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17th Quantitative InfraRed Thermography Conference
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Using Infrared Thermography to determine the excessive moisture in earthquake
damaged heritage buildings
by B. Milovanović*, D. Tkalčić** and M. Gaši***
* University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra Andrije Kačića-Miošića 26, 10 000, Zagreb, Croatia,
bojan.milovanovic@grad.unizg.hr
** University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra Andrije Kačića-Miošića 26, 10 000, Zagreb, Croatia,
domagoj.tkalcic@grad.unizg.hr
*** University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra Andrije Kačića-Miošića 26, 10 000, Zagreb, Croatia,
mergim.gasi@grad.unizg.hr
Abstract
This paper presents the results of the case studies in application of infrared thermography (IRT) to identify and
assess excessive moisture in earthquake-damaged heritage buildings, specifically masonry wall assemblies. The IRT
survey is utilised here to provide information about the excessive moisture content in building elements and to visualise
and help mapping the wet areas. By analysing building’s thermal patterns, it is possible to detect areas where moisture
has penetrated and identify the source of the moisture intrusion. Studied buildings are five churches in central and rural
Croatia that are listed as cultural heritage.
1. Introduction
Cultural heritage plays a significant role in national identity. It shows development path of a nation, folk customs,
cuisine, art, language but also buildings and monuments specific for that area [1]. Buildings have significant contribution
to cultural heritage as much information can be gathered from their elements. They show materials and methods as well
as the skills that were known at the time of buildings construction. There are many reasons why buildings can be granted
cultural heritage protection such as: (I) Buildings with historical significance might be associated with a major historical
event or a figure, (II) The building might be a particularly well-preserved example of a specific architectural style or
movement, (III) The building might have played a central role in the development of the local community or culture, or it
could simply be (IV) considered aesthetically pleasing from an artistic or design perspective.
Natural processes and in some cases natural disasters cause material degradation and therefore shorten life
expectancy of all buildings as well as listed buildings. Most common problems that occur are moisture problems which can
penetrate into building’s elements by rain and gravity, wind driven rain, evaporation, condensation, or capillarity sorption
from soil to the foundation or walls. To prevent buildings from demolition, inappropriate alternations or neglect it, it is
necessary to grant cultural heritage protection and therefore preserve it for future generations. Buildings with cultural
heritage are often old and do not comply with contemporary regulation which means it could get heavily damaged or even
completely destroyed in significant natural disasters such as earthquakes. Unfortunately, two earthquakes hit Croatia in
2020 and caused significant damages to many buildings, including the buildings under cultural heritage protection [2], [3].
Even though moisture content or relative humidity are one of the basic physical properties of building materials,
excessive moisture content in building materials often leads to aesthetic changes and structural damage in the material.
While building elements will inevitably experience some moisture ingress and transport, the detrimental effects on material
properties can be significantly reduced or even minimized by selecting appropriate materials. In fact, it’s estimated that a
staggering 75 – 90 % of building damages are caused by moisture problems [4]. Presence of water and moisture in
materials is a complex problem that reduces buildings lifetime and can significantly increase maintenance costs. Knowing
and understanding root causes of increased moisture content in buildings elements is fundamental issue for conservation
and renovation activities [5]–[7]. Inadequate moisture content in buildings elements can cause not only permanent damage
to the building but also its residents as exposure to various biological organisms or chemicals can lead to health
compromises [8]–[10].
These case studies were conducted as a result of in-situ testing conducted to gather information used for the
design of renovation of listed buildings (churches) damaged during Croatia’s two earthquakes in 2020. Except earthquake
damage these buildings had also other construction damage including moisture damage which occurred before earthquake
or moisture penetration which was induced by earthquake (through cracks, leaks, damaged roof etc.). Since the intention
was to do the complete renovation of these listed buildings, not only structural strengthening, but also moisture damage
and prevention of future moisture damage from different sources. Thus, moisture mapping and source detection was crucial
in order to determine moisture repair and prevention techniques and to perform successful renovation.
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2. Literature review
Literature indicates that IRT is a reliable method for detecting temperature anomalies that can be associated with
surface moisture. While other methods for detecting surface moisture exist, IRT allows for the inspection of a large area in
a short time frame. Studies [11] and [12] show experimental laboratory tests performed on walls. Studies confirmed IRT’s
ability to detect moisture from capillarity and to identify the moist areas corresponding to the moisture gradient between
wet and dry surfaces, which are not visible with naked eye. Study [12] combined IRT with moisture detector which resulted
in good agreement between the two methods. However, moisture detector points to a higher level of moisture due to its
ability to assess inner moisture, while IRT detects surface evaporation.
Authors of book [12] also performed In Situ test in indoor environment, two different sources of moisture were
inspected; rising damp and infiltration of rainwater. Moisture detector performs spot measurements so in order to have
comparable results, the studied area has to be divided into a grid. Exterior basement wall, exterior classroom wall and
exterior residential building room wall were examined after a rainy week. It is concluded that if only IRT was used, the
misinterpretation of results could have been a problem due to different parameters analysed. Authors confirmed their
laboratory conclusion that IRT detects surface evaporation, while moisture detector assesses inner moisture.
In study [13], historic stone building was observed by IRT. By chance, test was performed multiple times a day to
capture sunrise and sunset, before and after the earthquake. In thermograms, temperature anomalies were spotted. Some
temperature anomalies were associated with surface and structural cracks caused by time material degradation and
earthquake. However, other temperature anomalies indicated moisture problems. Capillary sorption from soil was detected
on the area at the bottom of the wall.
Visible detachments between plaster and underlying masonry in cathedral was assessed in study [14]. Thermal
discontinuities stretched up to 1.5 m above the floor. Damage manifested as plaster detachment and efflorescence was
spotted. IRT highlighted micro-cracks in plaster and indicated moisture presence. The cause of damage is attributed to
capillary sorption from soil.
In study [15] thermographers performed passive IRT with natural temperature gradient of 6°C between inside and
outside of the church in Italy. Authors detected several cold areas in masonry wall originating from leaking roof and localized
rising dump thanks to the cooling evaporation process which is highly energy consuming. Gravimetric tests were performed
in order to establish moisture content in suspicious areas. IRT field test was repeated a few months after roof repair, results
showed greatly reduced moisture content in examined building element. By combining infrared thermography with
weighting tests, researchers were able to establish a correlation between the water content measured by gravimetric tests
and the moisture distribution identified using IRT.
3. Case study
This case study was carried out on buildings that have showed evident signs of moisture induced damage. As
moisture causes deterioration and decreases buildings life cycle it is crucial to locate the areas with inadequate level
moisture, find the cause and take the necessary measures to stop it from negatively impacting buildings life cycle and
health of occupants in transit.
Destructive method were out of the question as the tested buildings are under cultural heritage protection and
thus non-destructive techniques (NDT) had to be performed. It was decided to carry out three types of in-situ tests: visual
inspection, determining the surface moisture content with surface moisture meter and using IRT was utilized to map
moisture distribution and locate areas with unusual water content. All three tests were performed both, on the internal and
external side of the building. Because of the decisionmakers and other stakeholders involved which were not with technical
background or experts in the field, the methods used, and the approach needed to be quick and very descriptive IRT
proved very useful.
3.1. Buildings
Five churches were evaluated for moisture issues (Figure 1). Each church holds significant cultural weight and is under
the protection of Croatia’s cultural heritage program. Unfortunately, Croatia’s turbulent past often resulted in damage or
destruction of churches, followed by repairs or renovations. Proper documentation of these interventions was lost,
destroyed, or never created in the first place. Combination of lack of historical records and cultural protection makes it
challenging to understand the precise properties of the building materials used as only the NDT methods were allowed
which have their limitations.
Detailed ground plans were created for each church, these plans were crucial for accurate moisture mapping. The
construction materials, a combination of brick and stone (church 1) or primarily brick (churches 2 - 5), or present challenges.
These materials are inherently vulnerable to both earthquake and moisture infiltration. Addressing these concerns requires
a nuanced approach that respects the historical significance of the buildings.
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1)Divuša
2) Gušće
3) Kratečko
4) Prelošćica
5) Pisarovina
Figure 1. Examined churches
3.2. In-situ testing
By visual inspection, general condition and potential issues related to moisture infiltration were identified. As some of the
examined buildings were in rough condition, tests had to be made with great caution. Focus was on deterioration degree
and pathological manifestation, including signs of wear and tear alongside visible evidence of water damage. Signs of
advance water damage, including spalling of brick stone, rust on metal components, and efflorescence, were documented
to assess the extent of moisture migration.
IRT method was chosen due to many practical characteristics for in-situ testing such as large area evaluation in
short time, element examination from safe distance, and shows 2D image of examined surface. If testing conditions are
favourable, which we paid special attention to, with passive thermography, a little preparation for in-situ testing is required
and results can be seen in real time. The employment of passive thermography was needed because there was no
electricity or other forms of energy were provided in the churches (the buildings were disconnected from the electricity,
gas, etc. due to earthquake damage) and bringing external heat sources together with power sources was not possible.
It is very well known that radiation detected using IRT and converted into surface temperatures are being used further for
different analyses, which make it possible to identify anomalies, such as presence of surface moisture and cracks in
materials which are affecting heat transport [16].
While IRT typically shows lower temperatures in moist areas due to evaporative cooling, there can be exceptions.
Materials with high moisture content can also exhibit higher temperatures compared to dry areas in transient conditions
when the building elements are cooling down. This is because water has a higher thermal inertia than many building
materials, meaning it takes longer to heat up and cool down [17][18]. Surface temperature anomalies spotted by IRT are
not necessarily always from difference in moisture content. Different causses can also occur, such as: reflection, thermal
bridges, air infiltration, different material properties, etc [16]. Although those results can be labelled as useless, sometimes
they can indicate different material use and therefore give valuable information about buildings condition and techniques
required for proper refurbishment. The analysis is based on spotting the visual temperature differences in the thermogram,
where warm and cold areas have different causes. This procedure depends on the evaluator’s experience [16], [5], [6].
In-situ testing presented in this paper were performed in the morning when natural sources (sun) and ambient
temperatures increase the element temperature and therefore created temperature gradient which made temperature
anomalies caused by moisture visible using IRT. Literature [18][19] suggests that temperature gradient has to be more 1
°C difference between studied areas and the environment, otherwise detection is limited and inaccurate. Building element
measurement results obtained by IRT are influenced by their surroundings and are dependent on several factors such as:
material surface properties (emissivity), reflected temperature, environmental conditions, sun exposure, type of lightning,
and observation angle [20].
Apparent reflected temperature was determined by the reflectance method using a piece of crumpled and then
flattened aluminium foil. Due to all buildings constructed of the same materials (brick or combination of brick and stone),
the obtained corresponding material emissivity was 0.95 in all churches. However, the reflected temperature was
determined for each church. Thanks to lime cement mortar on churches walls, there were no reflection connected issues.
As a part of this study, moisture content was analysed in external and internal walls, and ceilings. Due to the size
and condition of the examined buildings, no additional heating or cooling effects were used. Passive thermography was
performed which means temperature difference between external and internal air and surface wall temperature is
accomplished with natural causes, while the most favourable testing conditions were chosen by the thermographers, but
also limited by external factors like deadlines set by investors and time of year during which the tests needed to be done
and which were not negotiable. The multimethod approach, while time-consuming as shown in Figure 2, ensured a
comprehensive assessment of moisture content within these complex structures.
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Figure 2. Activity sequence
Observations obtained by visual inspections were recorded on floorplan together with defined measuring points.
Point measurements with surface moisture meter were performed for every position on floorplan. Every position consists
of at least five measurement points with hight interval of 0.5 m. Thermal contrast was used for thermogram analysis, in
which temperatures unaffected by humidity were compared with area influenced by humidity. Example of the floorplan with
measuring positions is given in Figure 3. Red numbers mark the outside positions, green numbers mark the inside
positions, while the blue numbers mark the positions on the ceiling. By documenting the test conditions, the impact of
external factors can be considered. Table 1 shows test conditions during in-situ testing. Tests on each church were
performed in the morning, after the sunrise. Floor plans and results of each church are available but due to the article
length restrictions, only one floorplan is shown.
Figure 3. Example of building’s floor plan with measurement positions and surface moisture results
(church no. 1)
Moisture meter readings shown on floorplan indicate the measurement of moisture content (% H2O), which refers
to the mass moisture content in concrete. It should be noted that there is no consistent linear correlation between moisture
content measurements and RH measurements. Reference scale is the right one, 0 – 100. It can be used for comparative
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readings only. This scale should not be interpreted as a measurement of percent moisture or relative humidity. This scale
should be viewed only as comparative or qualitative scale.
Table 1. Test conditions during in-situ testing
Church
location
Month
Weather
during
test
External
air RH
External air
temperature
Internal
air RH
Internal air
temperature
Note
1) Divuša
October
Dry
66%
19.4 °C
75.4 %
17.1 °C
Dry period before test
2) Gušće
November
No rain
72.7 %
11.1 °C
69 %
9.1 °C
Rain before test
3)Kratečko
November
Cloudy,
no rain
58.6 %
12.4 °C
49.7 %
13.7 °C
Fog, rain before test
4)
Prelošćica
April
Rain
86 %
11.6
80.4 %
12 °C
Rain before and
during test
5)
Pisarovina
October
Rain
86.7 %
16.4 °C
82.9 %
16.4 °C
Rain before and
during test
Combining visual examination with IRT and confirming high moisture level areas with surface moisture meter, a pattern
(Figure 4) was spotted on each examined building. Similar patterns were considered when areas that could not be reached
with surface moisture meter were examined.
Figure 4. Temperature gradient pattern on church no. 5
4. Results
Visual inspection on inside face of west external wall shown on Figure 5 (church no. 5) detected discoloration and
black mold indicating moisture presence. Surface moisture meter confirmed suspicion showing very high moisture content
(> 80 %) up to 1.5 m in height. IRT matched both methods with temperature gradients marking areas Bx1 - Bx3 as wet
areas. Capillary sorption from soil is the likely cause.
Figure 5. Moisture on inside surface of external wall (church no. 5)
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Figure 6 (church no. 2) shows the interior surface of external east wall. Plaster detachment is evident, reaching
height of approximately 0.7 m indicating potential high moisture content. High moisture readings (> 80%) were confirmed
using a surface moisture meter at the same position on both, the internal and external wall faces, with same readings
extending up to 1.5 m. Additionally, a temperature anomaly observed in Bx1 and Bx2 suggests a wet area on the inner
wall surface. Capillary sorption from soil is the likely cause.
Figure 6. Moisture on wall on church no. 2
Similarly to Figure 6, Figure 7 (church no. 1) shows inside face of north-east external wall. In this case plaster
detachment stretches up to approximately 0.2 m. High moisture readings (> 60%) were confirmed using a surface moisture
meter at the same position on both, the internal and external wall faces, with same readings extending up to 1 m. Spotted
temperature anomaly indicates wet area (Bx1, Bx3) likely caused by capillary sorption from soil and thermal bridge (Bx2).
Figure 7. Wall/floor temperature anomaly of church no. 1
Figure 8 (church no. 3) shows inside face of external east wall. Plaster detachments and efflorescence stretch up
to almost 2 m. Surface moisture meter showed very high readings (100%) matching the height of plaster detachments and
efflorescence on both, inside and outside wall face. Temperature anomalies indicate wet area (Bx1 - Bx4) across bigger
area.
Figure 8. Moisture on internal surface of the external wall of church no. 3
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With entire reachable area examined, hard to reach areas such as high elements were not tested with surface
moisture meter due to increased safety issues due to limited access and the fact that the soil was still active from
earthquake aftershocks. Thermographers spotted patterns representing moist areas which enabled us to examine out of
the reach areas. By visual inspection, discoloration is spotted at the upper part of the column. Figure 9 (church no. 1)
shows temperature anomaly which indicates wet area (Bx1) due to roof leakage.
Figure 9. Arch moisture in church no. 1
By visual inspection, discoloration, plaster detachments and cracks were spotted on church dome (Figure 10,
church no. 3). IRT confirmed suspicious areas as temperature anomalies which indicate moisture area was present (Bx1
– Bx6). Roof leakage is the origin of temperature anomalies.
Figure 10. Moisture on church dome on church no. 3
Discoloration and plater detachments were spotted on the upper part of internal surface of the external east wall (Figure
11, church no. 4) As the position was unavailable, surface moisture meter measurement was not performed. Only visual
inspection and IRT were performed. IRT shows temperature anomaly (Bx1) which indicates rainwater drainage
problems.
Figure 11. Moisture on internal surface of the external wall of church no. 4
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Unlike Figure 9 - Figure 11, on Figure 12 there are no suspicious areas that could indicate moisture with naked
eye such as visible discoloration, cracks or plaster detachments which might indicate moist areas and they could be
detected with surface moisture meter as they were out of reach. Similar to Figure 11, temperature anomalies (Bx1 - Bx4)
spotted on church no. 2 indicate wet area on the vault. Roof leakage is origin of moisture.
Figure 12. Moisture on vault of church no. 2
Figure 13 (church no. 5) shows west external façade. While the surface moisture meter did not detect significant
moisture content below the window (< 30 %), IRT revealed temperature anomalies (Bx1, Bx2), suggesting the presence
of moisture. It is important to note that the dark blue/purple colour around the window border does not indicate moisture
but the change in paint.
Figure 13. Moisture on external façade on church no. 5
By visual inspection, external west wall discoloration is spotted (Figure 14, church no. 4). Wall has four colours:
grey colour indicates mould, yellow colour indicates lichen or mineral stains, white colour indicates efflorescence, pink-
brown colour is the original colour of the plaster. Surface moisture meter shows very high moisture content (100 %) on the
external face all the way to the 1.5 m in height, while on the inside face it shows same value up to 1 m in height.
Thermogram shows temperature anomaly on external wall that are of different origins. Bx1 and Bx2 are from capillary
sorption from soil, Bx3 - Bx4 is from wind driven rain and surface cracks which caused plaster delamination. Bx5 - Bx7 is
caused by thermal bridge. Areas such as Bx3 - Bx4 show minimal temperature anomaly that could be interpreted as moist
areas based solely on IRT method as the temperature difference is too small.
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Figure 14. Capillary sorption on external face of external wall (church no. 4)
During the examination, the building history had to be considered. Many of the examined churches had gone
through upgrades or repairs after natural disasters, fires, wars, etc. During the repair phase, there are cases when different
building materials had to be used due to unavailability or inadequacy of the original material.
In this case (Figure 15, church no. 1, north-west facade), visual inspection did not give any information about
moisture. Surface moisture meter indicated presence of moisture (60 %) up to a height of 0.5 m, but IRT detected
temperature anomalies. It is brought to attention that church was heavily damaged in the war during the 1990’s and restored
afterwards. New parts of the church are made of brick on top of old elements which are made of stone. Thermogram shows
temperature anomalies which confirms different material properties. Stone (Bx1, Bx2) and brick (Bx3) can be detected with
thermal anomalies that have regular pattern, while other temperature anomalies (Bx4, Bx5) indicate moisture that came
from capillary sorption from soil.
Figure 15. Wall with different materials and moisture in church 1
By visual examination, a lot of information was gathered, such as difference in material, surface discoloration, plaster
cracks, structural cracks, mold development, geometrical thermal bridges, non-airtight areas, bad element connections,
direct sunlight exposure, elements in shade, water spots on the wall and window, skirting lamination, and coating cracks.
Surface moisture meter cannot be used in all situations with 100% certainty in results as the difference in materials, surface
conditions and texture have significant impact. While it provides a valuable data points, tested area is limited. Surface
moisture meter is a localized measurement tool which can only assess moisture content at a very small area, offering a
limited snapshot of the overall moisture distribution on a building element. This method alone can lead to an incomplete
picture of the actual moisture situation. There were also building elements such as high ceilings, high wall areas, bell
towers that could not be reached without high risk of injury, so conclusions had to be made on established patterns,
thermographers experience and results obtained through combination of all three methods.
5. Conclusion
This study employed a comprehensive, multimethod approach to assess moisture distribution in five earthquake-
damaged churches under cultural heritage protection. The goal was to locate the areas with inadequate moisture content
and to find the root causes of them in order to advise the refurbishment. This investigation combined visual inspection,
infrared thermography, and surface moisture meter measurements. The visual inspection revealed a range of potential
moisture sources, including issues related to rainwater management (poor drainage, leaking roofs) and inherent material
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properties (surface discoloration and water traces). Additionally, defects in the building envelope, such as polygonal cracks,
crazing, and inadequate plaster, were observed and could contribute to moisture ingress.
IRT’s ability to capture thermal anomalies on buildings’ surfaces proved helpful. These anomalies served as
indicators of hidden moisture problems that could be undetected. Also, IRT enabled inspection of not so easily accessible
places without exposing test engineers to unnecessary risk of injuries and to speed up inspection process. IRT confirmed
or rejected suspicions raised during visual inspection. Surface moisture meter provided qualitative data of the moisture
content at specific locations, aiding in the confirmation and localization of moisture issues identified through visual
inspection and IRT. Surface moisture and temperature can vary across a building elements surface. Reading obtained with
a surface moisture meter depend heavily on the specific locations chosen for measurement. These variations can occur
even between closely spaced points. Consequently, the meter may not always capture the most extreme moisture content
values (highest or lowest). Combining IRT with surface moisture meters offers a valuable advantage as it provides a
broader picture of moisture distribution across the wall, helping to identify potential areas of concern that might be missed
by point-based measurements alone.
In some cases, there were visible signs of water damage on buildings elements, along with confirmatory reading
from the surface moisture meter indicating moisture. However, IRT alone would not have detected moisture because there
was not a significant temperature gradient. As every NDT method has its shortcomings, the combination of these three
methods provide a far more robust understanding of moisture distribution within the churches than relying solely on one
method.
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