur sources (e.g., Hodkiewicz et al.,
2009). The increase of the δ
34
S values in suldes except Py4 (Fig. 15)
thus reects the evolution of the δ
34
S values of corresponding hydro-
thermal uids as discussed below.
The increase of δ
34
S values is often interpreted to be caused by
changes in temperature, pH, or oxygen fugacity of ore-forming uids
(Ohmoto, 1972; Ward et al., 2017). However, a subtle decrease in
temperature or an increase in oxygen fugacity or pH at a constant
temperature in the uids is not sufcient to induce a large variation of
sulfur isotopes. This is the case for this study (Fig. 19). A gradual in-
crease of δ
34
S values in Apy1 with decreasing temperatures (Appendix 2
and Fig. A2) conrms the conclusion. Therefore, the marked increase in
δ
34
S values in the rst 3 stages of the deposit was not caused by slight
physicochemical changes in the uids. On the other hand, sulfur iso-
topes will decrease to about –20 ‰ if oxygen fugacities higher than the
upper stable region of pyrite (Fig. 19). Therefore, the highly negative
δ
34
S values in Py4 may be related to uid oxidation triggered by uid
boiling or reduced sulfur precipitation (Hodkiewicz et al., 2009). This
Fig. 19. Log fO
2
-pH diagram showing stability relationships in the Fe-O-S
system for gold mineralization in the SZDG-HLG deposit at 250 ◦C. The
elliptic range of the dotted line mainly refers to the conditions of the arrow
label. The values of pH in uids (① and ②) are from Li et al. (2001). The values
of δ
13
C
Cal
(③) are from Feng (2002) and Zhang (2018). The boundary of galena
and anglesite (solid blue line) is from Zhai et al. (2018). The black arrow
represents the direction of uid evolution. The base diagram was modied from
Ohmoto (1972). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this gure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
15
interpretation is also supported by the occurrence of trace magnetite
after chalcopyrite in stage 4 (Fig. 9i).
We suggest that the increasing δ
34
S values with sulde precipitation
in the rst 3 stages at the SZDG-HLG deposit may be related to a Ray-
leigh distillation process in a nite uid reservoir (Zheng and Hoefs,
1993). In this scenario, the variation of sulfur isotopes is mainly caused
by the gradual precipitation of sulde (mainly pyrite) under medium-to-
high temperatures and the earliest stage represent the original δ
34
S
values of ore-forming uids (–0.9 to 1.8 ‰ in Py1a) (Zheng and Hoefs,
1993). The increase of δ
34
S values in Apy1 may reect the accumulation
of heavy sulfur in the residual uid due to the arsenopyrite precipitation
with the temperature decrease from 560 to 450 ◦C. Pyrite is enriched in
light sulfur than H
2
S at 350℃ (Syverson et al., 2015) and there is less
sulfur isotopic fractionation between pyrite and arsenopyrite above
350℃ (Liu et al., 2016). Therefore, the increase of δ
34
S values of pyrite is
also caused by pyrite precipitation (Syverson et al., 2015).
Sulfur isotopes and Se/S values can be used to trace the sulfur source
because they are different in different reservoirs of the Earth (Del Real
et al., 2020; Smith et al., 2021; Yamamoto, 1976). The negative rela-
tionship between δ
34
S and Se/S values for the suldes except Py3b and
Py3c (Fig. 20) conrms the same sulfur source and sulde precipitation
on conditions of low oxygen fugacities and no natural selenium
(Yamamoto, 1976). Py3b and Py3c deviated from the negative corre-
lation between Se/S and δ
34
S values may be related to the rapid increase
of δ
34
S values in stage 3 (Yamamoto, 1976).
5.3.2. Variations of lead isotopes
Sulde lead isotopes can be used to trace gold origin because suldes
have low U and Th contents relative to Pb abundances and thus minimal
radiogenic lead addition after their formation (Tosdal et al., 1999; Wu
et al., 2002; Zhang, 1988). The linear correlations between lead isotopic
compositions may be error isochrones of
204
Pb, mixing lines of lead,
multistage evolution lines (Han, 2006) or addition of radiogenic lead
(Lawley et al., 2017). The slope of the
204
Pb error line in this in-situ
analyses is 0.85 (Table A5) and is higher than the slope of
207
Pb/
204
Pb-
206
Pb/
204
Pb for all sulde. The effect of the
204
Pb error line
is excluded. The lead mixing requires two or more lead sources. It is most
likely to occur during sulde precipitation by the reaction of ore-
forming uids and surrounding rocks with radioactive lead, but it is
not the main cause of linear lead because the sulde with radioactive
lead is also hosted in the granite (Table A5) and the mixing of lead
generally has a high slope (e.g., Franklin et al., 1983). An age of 2.0 Ga
for the lead source, which is calculated by using the slope of 0.133 and a
mineralization age of 216 Ma, coincides with a Paleoproterozoic tecto-
nothermal event in the EKO (Wang et al., 2007), suggesting that the
linear lead isotopes may be multistage evolution lines and most of lead
might come from the metamorphic basement (Han, 2006). However,
sulde lead isotopes deviate from those of the basement and S-type
granites (Fig. 16c–d), indicating linear lead isotopes of suldes caused
by the addition of radioactive lead. Radioactive lead may come from
silicate inclusions in suldes (Lawley et al., 2017). This could be applied
in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit because Py2 and Py3b with many silicate
inclusions enriched in Th and U have radioactive lead (Fig. 9d, f).
Therefore, less radioactive lead isotopes of suldes are representative.
Lead isotopes of suldes for this study overlap with those of both the
less radioactive Early-Middle Triassic granodiorite-diorite and the Late
Triassic granodiorite-diorite in this and previous studies, but are
different from those of other magmatic, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks in the EKO (Fig. 16c–d). This indicates an identical lead source for
the suldes in the Late Triassic SZDG-HLG gold deposit and the Late
Triassic granodiorite-diorite considering their similar ages (Han et al.,
2023; Xiong et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2021; Yan et al., 2024).
5.3.3. Variations of gold and related elements
Most pyrite grains in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit have Co/Ni values
less than 1 (Fig. 14f) and are quite different from its counterpart in other
hydrothermal deposits (Bajwah et al., 1987; Brill, 1989). However, this
does not reect that these elements in pyrite come from sedimentary
rocks in the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. Low Co/Ni values of pyrite were
not inherited from sediments because of no sedimentary pyrite in this
and surrounding areas. Low Co/Ni values of pyrite may be affected by
basic-ultrabasic rocks (Koglin et al., 2010). This is unlikely the case
because the Co/Ni values of pyrite from the basic rocks in the
Wulonggou area are higher than 1 (Wu et al., 2021). Pyrite with low Co/
Ni values has been reported to precipitate from hydrothermal uids with
similar Co and Ni contents at low NaCl concentrations (Brugger et al.,
2016), and is common in the lode gold deposits (Cao et al., 2023). This is
the case for most pyrite in the SZDG-HLG deposit with low-salinity ore-
forming uids (Liu, 2017; Zhang, 2018). The exception is pyrite from the
altered porphyries with Co/Ni values higher than 1, which could relate
to high-salinity uids. Co/Ni values of pyrite are more than 1 in most
porphyries but less than 1 beyond porphyries in some porphyry systems,
such as Agua Rica (Franchini et al., 2015) and Kuloula (Keith et al.,
2022), which was also attributed to the difference of uid salinities
(Chen et al., 2011a,b; Keith et al., 2022).
Gold contents in suldes and arsenides from different ore-hosting
rocks are positively correlated with As, Sb, Te, and Bi contents
(Fig. 14 and Table A1), indicating that these elements were enriched in
the ore-forming uid but were not contaminated while precipitating.
The positive correlation between Au and As may be explained by As
promoting the entry of gold into pyrite (e.g., Fleet and Mumin, 1997;
Chen et al., 2024), but it is excluded because gold is also positively
correlated with Sb, Te, and Bi. Similarly, Bi and Te do not have an effect
on gold enrichment as the cases of the Wulong gold deposit with bis-
muthide or telluride (Wei et al., 2021) and the Dongping deposit with
telluride or bismuthide inclusions in pyrite (Cook et al., 2009; Li et al.,
2023).
5.3.4. Gold derived from post-collisional magmatism
Although metamorphic sources are generally accepted for lode gold
deposits (Goldfarb and Groves, 2015), a metamorphic origin of the
Wulonggou goldeld (e.g., Zhou et al., 2021) can be excluded in this
study considering regional metamorphism in the EKO. The EKO has
experienced strong Early Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic regional meta-
morphism (Chen et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2003; Yu, 2005; Zhang et al.,
Fig. 20. The Se/S values integrated with δ
34
S data from suldes. The δ
34
S
values of a few suldes are assumed to be equal to the δ
34
S values of their
adjacent grains. Field for the magmatic Source was obtained by Fitzpa-
trick (2008).
Q. Wang et al.
Ore Geology Reviews 170 (2024) 106155
16
2003). Therefore, the latter at ~250 Ma is ~30 m.y. earlier than gold
mineralization in the SZDG-HLG deposit (Fig. 18). Most sulfur and gold
in the strata were thus released and scattered during the regional
metamorphism (Finch and Tomkins, 2017; Tomkins, 2010).
A magmatic gold source is favoured according to the temporal-
spatial relationships between magmatism and mineralization. The Late
Triassic porphyries intruded the ductile shear zone that affected the
Middle Triassic granodiorite and its hosted MMEs, and remain unde-
formed but is crosscut by an early thrust and subsequent strike-slip and
normal faults (Fig. 4c–d). The porphyries also have hydrothermal quartz
and sericite and disseminated pyrite (Fig. 7c, Fig. 10) and are apparently
altered and mineralized along the ore-controlling thrust faults. These
eld and petrographical observations suggest that the porphyries, gold
mineralization, and ore-controlling thrust faults were formed at the
same time, as evidenced by U-Pb ages from hydrothermal rutile and
monazite in the ores, and magmatic zircon from the mineralized por-
phyries (Fig. 12, Fig. 13).
A magmatic gold source is reinforced by sulde compositions from
the SZDG-HLG gold deposit. Firstly, the δ
34
S values of –0.9 to 1.8 ‰ for
the hydrothermal uids in the SZDG-HLG deposit and negative corre-
lations between δ
34
S and Se/S values indicate the sulfur sources from
magmatism or deep mantle (Fitzpatrick, 2008; Ohmoto, 1972). A
magmatic source is advocated because of the consistent δ
34
S values in
pyrite from the ores and the mineralized porphyries. Secondly, the sul-
des and the Late Triassic granodiorite-diorite including the Wulonggou
porphyries in the EKO have similar lead isotopes, suggesting that the
suldes (i.e., gold) have the same lead source as the synchronous mag-
matism. Thirdly, the uids enriched in As, Sb, Te, and Bi simultaneously
in the HLG-SZDG deposit are similar to those from modern felsic
magmatic systems (Wohlgemuth-Ueberwasser et al., 2015) and thus
may be related to magmatism (Elatikpo et al., 2022; Kerr et al., 2018;
Mathieu, 2019; Spence-Jones et al., 2018). Fluorite in quartz-
polymetallic veins (Zhang et al., 2017) also argues for magmatic-
derived mineralized uids such as the Bachelor/O’Brien gold deposit
(Azevedo et al., 2022).
Therefore, gold mineralization in the SZDG-HLG deposit in the
eastern of the EKO was apparently related to post-collisional porphyries.
This is also the case for the Qukulekedong Au-Sb deposit in the western
of the EKO (Xing et al., 2022). Therefore, lode gold deposits in the EKO
are related to post-collisional magmatism.
6. Conclusion
(1) Field and petrographical observations, and U-Pb ages from hy-
drothermal rutile and monazite in the ores, and magmatic zircon
from the mineralized porphyries conrm that the post-collisional
porphyries, gold mineralization, and ore-controlling thrust faults
were formed simultaneously at ~216 Ma.
(2) Sulde assemblages and compositions reect that sulfur and ox-
ygen fugacities decrease with decreasing temperatures from the
early to the late stages in the Shuizhadonggou-Huanglonggou
gold deposit.
(3) Trace elements and S-Pb isotopes of multistage suldes indicate
that the gold source of the Shuizhadonggou-Huanglonggou de-
posit in the Wulonggou goldeld was most likely derived from
post-collisional magmatism of the East Kunlun Orogen.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to inuence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This study was nancially supported by the Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (No. 41572048 and 42130814), the National Key
Research and Development Project (No. 2018YFF0215402). We thank
Yu Han for his help in the eld work. We also thank Linghao Zhao and
Kuidong Zhao for help with LA-ICP-MS and LA-MC-ICP-MS analyses,
respectively.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2024.106155.
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