Available via license: CC BY 4.0
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DOI 10.30687/ELLE/2280-6792/2018/02/003
Submitted: 2017-09-11 | Accepted: 2018-08-28
© 2018 | Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution alone 231
EL.LE e-ISSN 2280-6792
Vol. 7 – Num. 2 – Luglio 2018
Emotions and Autonomy
in Foreign Language Learning at University
Micòl Beseghi
(Università degli Studi di Parma, Italia)
Abstract This article explores the role of emotions in foreign language learning at university level.
Drawing on the recent literature regarding the aective dimension in language learning, it illustrates
the ways in which students experience emotions in foreign language learning. Particular emphasis
is given to the way in which students’ emotions, both positive and negative, emerge and change
during their learning process. The article presents a study conducted among university students
learning English in a co-directed and autonomy-inspired environment. Following a qualitative ap-
proach, students’ emotional expression was investigated, by means of individual advising sessions
and group sessions, as well as in written form. The relationship between emotion, motivation and
self-awareness in a semi-autonomous learning context was explored in order to consider the impact
of the aective dimension on students’ progress and achievement.
Summary 1 Introduction. – 2 What Is an Emotion? – 2.1 Emotions and Learning. – 2.2 Learner
Autonomy and Motivation. – 3 Method. – 3.1 Understanding Students’ Emotions: the Role of the
Language Counsellor. – 3.2 Categorising Emotions: a Taxonomy. – 3.3 Managing Emotions. – 4 The
Study. – 5 Results and Discussion. – 5.1 First Advising Session. – 5.2 The Evolution of Emotions. –
6 Conclusions.
Keywords Emotions. Learner autonomy. Language advising. Motivation.
If we want to help people learn, we must expect to
encounter emotion, and we must take it seriously.
(Zull 2002, 52)
1 Introduction
The present study is an investigation of the role of emotions in autonomous
language learning processes in order to offer an insight into the emotional
dimension of language learning and to suggest ways to guide students in
the regulation of their emotions. In the last few decades, much research
has focused on autonomous learning (among others, Benson 2001; Dick-
inson 1987; Holec 1981; Little 1991 and 2007; Littlewood 1996 and 1999;
Oxford 2003). However, less attention has been paid to the specific rela-
tionship between autonomous learning and emotions in academic settings
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(Bown, White 2010; Dörnyei, Ushioda 2009; Tassinari, Ciekanski 2013).
In this article, learning-related emotions are first considered from a psy-
chological, neurological and educational perspective and then the affec-
tive dimensions involved in autonomous language learning are illustrated
with reference to the data collected. More specifically, the article presents
the findings of a research study carried out with university students at
the Language Centre of the University of Parma, within the context of an
autonomy-inspired language-learning environment.
In order to help students prepare for their English exam,1 the Language
Centre introduced a co-directed and autonomy-inspired learning programme
(Holec 2009), which gives learners the opportunity to follow personalised
learning paths according to their specific needs (Beseghi, Bertolotti 2012
and 2016). The fundamental guiding principles of this programme are based
on the idea that students can learn better if they are in control of and re-
sponsible for their own learning process (Benson 2011; Little 2007; Murray
2009 and 2011). Indeed, the co-directed programme, as the name itself sug-
gests, does not include teacher-based language lessons, but offers learning
strategies and activities, which are provided in mini-lessons delivered by
a teacher or language advisor both in class and online (on the university
e-learning platform). Furthermore, regular one-to-one meetings with the
language counsellors, small group workshops and mock tests throughout
the learning programme contribute to making students more aware of their
own personal progress and their individual needs (Beseghi, Bertolotti 2016).
Indeed, the co-directed programme, which is not compulsory but voluntary,
is complementary or alternative to classroom teaching, and aims to cater for
situations where learning needs are too diverse to be satisfied by traditional
methods. The students usually make the first contact with the teacher or lan-
guage counsellor, especially when they feel discouraged and demotivated.
This is why teachers and counsellors need to take their students’ emotional
sphere into consideration when they start working with them.
2 What Is an Emotion?
Interest in the role of emotions in academic settings, especially in how emo-
tions shape student engagement and learning, has grown substantially in
the last decades (Calvo, D’Mello 2011; Méndez López, Pena Aguilar 2013;
Pekrun, Linnenbrink-Garcia 2012 and 2014; Pekrun 2006; Schutz, Pekrun
2007). For a long time research in the Western world has “concentrated on
1
All the students enrolled at t he Univer sity of Parma must take an English exam (CEFR
level B1 for Bachelor’s degrees and B2 for Master’s degree). The test, int roduced by the
Language Centre in 2005, has a standardised format assessing t hree receptive abilities:
Use of English, Reading Comprehension, Listening Comprehension.
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understanding the rational, cognitive functions of our mind, while misus-
ing or denying whatever falls within the realm of the emotions or the non-
rational” (Arnold, Brown 1999, 3). In the field of second language acquisi-
tion, two scholars have systematically investigated the role of emotions in
foreign language learning: Jane Arnold (1999), whose studies belong to the
cognitive theory of emotions, and the neurolinguist John Schumann (2004),
who has explored what happens in the brain when we learn a language.
This recent growing interest in emotions is also found in other disciplines
such as economics, neuroscience, anthropology and the humanities. How-
ever, as far as educational psychology is concerned, research on emotions
is still rather limited (Pekrun, Linnenbrink-Garcia 2014, 1). In Italy, the
role of emotions in language learning and teaching has been increasingly
investigated in the last years (for review, cf. Balboni 2013).
It is not easy to give a precise definition of what an emotion is. Accord-
ing to Frenzel and Stephens (2013, 5), “emotions are multidimensional
constructs comprising affective, psychological, cognitive, expressive, and
motivational components”:
–
The affective component is the core of an emotion; it means that
emotions are felt and that they are not mere thoughts or cognitive
mental states: “there is no emotion without the affective experience,
and without emotion there is no affective experience” (5).
–
The physiological component refers to the fact that “bodily processes
are set in motion when we experience an emotion” (5). These pro-
cesses take place in the peripheral nervous system (the body) as well
as in the central nervous system (the brain), where emotions have
specific central arousal patterns in areas such as the amygdala and
the cerebral cortex.
–
The cognitive component is related to the arousal of distinct thoughts.
For example, when experiencing fear, people may have thoughts about
failure, or, when experiencing satisfaction, they may have thoughts
about the positive consequences of the situation.
– The expressive component of emotions refers to all the facial expres-
sions and body movements, gestures or postures that are shown when
experiencing an emotion and make emotions recognisable to others.
– The motivational component refers to the fact that emotions can trig-
ger behaviour.
Frenzel and Stephens underline that, when observing students in academ-
ic settings, it is important to distinguish between state emotions – which
are momentary conditions, aroused in specific situations – and trait emo-
tions – which refer to persistent characteristics of the student in question
(2013, 7).
Balboni (2013, 11) defines emotions as “risposte adattive […] della
mente alle pressioni esterne”. According to the cognitive theory or ap-
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praisal theory, the evaluation (appraisal) of a situation produces an emo-
tional response or reaction (arousal). On this regard, it is useful to bear
in mind Damasio’s distinction between emotions – “changes in body state
in response to a positive or negative situation” and feelings – “the percep-
tions of these changes” (Damasio 1994, in Balboni 2013, 13).
2.1 Emotions and Learning
For a long time, in the field of educational psychology, as well as in other
fields, emotion and cognition were considered as incompatible realities
that would never meet. From the 1990s onwards, different scholars have
tried to demonstrate the opposite. LeDoux (1996) and Zull (2002 and 2004)
explain that emotion and cognition are partners in the mind: “Emotion
and thought are physically entangled. This brings our body into the story
because we feel our emotions in our body, and the way we feel always in-
fluences our brain” (Zull 2004, 70). Moreover, emotions tend to overpower
cognition rather than the opposite: “our emotions influence our thinking
more than our thinking influences our emotions” (Zull 2002, 74). There-
fore, the affective side of learning is not in opposition to the cognitive
side. On the contrary, when both are used together, the learning process
can be constructed on a stronger foundation. If teachers are aware of the
cerebral structures that produce emotions and how they work, they may
find new ways to motivate their students (Zull 2002).
Damasio (1994; 1995; 1996) illustrates the idea of the mixture of feeling
and thinking, and demonstrates that emotions are a part of reason to such
an extent that the absence of emotion compromises our rational capacity.
Indeed, Zull (2004, 70) explains that this emotion connection may have
important implications for students’ motivation: “As part of the teacher’s
art, we must find ways to make learning intrinsically rewarding. Learning
should feel good, and the student should become aware of those feelings”.
Zull argues that there is a connection between learning and pleasure.
The parts of the brain that contribute to feelings of pleasure, joy, satisfac-
tion, fulfilment, or happiness are located beneath the front cortex, which
is “the place where goal-oriented activity is controlled and ideas about
actions are generated” (Zull 2002, 61). The connection between the basal
structures and pleasure highlights the distinction between passive and
active learning: “any learning that involves some sense of progress and
control by the learner might be expected to engage the basal structures.
This would be learning that is pleasurable” (61).
If we acknowledge the connection between emotion and cognition, we
should view learning as a global and dynamic process integrating positive
and negative emotions that are felt both consciously and unconsciously.
Through emotionally engaging situations, learning is not only more ap-
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pealing but also more effective. In the construction of a learning environ-
ment, the emotional sphere must therefore be regarded as an essential
component, as there is no learning without emotion.
2.2 Learner Autonomy and Motivation
The concept of autonomy is of great relevance in the learning process:
providing students with the right amount of autonomy helps them gain
the capability to control a situation, which in turn promotes the experi-
ence of positive emotions. As stated by Balboni (2013, 18), the pleasure of
autonomy is a fundamental emotion, which is possible when the students
are in control of their own learning.
According to Tassinari (2012, 28), learner autonomy is “a complex con-
struct, a construct of constructs”, a meta-capacity made up of different
components: cognitive and metacognitive (knowledge, awareness, be-
liefs), affective and motivational (feelings, emotions, motivation), action-
oriented (skills, behaviours, decisions) and social (interaction/negotiation
with peers, advisors, teachers). A fundamental element of autonomy is the
learners’ awareness of their affective and motivational dimension. Indeed,
learner autonomy and emotions are closely associated with another theo-
retical construct: motivation. Dörnyei (2001, 1) defines motivation as “an
abstract, hypothetical concept that we use to explain why people think
and behave as they do”. This concept is “related to one of the most basic
aspects of the human mind, and most teachers and researchers would
agree that it has a very important role in determining success or failure
in any learning situation” (2). Balboni (2006, in Bier 2013, 429) describes
motivation as “the energy that activates the brain and the mind”, thus
highlighting the connection between emotion and cognition. According
to his model, the motivational context of a language learning situation is
determined by three elements: pleasure, need and duty (Balboni 2006,
2011, 2013). He claims that pleasure is the most powerful factor precisely
because it is the result of emotions. Together with Balboni’s motivational
model, other four well-known motivational approaches have been taken
into consideration in the present study in order to interpret students’
emotions: self-efficacy theory (Bandura 1997), attribution theory (Weiner
1992), achievement motivation theory (Atkinson, Raynor 1974), and self-
determination theory (Deci, Ryan 1985). According to Bandura (1997), self-
efficacy refers to the belief that people can make a difference via their ac-
tions. If students believe they can obtain the desired effects through their
own actions, they are more motivated to undertake activities or to persist
in the face of difficulty. Attribution theory assumes that past actions, and
how people interpret past successes and failures, determine current and
future behaviour (Weiner 1992). For instance, if students repeatedly fail
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the English exam, they may attribute this failure to their capacities and
they might not want to take the exam again because they think that the
cause of failure is something they cannot change. Instead, if students at-
tribute the reason for failing the exam to their own poor effort, then they
will be more likely to take it again. According to achievement motivation
theory, motivation can be influenced both positively and negatively by
expectancies of success, incentive values, need for achievement and fear
of failure (Atkinson, Raynor 1974). In self-determination theory, Deci and
Ryan (1985) distinguish between different types of motivation based on the
different reasons or goals that give rise to an action. The most basic dis-
tinction is between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation: intrinsic
motivation involves behaviour performed for its own sake, while extrinsic
motivation concerns behaviour as a means to an end (Dörnyei 2001). Ac-
cording to Ryan and Deci (2000, 70), intrinsic motivation, “the inherent
tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise one’s
capacities, to explore, and to learn”, can be enhanced in the presence of
three conditions: competence, relatedness and autonomy (70). Learners
need to feel competent, to be cared about by others (teachers and peers),
to understand that they have choices and that they can determine what
they do. Students’ intrinsic motivation is therefore closely connected with
their emotional experiences and the social context.
Following Balboni’s model of motivation, the co-directed learning pro-
gramme encourages learners to find a balance between need, duty and
pleasure. Students decide to join the learning programme out of their
need to learn English in order to pass their exam, which is part of their
duty as university students. The pleasure of learning, as this article shows,
becomes possible when students are able to process their emotions and
develop their own autonomous learning path.
3 Method
3.1 Understanding Students’ Emotions:
the Role of the Language Counsellor
A co-directed learning programme encourages students to develop the
conscious feeling of self-awareness and to manage their emotions while
they become more autonomous, under the guidance and help (co-direction)
of language teachers and/or advisors.
The growing importance given to autonomous learning has led to the
shift from a teacher-led to a more learner-centred approach and to the
development of a new professional role, the language counsellor or advi-
sor, who promotes, encourages and supports learner autonomy (Mozzon-
McPherson 2007). The language counsellor may be a distinct figure from
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the teacher, or the teacher may acquire new skills and functions for sup-
porting students (Mozzon-McPherson 2003). Whatever the case, the role
of an advisor is to help learners become more responsible for the decisions
regarding their learning, from determining their goals to evaluating their
own learning process and outcome. Within the co-directed learning pro-
gramme, the language counsellor has the fundamental role of assisting
students in reaching their primary goal, that is, to learn English, while
offering guidance in the processing of emotions.
Bown and White (2010, 434) defined three steps in the processing of
emotions in language learning:
a.
the perception stage, in which students understand their emotional
states;
b. the reflection stage, in which learners reflect on their emotions,
c. the self-regulation stage, in which learners manage their emotions
and correct their self-beliefs.
Ciekanski (2007, 125) defines language advising as “a professional as well
as an interpersonal relationship that concerns learning in its cognitive and
subjective, as well as personal dimensions”. Tassinari and Ciekanski (2013,
264), following on from the work of Carette and Castillo (2004), mention
three main areas in which language advisors can support learning and
foster learner autonomy:
a.
listening to students’ perceptions and beliefs about language learn-
ing and themselves as learners;
b.
offering theoretical and methodological information about language
learning and learning strategies;
c. offering psychological support.
This last area is not only fundamental but also challenging, especially when
students are not fully aware of their difficulties. That is why the language
advisor aims to guide learners from the perception to the self-regulation
phase, providing them with a deeper understanding of the affective aspects
of the learning process.
3.2 Categorising Emotions: a Taxonomy
Different models have been proposed by different scholars to categorise
emotions. In this study, the analysis of the students’ emotions is based on
Pekrun et al.’s (2002) taxonomy of academic emotions, also known as level-
two emotions, id est, “emotions that are directly linked to academic learn-
ing, classroom instruction, and achievement (e.g., enjoyment of learning,
pride of success, or test-related anxiety”, Pekrun et al. 2002, 92). In Pekrun
et al.’s categorisation, “meta-emotions” refer to the feelings about one’s
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emotions, for instance, when a student feels angry about his/her anxiety
(93). Making students aware of their meta-emotions or feelings may assist
them in dealing with negative emotions as well as promoting positive ones.
In their qualitative studies, Pekrun et al. (2002, 94) observed that stu-
dents experience a rich and diverse emotional life. The scholars distin-
guished between positive and negative emotions, and between task- and
self-related and social emotions. Task- and self-related can be further di-
vided into prospective, process-related and retrospective (cf. Table 1).
Table 1. The domain of academic emotions (Pekrun et al. 2002, 92)
Positive Emotions Negative Emotions
Task- / Self-
Related
Prospective
Process-Related
Retrospective
Hope, anticipatory happiness
Enjoyment
Joy of success, satisfaction, pride,
relief
Anxiety, hopelessness
Boredom
Sadness, disappointment, shame,
guilt
Social
Gratitude
Empathy
Admiration
Sympathy
Anger
Envy
Contempt
Antipathy
The present study explores the emotional diversity characterising uni-
versity students’ affective life, without limiting the range of emotions
considered. Negative emotions tend to be more evidently displayed and
to be studied more frequently in literature: anxiety – in particular, test
anxiety – is one of the most widely researched emotions, having been ad-
dressed in more than a thousand studies (Pekrun et al. 2010). However,
positive emotions are experienced as often as negative ones (Pekrun et
al. 2002). Since the co-directed learning programme is mainly targeted at
students who find it hard to prepare for the English exam or have failed it
repeatedly, it is interesting to see which emotions play a role in the learn-
ing process, exploring how the language advisor can promote the shift
from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation.
3.3 Managing Emotions
Negative emotions interfere with learning when students become frustrat-
ed to the point of feeling helpless or incompetent. In fact, some students
may have difficulty in learning because their minds are cluttered with
pessimistic thoughts and negative memories. Advisors can help students
understand that emotions can be managed, regulated and controlled. They
can help students reduce their anxieties and the impact that negative
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emotions have on motivational energy. When students become upset by an
event such as a failed test, they often react in a way that further impedes
learning. This tendency can be inverted if students learn how to regulate or
manage their emotions. First of all, they need to learn to acknowledge and
express their feelings. Secondly, they need to be able to manage negative
emotions and come up with successful strategies. Learning how to cope
with emotions and feelings constitutes a sort of “emotional intelligence”
(Goleman 1995) that can help students to succeed. According to Goleman,
the main components of emotional intelligence are:
– self-awareness: the ability to recognise one’s own feelings. We can
support students in developing this self-confidence by helping them
understand how they are feeling;
– self-regulation: the ability to manage one’s own emotions. We cannot
eliminate anxiety or frustration but we can help students learn to
manage their feelings;
– self-motivation: the ability to generate feelings of enthusiasm, confi-
dence and persistence, especially in the face of obstacles;
– empathy: the ability to recognise emotions in others. We can encour-
age students to empathise with another student who is facing a dif-
ficult time.
It is the language advisor’s role to foster learners’ emotional intelligence,
in a learning environment that should be aimed at:
–
reducing inhibition, because making mistakes is part of language
learning (Arnold, Brown 1999, 9);
–
enhancing self-esteem, because it is fundamental for successful cogni-
tive and affective activity (12);
– promoting motivation, especially the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic
motivation, where the learning experience is its own reward (14).
4 The Study
By way of a qualitative study, students’ academic emotions were investi-
gated in order to see how they changed during the learning process, and
specifically, how they evolved throughout the period of the co-directed
learning programme, whose duration is usually of one semester. A group
of fifty students from different university departments who were attending
the co-directed learning programme was selected for the study. Participa-
tion was voluntary and students agreed to share their learning experience.
However, they were not informed about the purpose of the study, in order
not to influence their emotional response.
As Pekrun et al. (2002, 103) suggest, “Starting with qualitative, explora-
tory analysis can help in appreciating the complexity of real-life affective
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experience, and thus lay the groundwork for constructing measures and
undertaking quantitative studies”. The first phase of the present investiga-
tion concerned the observation of how students express emotions – con-
sciously and unconsciously, directly and indirectly. Following Tassinari and
Ciekanski’s model of analysis (2013), language advising sessions were cho-
sen as the main tool to explore the students’ affective experiences. Their
verbal expressions of emotions were analysed by taking into consideration
direct reference to emotions and the use of affective and evaluative words
(Tassinari, Ciekanski 2013). During the interaction with the counsellors,
learners were allowed to use their first language so as to avoid limitations
in their narrative.
The data obtained from the advising sessions were first analysed and
then integrated with students’ responses to a questionnaire that was
specifically designed to trigger awareness of the emotional dimension of
learning. Throughout the different stages of interaction with students,
the qualitative analysis focused on the language of emotions, not only at
a verbal level, but also at a non-verbal one, that is, paralinguistic features
(e.g. facial expressions, laughter, tears, etc.).
5 Results and Discussion
5.1 First Advising Session
The investigation of emotions started with the first advising session, which
usually takes place at the beginning of each semester. Once the students
express their interest in the learning programme, they take part in a pre-
liminary advising or learner awareness session, a pedagogical dialogue in
which students are asked to describe their previous and current experi-
ence of language learning. The first advising session is therefore focused
on students’ personal stories and experiences. Through their narrative,
their consciousness emerges or, to quote Damasio’s book title (2010), “self
comes to mind”.
The most frequent situation that leads to a first advising session and
consequently to the voluntary enrolment in the co-directed learning pro-
gramme is when students experience negative emotions such as frustra-
tion and anxiety. The preliminary advising session is in fact dedicated
to reflection, focusing on a series of core aspects, including language
learning and competence, learning strategies and needs. For example,
students who do not feel competent enough in the foreign language tend
to postpone taking the exam until the end of their studies. This, however,
contributes to increasing their anxiety because failing the English exam
also means postponing their graduation. Reflection is encouraged at this
stage because it is a useful way for the students to first identify their
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emotions and then to set goals to move forward. The counsellor sets up a
trusting relationship with the students by carefully listening to them, by
being respectful and empathetic and by helping them to identify, express
and understand their feelings (Mozzon-McPherson 2001). The advising
session functions as a two-way process where counsellor and student in-
fluence one another: “both parties are in a learning and teaching role”
(Mozzon-McPherson 2000, 121).
During the preliminary advising sessions, a number of different emo-
tions were registered, with a striking preponderance of negative task- and
self-related emotions, among which – surprisingly – anxiety is not the most
frequent. Table 2 lists the emotions that emerged during the first advising
session, in which 48 students out of 50 (96%) reported negative ones, both
directly and indirectly.
Table 2. Emotions that emerged during the first advising sessions listed in order of frequency
Negative Emotions
Task- / Self-Related
Frustration (91%)
Disappointment (86%)
Fear (84%)
Worry (84%)
Anxiety (83%)
Stress (82%)
Lack of self-esteem (82%)
Self-doubt/insecurity (80%)
Shame (78%)
Uneasiness (76%)
Discouragement (76%)
Helplessness / Hopelessness (74%)
Apprehension (70%)
Tension (68%)
Nervousness (58%)
Sadness (56%)
Anger (48%)
Despair (38%)
What emerged from the first advising session is that students’ negative
attitude is very often the consequence of previous negative experiences
with language learning. From the perspective of attribution theory, many
students reported poor foreign language learning at school, which nega-
tively influenced their subsequent attitude to language learning in general
and led to insecurity and lack of self-confidence as language learners.
Moreover, the majority of students expressed their frustration because of
a past failure, such as a failed exam, which may have occurred many times.
This perception of inadequateness is also magnified by the fact that other
students passed the exam the first time round without any difficulty. From
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the perspective of achievement motivation theory, their anxiety is also
enhanced by achievement pressure and fear of failure: some students ex-
plained that if they kept failing the test they would have to postpone their
graduation and as a consequence spend more money on university tuition,
ask their parents to help them economically, lose job opportunities, etc.
Frustration (91%), disappointment (86%), fear (84%) and worry (84%)
were the most frequently reported emotions in the first advising sessions,
followed by anxiety (83%). The main negative impact of these emotions
was the loss of self-confidence and self-esteem (82%), leading to insecu-
rity (80%), shame (78%), uneasiness (76%) and discouragement (76%). A
range of different emotions and meta-emotions emerged when students
explained their failure to overcome major obstacles in language learning:
some students experienced sadness (56%) and even despair (38% of them
cried), while others were nervous (58%) and even angry with themselves
(48%). In a significant number of cases (74%), the judgment of their capa-
bilities and their perception of themselves as language learners appeared
to be seriously damaged to the point where they convinced themselves
that they were incapable of foreign language learning.
In the first advising session, the language counsellor needs to be a good
listener, without appearing to judge students and without asking too many
questions. The aim of the first meeting is to make learners feel at ease, to
build a relationship based on trust, and to help them set reachable goals.
5.2 The Evolution of Emotions
The first advising sessions are typically carried out in one-to-one meetings,
to allow students to express their emotions, feelings and thoughts with-
out any restriction or fear of being judged by their peers. After the first
meeting, the students start following their learning path, which consists
of mini-lessons and a series of study sessions in the language laboratory
under the guidance of language advisors as well as study sessions car-
ried out autonomously by the students at home. Furthermore, the co-
directed learning programme promotes the social dimension of learning,
by including subsequent group meetings and social interaction. Indeed,
peer interaction is a fundamental factor in developing self-confidence and
self-awareness: during successive advising sessions, a significant number
of students (90%) reported that coming into contact with other learners
experiencing similar difficulties was beneficial. In point of fact, while high
school students are used to experiencing learning in small classrooms of
twenty/twenty-five learners, university students typically experience a
more individual kind of learning, due to larger classes. Because of this lack
of group cohesion, they may feel isolated and ashamed to ask for help, es-
pecially when they think they are not making any progress. For this reason,
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the co-directed learning programme aims to provide integrated support
of language advisors and peers. Certainly, emotions occur not only within
individuals, but also within entire groups; such emotional experiences are
known as “collective emotions” (Goetz et al. 2003). In this perspective,
emotions are seen as contagious and can be transmitted through social
interaction. Individual and collective emotions coexist, influsence and in-
teract with one another also in academic contexts.
Throughout the course of their learning, students can request further
meetings with the advisors in order to clarify doubts and to discuss their
progress. During these meetings evidence of positive emotions was re-
corded, both task/self-related and social, such as hope, enjoyment, satis-
faction, pride and relief (cf. Table 3).
Table 3. Positive emotions emerging during follow-up advising sessions
Positive Emotions
Task- / Self-Related Hope (88%)
Satisfaction (80%)
Relief (76%)
Enjoyment (74%)
Surprise (59%)
Self-confidence / Self-awareness (55%)
Pride (54%)
Joy (52%)
Enthusiasm (48%)
Social Gratitude (92%)
Empathy (70%)
Admiration (60%)
Hope was reported as the most common positive emotion (88%) that
emerged during follow-up sessions, together with satisfaction (80%) and
relief (76%). This might be explained by the fact that during the co-directed
programme students are given the opportunity to take a mock test. The
mock test is a fundamental stage in the development and management of
emotions: it is delivered several times throughout the programme, with the
same types of tasks and same external conditions as the exam, such as the
time limit and the prohibited use of a dictionary. Test anxiety is not decisive
in this context, since students’ test results are simply indicative of their
possible progress. When the students show some improvement in their
performance in the mock test, more positive task-related emotions come
to the surface, such as pride (54%), joy (52%), enthusiasm (48%) and even
surprise (59%). The mock test can thus influence motivation positively,
generating the expectancy of success, in accordance with achievement
motivation theory. At this stage, students become more self-confident and
aware of the fact that they can actually improve (self-efficacy theory). This
244 Beseghi. Emotions and Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning at University
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is a crucial moment, and the counsellors can encourage them to benefit
from positive emotions, turning harmful into helpful anxiety. As pointed
out by Frenzel and Stephens (2013, 30) positive task-oriented emotions
promote intrinsic motivation and persistence in the face of challenges and
obstacles (self-determination theory). When learners experience positive
outcome-related emotions in achievement situations, they feel encouraged
to persevere in achieving their goal, thus acting according to extrinsic
motivation.
A positive emotion closely connected to intrinsic motivation, enjoyment,
also emerged in the students’ discourse (74%). When they began to realise
that language learning was not an impossible mission for them, but simply
a challenge that they could face and overcome, they started to enjoy the
learning process, showing more enthusiasm and satisfaction, which led
to increased self-confidence and self-awareness (55%). The emergence of
positive emotions becomes of great relevance when students work autono-
mously: the feelings of enjoyment and enthusiasm lead them to explore
the language in new ways that go beyond learning for its own sake (e.g.
watching films and TV series in the original language, reading articles or
books, etc.) and ultimately lead to the pleasure of learning.
In addition, it was possible to observe the development of positive social
emotions such as gratitude (92%), empathy (70%) and admiration (60%),
experienced towards both counsellors and peers. At this stage, it is the
role of the counsellor to help the students focus on positive emotions and
capitalise on them, for example, by showing appreciation for their improve-
ment, praising them for their efforts and pushing them to move forward.
At the end of the co-directed learning programme, the students were
asked to fill in a questionnaire (in their L1) concerning their learning ex-
perience. By integrating the analysis of the advising sessions with their
responses and comments, their emotional reactions and the evolution of
their emotions during the learning process were further explored. The stu
-
dents’ comments clearly show the shift from negative to positive emotions:
a significant number of students refer to initial fear (87%), discourage-
ment (85%) and insecurity (84%), which later turned into more positive
emotions and feelings such as awareness (85%), confidence (75%) and
determination (70%). By way of example, a selection of students’ responses
are reported below.
2
The words in italics (Author’s emphasis) highlight the
affective and evaluative language used by the students:
–
Initially I was afraid that I wouldn’t make it, and that everything would
be useless. Then, little by little, I gained more confidence until I felt
calm and prepared for the exam.
2
The comments were written or iginally in Ita lia n and were later translated into Engl ish
for the pur pose of this article.
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– At the beginning I was insecure about my language competence and
this prevented me from learning. By doing the various activities of the
programme I acquired more awareness and confidence, which made
me feel more positive.
–
At first I was discouraged and insecure, but as I kept training I gained
more and more confidence.
– I have always loved English but I was convinced it was not for me.
Now I have gained more familiarity with the language and I have
overcome my language learning block.
– My attitude towards the foreign language has changed dramatically:
at first, learning English seemed an insurmountable obstacle to me,
now I believe I can continue to improve my language skills. Yes I can!!
– Perceiving my language improvement was motivating and satisfying.
Now I feel more autonomous when I learn.
– I found myself in a situation of absolute tranquillity: I felt safe and I
could concentrate better on my learning.
–
I now have more willpower and determination to study, increased
learning abilities, increased self-esteem thanks to group study and
collaboration.
– I could overcome my difficulties thanks to the relationship with other
students and the psychological support offered by the teachers.
These remarks indicate how emotion, motivation and (meta-)cognition are
interrelated, especially in a co-directed and autonomous learning context.
Thanks to the one-to-one meetings, peer interaction, progress checking
and (self-)reflection, learners were able to regulate their emotions and
transform self-determined extrinsic motivation into intrinsic motivation,
becoming more self-conscious in the process. The shift from negative to
positive emotions is possible if teachers/counsellors first listen to and then
understand their students’ affective dimension, acting not only as facilita-
tors in the autonomous language learning process but also as coaches in
the students’ management of their emotional sphere.
6 Conclusions
The data obtained in this study have demonstrated how crucially im-
portant it is for language counsellors and teachers to focus on affective
aspects in their students’ learning process and to take them in careful
consideration in order to support their learning progress. Despite the
qualitative nature of the study and the small sample size, the findings
presented in this article indicate that emotions play a pivotal role in
the learning process, especially in a co-directed and autonomy-inspired
context, where learners have the opportunity to be assisted by language
246 Beseghi. Emotions and Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning at University
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counsellors in the processing of emotions, from the perception to the
self-regulation stage. Furthermore, a co-directed environment that en-
courages students to reflect on their emotions allows them to develop
autonomy and self-awareness, to change their perceptions of themselves
as learners and to experience the pleasure of learning.
As pointed out by Tassinari and Ciekanski (2013) language advising
certainly provides a privileged opportunity to study the emotional re-
sponses of the students to the language learning experience. Within the
dialogic relationship between counsellors and learners, it is possible to
investigate the affective dimensions of learning and to help learners to
cope with their emotions. The figure of the language counsellor turns out
to be of great significance. As underlined by Mozzon-Mc Pherson (2007),
advisors contribute to the development of new types of teachers, who (re)
define their role in response to the learners’ changing needs, and new
types of language learners, who are more autonomous, in control of their
learning and are aware of their emotional dimension. The role played by
language counsellors is thus crucial and requires continuous research
and professional training, so that ref lection on the affective aspects of
learning can become an integral part not only of the practice of language
advising but also of language learning and teaching at university.
The findings of this study highlight the fact that students experience a
wide variety of academic emotions, thus confirming the results of previ-
ous studies (Goetz et al. 2003; Pekrun et al. 2002; Pekrun et al. 2010),
and that the pleasure of learning is obtained when students learn to
understand, process and control their emotions. Further qualitative as
well as quantitative studies are certainly needed to explore the impact
of emotions in academic settings. Moreover, the affective dimension of
counsellors and teachers also needs to be systematically investigated, as
research in this field is still scarce (Balboni 2013, Bier 2014). If it is true
that there is no learning without emotion, it is also true that there is no
teaching without emotion.
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