Soil Regeneration through Phytoremediation for Safe Foods

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Phytoremediation in Food Safety
Phytoremediation is the process that uses plants to remove pollutants from soils. These pollutants
are stored in the edible parts of plants and, if they are consumed above a certain level, they become
a health risk for humans and animals. This book is a critical review of phytoremediation, its direct
and indirect effects on food products, and the risks posed by this cost-effective technology in food
safety. It shows how different plants are suited for phytoremediation, explains the role of toxicants
in the environment, and analyzes their effects and risks in the food chain at a global level. It also
reviews the extraction methods of toxicants from plants after they are exposed to phytoremediation.
FEATURES:
• Summarizes the phytoremediation technology for effective remediation
• Describes different types of pollutants in soils that render food products useless
• Identies the role of phytoremediation in the environment and its advantages and
disadvantages
• Explains the roles of phytoexclusion and phytostabilization in foods and food safety
• Includes many case studies to describe the extraction protocols in postharvest for food
safety
This book is intended for practitioners in public and private companies involved in soil remediation
and food production, as well as graduate students and academics, in both developed and developing
countries, who are involved in soil and environmental sciences, the food industry, agriculture, and
biotechnology.

Phytoremediation in Food Safety
Risks and Prospects
Edited by
Sesan Abiodun Aransiola and Naga Raju Maddela

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ISBN: 978-1-032-68374-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-68376-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-68375-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781032683751
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v
Contents
Foreword ..........................................................................................................................................xv
Preface ............................................................................................................................................xvii
About the Editors ............................................................................................................................xix
List of Contributors .........................................................................................................................xxi
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... xxv
SECTION 1 Prospects of Phytoremediation for
a Safe Environment and Safe Food
Chapter 1 Phytoremediation Overview and Role in Food Safety .................................................3
Munachimso Odenakachi Victor-Ekwebelem and Simeon Okiki Naphtali
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Advantages of Phytoremediation .......................................................................4
1.3 Disadvantages and Limitations of Phytoremediation ........................................ 4
1.4 Phytoremediation and Food Safety ................................................................... 5
1.5 Conclusion .........................................................................................................6
References .................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 2 Phytoremediation and Its Role in Climate Change for a Safe Environment ..............10
Pabbati Ranjit, Patel Shaifali Ben, D. Rama Prasanna, and
Kondakindi Venkateswar Reddy
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Reasons for Climate Change ........................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Greenhouse Gases .............................................................................. 11
2.2.2 Petroleum Industry ............................................................................. 11
2.2.3 Vapor Intrusion ................................................................................... 11
2.2.4 Oil Spills ............................................................................................. 11
2.2.5 Exhaust Emissions.............................................................................. 11
2.2.6 Waste Oil ............................................................................................ 12
2.3 Climate Change and Its Impact on the Environment ...................................... 12
2.4 Climate Change and Safe Environment through Phytoremediation ............... 12
2.4.1 Carbon Sequestration ......................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Soil Health Improvement ...................................................................13
2.5 Phytoremediation of Various Pollutants .......................................................... 14
2.5.1 Phytoremediation of Particulate Matter ............................................. 14
2.5.2 Volatile Organic Compounds ............................................................. 15
2.5.3 Gaseous Pollutants ............................................................................. 16
2.5.4 Removal of Dyes ................................................................................ 16
2.5.5 Removal of Heavy Metals .................................................................. 16
2.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 18
References .................................................................................................................. 18

vi Contents
Chapter 3 Organic and Inorganic Pollutant Uptake Mechanisms by Plants ...............................21
Munachimso Odenakachi Victor-Ekwebelem,
Simeon Okiki Naphtali, and M. M. Yakiimov
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 21
3.2 Mechanism of Phytoremediation .....................................................................22
3.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................26
References .................................................................................................................. 27
Chapter 4 Soil Regeneration through Phytoremediation for Safe Foods ....................................30
Innocent Ojeba Musa, Job Oloruntoba Samuel,
Mustahpa Adams, Vivian Nathaniel, Asmau M.
Maude, Mohammed Evuti Mahmud, and Abd’Gafar Tunde Tiamiyu
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Phytoremediation Techniques .........................................................................31
4.2.1 Phytoextraction: Extracting Heavy Metals from Soil ........................ 31
4.2.2 Rhizoltration: Soil and Water Purication through Roots ............... 32
4.2.3 Phytostabilization: Immobilizing Contaminants in Soil.................... 32
4.2.4 Phytodegradation: Breaking Down Organic Pollutants ..................... 33
4.2.5 Phytovolatilization: Transforming Contaminants into Gas ...............34
4.3 Plant Species for Phytoremediation ................................................................. 34
4.3.1 Hyperaccumulators: Nature’s Metal Cleaners.................................... 34
4.3.2 Native Plants: Tailoring Remediation to Local Ecosystems .............. 35
4.3.3 Crop Plants: Synergizing Remediation with Agriculture .................. 35
4.4 Factors Inuencing Phytoremediation .............................................................36
4.4.1 Soil Composition and Its Role in Remediation .................................. 36
4.4.2 Types and Levels of Contaminants: Navigating Complexity .............37
4.4.3 Climate and Environmental Variables in Remediation .....................37
4.4.4 Plant-Microbe Interactions: Below-Ground Collaborations .............. 38
4.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 39
References .................................................................................................................. 39
Chapter 5 Environmental Pollution: Causes, Types, Fates, Effects,
and Control Strategies ................................................................................................43
Kingsley Erhons Enerijio, Chidozie Ekene, Saheed Ibrahim Musa,
Comfort Okoji, Nathan Moses, Parisa Ebrahimbabaie, Iboyi Nathaniel
Onuche, and Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 43
5.2 Types of Environmental Pollution ................................................................... 43
5.2.1 Soil Pollution ......................................................................................44
5.2.2 Air Pollution .......................................................................................44
5.2.3 Water Pollution ................................................................................... 45
5.3 Causes of Pollution in the Food Chain ............................................................ 45
5.3.1 Agricultural Runoff ............................................................................ 45
5.3.2 Industrial Discharges..........................................................................45
5.3.3 Improper Waste Disposal ................................................................... 46
5.3.4 Airborne Deposition ...........................................................................46
5.3.5 Soil Contamination ............................................................................ 46

viiContents
5.4 Entry and Transport of Environmental Pollutants into the Food Chain ......... 46
5.4.1 Water Contamination .........................................................................46
5.4.2 Bioaccumulation in Aquatic Organisms ............................................46
5.4.3 Soil Pollution and Terrestrial Pathways .............................................46
5.4.4 Airborne Pollutants and Atmospheric Deposition ............................. 47
5.5 Fate of Environmental Pollutants in the Food Chain ...................................... 47
5.5.1 Absorption by Primary Producers .....................................................47
5.5.2 Bioaccumulation in Herbivores .......................................................... 47
5.5.3 Transfer to Carnivores/Omnivores ..................................................... 47
5.5.4 Accumulation in Top Predators .......................................................... 47
5.6 Metabolism and Elimination ........................................................................... 47
5.7 Human Exposure ............................................................................................. 48
5.8 Effects of Environmental Pollutants on the Food Chain ................................... 48
5.8.1 Effects on Human Health ................................................................... 48
5.8.2 Effects on Biodiversity ....................................................................... 48
5.8.3 Effects on Plants .................................................................................49
5.9 Prevention of Environmental Pollutants from Entering the Food Chain ........ 50
5.9.1 Avoid Excessive Application of Pesticides ......................................... 50
5.9.2 Waste Management through Composting .......................................... 50
5.9.3 Genetically Modied Crops ............................................................... 51
5.9.4 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) ................................................... 51
5.10 Conclusion .......................................................................................................53
References .................................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 6 Mechanism of Phytoremediation and Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals .......................59
Anjaneyulu Musini, P. Gnana Deepu, Jogipeta Harihara,
Kathuroju Harikrishna, Chittepu Obula Reddy, Bachha Laxmi Dora,
and Bhagyashree Mohakhud
6.1 Introduction to Heavy Metals .......................................................................... 59
6.1.1 Heavy Metals ......................................................................................59
6.1.2 Sources of Heavy Metals ....................................................................59
6.2 Phytoremediation and Its Signicance ............................................................ 61
6.2.1 Phytoremediation ............................................................................... 61
6.2.2 Signicance ........................................................................................ 61
6.2.3 Types and Process of Phytoremediation ............................................62
6.3 Heavy Metal Uptake in the Agricultural System ............................................ 63
6.3.1 Sources of Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soil ................................... 64
6.3.2 Uptake of Heavy Metals in Plants ......................................................64
6.4 Plant and Heavy Metal Interactions ................................................................65
6.4.1 Uptake of Heavy Metals in Roots ...................................................... 65
6.4.2 Heavy Metal Stress and Plant Responses ........................................... 67
6.4.3 Molecular Mechanisms of Heavy Metal Tolerance in Plants ............68
6.5 Factors Affecting Heavy Metals Uptake by Plants ......................................... 68
6.5.1 Metals in Soils .................................................................................... 68
6.6 Phytoremediation Approaches for Different Metals ....................................... 70
6.6.1 Phytostabilization ............................................................................... 70
6.6.2 Phytovolatilization and Phytoextraction ............................................72
6.6.3 Chemical-Assisted Phytoremediation Using
Non-Hyperaccumulator Plants ...........................................................73

viii Contents
6.6.4 Biochar-Assisted Phytoremediation ................................................... 73
6.6.5 Use of Transgenic Plants for Phytoremediation ................................. 73
6.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives ................................................................ 74
References .................................................................................................................. 74
SECTION2 The Risks of Phytoremediation in Food Safety
Chapter 7 Danger of Contaminants in Foods through Phytoremediation ................................... 83
Kingsley Chijioke Eze, Nnenna Patrick Obasi,
Otobong Anwanabasi Inyang, and Shine Chikaodi Ewa
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 83
7.2 Contaminant Uptake and Translocation in Plants: Mechanisms,
Pathways, and Inuencing Factors .................................................................. 84
7.2.1 Mechanisms of Contaminant Uptake .................................................84
7.2.2 Translocation Pathways ......................................................................84
7.2.3 Factors Inuencing Contaminant Accumulation ...............................84
7.3 Dangers of Heavy Metals and Other Contaminants on Human Health .......... 86
7.3.1 Cadmium ............................................................................................ 86
7.3.2 Lead .................................................................................................... 86
7.3.3 Mercury .............................................................................................. 86
7.3.4 Arsenic ............................................................................................... 87
7.3.5 Copper ................................................................................................ 87
7.3.6 Chromium .......................................................................................... 88
7.3.7 Nickel .................................................................................................88
7.3.8 Bismuth...............................................................................................88
7.3.9 Cobalt .................................................................................................89
7.4 Factors Inuencing Contaminant Transfer to Food Crops ..............................90
7.4.1 Plant Species Selection .......................................................................90
7.4.2 Soil Conditions ...................................................................................90
7.4.3 Inuence of Contaminant Types ........................................................ 90
7.5 Notable Examples of Phytoremediation Projects; Lessons Learned from
Successes and Failures .................................................................................... 91
7.5.1 Notable Phytoremediation Projects .................................................... 91
7.5.2 Successes and Failures ....................................................................... 91
7.6 Regulatory Gaps and Monitoring Challenges in Phytoremediation ...............92
7.6.1 Existing Regulations on Phytoremediation ........................................ 92
7.6.2 Limitations in Monitoring and Assessment .......................................92
7.6.3 Recommendations for Improved Guidelines ......................................92
7.7 Potential Risks to Human Health in Phytoremediation ..................................92
7.7.1 Chronic Exposure Scenarios .............................................................. 92
7.7.2 Cumulative Effects on Health ............................................................ 93
7.7.3 Vulnerable Populations ......................................................................93
7.8 Mitigation Strategies and Future Directions in Phytoremediation ..................93
7.8.1 Enhancing Plant Selection for Phytoremediation ...............................93
7.8.2 Soil Management Practices ................................................................ 93
7.8.3 Advances in Monitoring Technologies ............................................... 94
7.9 Conclusion .......................................................................................................94
References .................................................................................................................. 94

ixContents
Chapter 8 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Soil: Plant Uptake
and Impact on Food Insecurity ................................................................................... 99
Innocent Ojeba Musa, Job Oloruntoba Samuel, Mustahpa Adams,
Vivian Nathaniel, Asmau M. Maude, Mohammed Evuti Mahmud,
and Abd’Gafar Tunde Tiamiyu
8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 99
8.2 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Soil .........................................................100
8.2.1 Sources and Pathways ......................................................................10 0
8.2.2 Persistence and Accumulation of Microplastics and
Nanoplastics in Soil .......................................................................... 101
8.2.3 Factors Inuencing Uptake .............................................................. 102
8.3 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Food Insecurity ..................... 103
8.3.1 Crop Contamination by Microplastics and Nanoplastics ................. 103
8.3.2 Impact on Soil Health and Crop Productivity .................................. 103
8.3.3 Crop Health and Productivity........................................................... 104
8.3.4 Ecological Implications of Microplastics and Nanoplastics
Pollution in Soil ................................................................................ 104
8.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 105
References ................................................................................................................ 106
Chapter 9 Environmental Pollution and the Entrance of Toxic Elements
into the Food Chain .................................................................................................. 109
Babafemi Raphael Babaniyi, Isaac Gbolahan Olamide, Damilola Eunice
Fagbamigbe, Joshua Ibukun Adebomi, and Iyabode Felicia Areo
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 109
9.2 Pollution ......................................................................................................... 110
9.3 Toxic Elements .............................................................................................. 112
9.4 Relationship between Pollution and Toxic Elements ..................................... 114
9.5 How Toxic Elements Enter the Food Chain and Their Impacts .................... 114
9.5.1 Natural Processes ............................................................................. 114
9.5.2 Human Activities .............................................................................. 115
9.5.3 Air and Water Pollution .................................................................... 115
9.6 Impacts .......................................................................................................... 116
9.6.1 Accumulation in Plants .................................................................... 116
9.6.2 Bioaccumulation in Animals ............................................................ 117
9.6.3 Human Consumption ....................................................................... 117
9.7 Mediating Measures of These Toxic Elements ............................................. 118
9.7.1 Environmental Monitoring and Risk Assessment ............................ 118
9.7.2 Regulatory Frameworks ................................................................... 119
9.7.3 Phytoremediation ............................................................................. 119
9.7.4 Waste Management .......................................................................... 119
9.7.5 Global Collaboration ........................................................................ 120
9.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 120
References ................................................................................................................ 120

xContents
Chapter 10 Acute and Chronic Effects of Contaminants from Food Crops ...............................125
Pabbati Ranjit, Kathuroju Harikrishna, P. Gnana Deepu, and
Kondakindi Venkateswar Reddy
10.1 Introduction to Food Crop Contamination .................................................... 125
10.2 Types of Contaminants of Food Crops .......................................................... 126
10.2.1 Biological Contaminants .................................................................. 126
10.2.2 Chemical Contaminants ................................................................... 128
10.2.3 Physical Contamination.................................................................... 128
10.3 Acute Effects of Contamination of Food Crops ............................................ 128
10.3.1 Poisoning .......................................................................................... 128
10.3.2 Pesticide Intoxication .......................................................................129
10.3.3 Other Symptoms ...............................................................................129
10.4 Chronic Effects of Contamination of Food Crops ........................................ 129
10.5 Factors Affecting the Contamination of Food Crops .................................... 132
10.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives .............................................................. 133
10.6.1 Challenges ........................................................................................ 133
10.6.2 Future Perspectives ..........................................................................133
10.7 Conclusion .....................................................................................................134
References ................................................................................................................ 134
Chapter 11 Plant Uptake of Emerging Contaminants in Foods: The Extent of Its Effects ......... 138
Srinivasan Kameswaran, Ramesh B. Kasetti, and Bellamkonda Ramesh
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 138
11.2 Heavy Metal Sources in Contaminated Soils ................................................ 139
11.2.1 Natural Sources ................................................................................ 139
11.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources .................................................................... 139
11.2.3 Possible Harmful Effects of Heavy Metals ...................................... 140
11.3 Effects of Heavy Metal Pollution of Agricultural Soils on the
Availability of Food ....................................................................................... 141
11.3.1 Heavy Metals and Agricultural Soils ............................................... 141
11.3.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on Food Security ...................................... 141
11.4 Using Phytoremediation Methods to Remediate Soil Polluted with
Heavy Metals ................................................................................................. 142
11.4.1 Modes of Phytoremediation ............................................................. 142
11.4.2 Plants for Phytoremediation ............................................................. 144
11.5 In Situ, Ex Situ, and Mixed Methods to Phytoremediation Technology
Use in Contaminated Soils ............................................................................ 146
11.6 Using and/or Discarding the By-Products of Phytoremediation ................... 148
11.6.1 Pre-Treatment Methods .................................................................... 148
11.6.2 Solid-Liquid Extraction .................................................................... 150
11.6.3 Direct Disposal ................................................................................. 150
11.6.4 Ashing .............................................................................................. 150
11.7 Lack of Research on Phytoremediation ......................................................... 151
11.8 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 152
References ................................................................................................................ 152

xiContents
Chapter 12 Impact of Contamination of Agricultural Soil on Humans
and the Environment .................................................................................................161
Saheed Ibrahim Musa, Parisa Ebrahimbabaie, Nathan Moses,
Kingsley Erhons Enerijio, Comfort Okoji, Unoka Edith Chinyere,
and Iboyi Nathaniel Onuche
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 161
12.2 Contamination of Agricultural Soil ............................................................... 161
12.2.1 Pesticides and Herbicides ................................................................. 161
12.2.2 Improper Use and Mismanagement of Fertilizer ............................. 162
12.2.3 Manure and Animal Wastes ............................................................. 162
12.2.4 Compost............................................................................................ 163
12.2.5 Wastewater for Irrigation.................................................................. 163
12.2.6 Agricultural Plastic Waste ................................................................ 163
12.2.7 Mulching Films ................................................................................ 163
12.2.8 Greenhouse Film and Protective Netting ......................................... 16 4
12.3 Impacts of Contamination of Agricultural Soil on Humans, Plants, the
Environment, and Biodiversity ...................................................................... 164
12.4 Strategies to Prevent Contamination of Agricultural Soils ........................... 165
12.4.1 Avoid Overuse of Agrochemicals .................................................... 165
12.4.2 Integrated Pest Management ............................................................ 166
12.5 Conclusion .....................................................................................................168
References ................................................................................................................ 168
SECTION3 Bringing Safe Foods Home through
Phytoremediation
Chapter 13 Phytoexclusion and Phytostabilization: Protective Strategy of the Food Chain
from Contamination before Phytoremediation ......................................................... 175
J.S. Ayedun, B.C. Kotun, O.A. Adewara, R. Adeoye, C.O. Iyiola, E.A.
Onakoya, A.I. Domavo, and A.A. Soyemi
13.1 Contamination in Food Chains ..................................................................... 175
13.1.1 Sources of Contaminants in Food Chains ........................................ 175
13.1.2 Types of Contaminants in Food Chains ........................................... 176
13.1.3 Importance of Safeguarding Food Chains from Contamination ..... 176
13.1.4 Bioaccumulation of Contaminants in Food Webs ............................177
13.1.5 Health Risks Associated with Contaminated Food ......................... 177
13.1.6 Effects of Contaminants on Food Quality and Safety ..................... 178
13.1.7 Impacts of Contaminants on Crop Yield and Nutritional Value ...... 178
13.2 Phytoexclusion ............................................................................................... 178
13.2.1 Principles of Phytoexclusion ............................................................ 179
13.2.2 Plant Mechanisms for Excluding Uptake of Contaminants ............. 179
13.2.3 Case Studies Demonstrating the Effectiveness of Phytoexclusion .. 179
13.3 Phytostabilization .......................................................................................... 179
13.3.1 Principles of Phytostabilization........................................................ 180
13.3.2 Techniques Employed by Plants in Stabilizing Contaminants in
the Soil .............................................................................................. 180
13.3.3 Environmental Benets of Phytostabilization .................................. 180

xii Contents
13.4 Successful Phytoexclusion and Phytostabilization Projects .......................... 181
13.5 Strategies for Early Detection and Prevention of Contamination ................. 181
13.5.1 Economic Benets and Cost-Effectiveness of Implementing
Protective Strategies .........................................................................182
13.5.2 Sustainable Practices in Food Chain Protection .............................. 183
13.6 Future Directions and Research Areas .......................................................... 183
13.6.1 Emerging Technologies and Research Trends in Contamination
Prevention ......................................................................................... 183
13.6.2 Innovations in Plant-Based Strategies for Food Chain Protection ... 18 4
13.6.3 Collaborative Efforts and International Initiatives for Food Safety 184
13.7 Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................... 184
References ................................................................................................................ 185
Chapter 14 Phytoremediation: Strategies for Protecting
the Food Chain from Contamination ........................................................................ 188
Haya Fathima, Harshitha Shettigar, Srivasta Udupa, Sachin Ashok Thorat,
Nisha Govender, and Annamalai Muthusamy
14.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 188
14.2 Phytoremediation Strategies for Treatment of Contamination ...................... 188
14.2.1 Phytoextraction ................................................................................. 189
14.2.2 Phytoaccumulation ........................................................................... 192
14.2.3 Phytostabilization ............................................................................. 192
14.2.4 Phytovolatilization ............................................................................193
14.2.5 Phytodegradation and Rhizodegradation ......................................... 194
14.2.6 Rhizoltration .................................................................................. 194
14.3 Strategies for Protection of Food Chains from Contamination..................... 195
14.4 Improving Food Safety through Risk Assessment ........................................ 195
14.5 Improve Food Chain Value through the Evaluation of Environmental
Changes ......................................................................................................... 196
14.6 Conclusion .....................................................................................................196
14.7 Future Prospects ............................................................................................ 196
14.8 Acknowledgments .........................................................................................197
References ................................................................................................................ 197
Chapter 15 Phytoremediation and Food Safety Case Studies ..................................................... 201
Srinivasan Kameswaran, Ramesh B. Kasetti, and Bellamkonda Ramesh
15.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 201
15.2 Phytoremediation Mechanisms .....................................................................202
15.3 Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, and Spirodela polyrhiza
Exposed to Acid Mine Drainage: ACase Study ...........................................204
15.4 Constraints on Utilizing Aquatic Vegetation for Phytoremediation .............205
15.5 ACase Study of Sri Lanka and South Africa Concerning Plants
Associated with Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization of
Heavy Metals ................................................................................................. 205
15.6 Mining Tailings Phytoextraction of Metals: ACase Investigation of
Temperate and Arid Environments ...............................................................207
15.7 The Drawbacks of Phytoextraction ...............................................................209
15.8 ACase Study of Temperate and Arid Environments for the
Phytostabilization of Mine Tailings .............................................................. 209

xiiiContents
15.9 The Limits of Mine Tailings Phytostabilization ........................................... 211
15.10 India Case Studies for Phytoremediation ...................................................... 211
15.11 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 213
References ................................................................................................................ 213
Chapter 16 Phytoremediation: A Comprehensive Review on the Prospective Benets and
Biosafety of Vegetables ............................................................................................ 220
Geethu Krishna Kumar, Srija Sappa, Nikhil Kumar Ramesha, Arya
Kaniyassery, Mutiu A. Alabi, Nisha Govender, and Annamalai Muthusamy
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 220
16.2 Entry of Pollutants into the Food Chain ........................................................ 221
16.3 Phytoremediation ........................................................................................... 221
16.3.1 Phytoltration ................................................................................... 222
16.3.2 Phytoextraction ................................................................................ 222
16.3.3 Phytoimmobilization and Phytostabilization ................................... 222
16.3.4 Rhizoltration and Phtyodegradation .............................................. 222
16.4 Possible Disposal of Phytoremediation Plants ..............................................222
16.5 Enhancement of Phytoremediation Potential of Plants ................................. 224
16.6 Status of Pollutants in Vegetables and Fruits ................................................ 225
16.7 Biosafety of Vegetables and Fruits ................................................................ 227
16.8 Approaches for Detection and Protection of Fruits and Vegetables from
Contaminants ................................................................................................. 228
16.9 Conclusion .....................................................................................................229
16.10 Acknowledgments .........................................................................................229
References ................................................................................................................ 230
Chapter 17 Soil Assessment Policy and Permissible Levels of Contaminants
in Plant Food Products .............................................................................................236
Harshitha Shettigar, Haya Fathima, Manoj Kumar, Harsha K.
Chandrashekar, Nisha Govender, and Annamalai Muthusamy
17.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 236
17.2 Soil: Types and Proling ............................................................................... 237
17.2.1 Alluvial Soil .....................................................................................237
17.2.2 Red Soil ............................................................................................237
17.2.3 Laterite Soil ...................................................................................... 237
17.2.4 Black Soil .........................................................................................238
17.2.5 Desert Soil ........................................................................................ 238
17.2.6 Mountain Soil ................................................................................... 238
17.2.7 Soil Proling ....................................................................................238
17.3 Soil Contaminants ......................................................................................... 239
17.4 Classication of Contaminants ......................................................................240
17.4.1 Organic Contaminants ..................................................................... 240
17.4.2 Inorganic Contaminants ................................................................... 240
17.5 Soil Assessment .............................................................................................240
17.6 Approaches for Soil Assessment ................................................................... 241
17.6.1 Visual Soil Assessment ....................................................................241
17.6.2 Qualitative Soil Assessment .............................................................242
17.6.3 Biological Soil Assessment ..............................................................242

xiv Contents
17.7 Government Policies in India for Sustainable Soil Health ............................ 242
17.8 Regulatory Bodies of Soil Assessment in India ............................................ 243
17.9 Permissible Levels of Contaminants in Plant Food Products .......................244
17.10 Conclusion .....................................................................................................245
17.11 Acknowledgments .........................................................................................245
References ................................................................................................................ 245
Chapter 18 Plant Uptake of Emerging Contaminants in Foods, Regulatory Considerations,
and Future Directions ............................................................................................... 249
Gundarapu Vidya Sagar Reddy and Bellamkonda Ramesh
18.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 249
18.2 Accumulation of Contaminants in Food Crops .............................................249
18.2.1 Soil Factors ....................................................................................... 250
18.2.2 Plant Factors ..................................................................................... 251
18.2.3 Environmental Factors ..................................................................... 251
18.3 Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Agricultural Water Reuse ..............252
18.4 Plant Uptake of Emerging Contaminants ...................................................... 252
18.4.1 Uptake of Heavy Metals ................................................................... 253
18.4.2 Uptake of Flame Retardants, Triclocarban, Pesticides, and
Herbicides ......................................................................................... 253
18.5 Emerging Contaminants in Wastewater Treatment Plants ............................254
18.6 Regulatory Considerations ............................................................................254
18.7 Future Directions ........................................................................................... 255
18.8 Conclusions ....................................................................................................255
References ................................................................................................................ 256
Chapter 19 Toxic Metals and Emerging Contaminants in Food: A Global Perspective ............. 259
Deborah O. Aderibigbe, Peter O. Oladoye, Adedayo O. Adeboye,
and Abdur-Rahim A. Giwa
19.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 259
19.2 Naturally Occurring Toxicants in Foods ....................................................... 259
19.3 Heavy Metals in Raw and Processed Foods ................................................. 259
19.4 Global Trends in Food Contamination (Africa, America, Asia, Europe) .....260
19.5 Regulatory Standards for Food Contamination ............................................263
19.6 Conclusion .....................................................................................................265
References ................................................................................................................ 265
Index .............................................................................................................................................. 269

xv
Foreword
With the increase in anthropogenic activities from agriculture and industry,
as well as the ever-increasing global population, contaminants of inorganic,
organic, and/or chemical origins nd their way into the soil and eventually
enter the food cycle, causing acute and/or chronic damage to living organ-
isms, including humans. This calls for a remediation strategy. However, the
traditional methods to deal with soil contamination, which include chemical
treatment, physical treatment, biological treatment, and heat treatment, are
unfortunately not only costly but also have signicant side effects on the eco-
system. Therefore, phytoremediation is recommended as more effective, economic, and environ-
mental remediation. But this remediation technology can also cause contaminants to enter the food
chain and have serious effects on human health. It is well-known that plants absorb carbon dioxide
and release oxygen through photosynthesis while promoting degradation of contaminants through
interaction with microorganisms in the rhizosphere and absorbing soil contaminants into their body
system. Phytoremediation is the process that uses plants to remove pollutants from the soils. After
removal, they are stored in the plants’ edible parts and sometimes at more than permissible levels.
If the edible parts are consumed, the pollutants will have effects (short/acute or long/chronic) on
human beings. There is now a need to look into and review whether phytoremediation is a blessing
or a curse, and also, what is to be done to make these food crops safer and globally acceptable for
consumption by all.
This book, Phytoremediation in Food Safety: Risks and Prospects, is a good collection of inde-
pendent chapters that presents full insight in the study of phytoremediation technology for the
removal of contaminants from the soil and, of course, analyzing its role in food safety.
I therefore have no doubt that the chapters in this book provide adequate information on phytore-
mediation in food safety and do ll the expected scientic knowledge gaps in this area.
Prof. Ahmed Salihu Dan-Kishiya
Dean, Faculty of Science
University of Abuja, Nigeria
February 17, 2024

xvii
Preface
Food and food products are essential commodities globally and the factors affecting its general
acceptability need to be critically reviewed. Phytoremediation is one of the most cost-effective
remediation options, but as a stand-alone technology, it is often not lucrative enough to make it
appealing for farmers, especially in economically vulnerable regions. Phytoremediation is a cost-
effective and environmentally friendly technology, but if most of its postharvest protocols are not
handled professionally, it could become a threat to food safety. Plants possess the natural ability to
accumulate nutrients and any contaminants present in the soil. However, this technology when used
for remediation processes accumulates the pollutants from the soils through the root and mostly
store these toxicants in the plants’ edible parts. When these are not checked or extracted from
the plants, they pose a danger to human and animal health if they enter the food chain and are
consumed. This book, Phytoremediation in Food Safety: Risks and Prospects, was conceived to
provide in-depth information on the role of phytoremediation in food safety. Generally speaking,
soil is polluted with both organic and inorganic contaminants and there is a need to employ an envi-
ronmentally friendly technology in its remediation processes. Phytoremediation involves the use of
green technology plant to remediate the polluted soils.
The book is divided into three sections. Section1 is titled “Prospects of Phytoremediation for a
Safe Environment and Safe Food,” section 2 is “The Risks of Phytoremediation in Food Safety,” and
section 3 is “Bringing Safe Foods Home through Phytoremediation.”
The chapters were contributed by 68 academicians, scientists, and researchers from nine dif-
ferent countries (the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Nigeria, India, the United States, Australia,
Canada, Germany and Malaysia) across the world.
Sesan Abiodun Aransiola, Ph.D.
University of Abuja, Nigeria
National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA)
Ogbomoso, Nigeria
Naga Raju Maddela, Ph.D.
Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador

xix
About the Editors
Sesan Abiodun Aransiola is a Ph.D. holder in environmental microbiology
in the Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology,
Minna, Nigeria. He obtained his rst degree (B.Tech) and master degree
(M.Tech) from the same department in 2009 and 2014 respectively. He
has demonstrated his research expert in the production of vermicasts from
vermicoposting (vermitechnology) of organic wastes to assist plants in the
remediation of polluted soil with heavy metals. Currently, he is a Lecturer at
the Department of Microbiology, University of Abuja, Nigeria. His area of
interest is environmental microbiology with research areas in phytoremediation, vermicomposting,
biosorption, and bioremediation of soil contaminated environment. He is an award-winning
researcher and has over 70 publications including book chapters and research and review articles
of good international repute with high impact factor. He has co-edited scientic books of global
interest which include Microbial Biotechnology for Bioenergy (Elsevier); Ecological Interplays
in Microbial Enzymology, Vermitechnology: Economic, Environmental and Agricultural
Sustainability, Prospects for Soil Regeneration and Its Impact on Environmental Protection
(Springer); Microbial Biolms: Applications and Control and Marine Greens: Environmental,
Agricultural, Industrial and Biomedical Applications (both CRC Press), and has many more
in process. Also, he has worked to the rank of assistant chief scientic ofcer at Bioresources
Development Centre, National Biotechnology Development Agency, Nigeria, where he was
involved in the uses of vinasse (a by-product of ethanol) as biofertilizer to reclaim polluted soil
for agricultural purposes. He is a member of the Nigerian Society for Microbiology and American
Society for Microbiology, among others.
Naga Raju Maddela received his M.Sc. (1996–1998) and Ph.D. (2012) in
microbiology from Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuramu, India.
During his doctoral program in the area of environmental microbiology,
he investigated the effects of industrial efuents/insecticides on soil micro-
organisms and their biological activities. Since 1998 he has worked in the
Faculty in Microbiology, teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students.
He worked as Prometeo Investigator (fellowship received from SENESCYT)
at Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Ecuador during 2013–2015, and he
received a postdoctoral fellowship (2016–2018) from Sun Yat-sen University
in China. He also received external funding from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation in
2017 and internal funding from Universidad Técnica de Manabí in 2020. He has participated in
national/international conferences and has presented research data in China, Cuba, Ecuador, India,
and Singapore. Currently, he is working as a Full Professor at the Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud,
Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador. He has been actively publishing scientic
articles, books (authored and edited) and chapters since 2007. As of now, he has published 70
articles, 12 books, and 40 book chapters.

xxi
Contributors
Mustahpa Adams
Department of Microbiology
Federal University of Technology
Minna, Nigeria
Joshua Ibukun Adebomi
Department of Biological and Chemical
Engineering
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, Canada
Adedayo O. Adeboye
Department of Food Science and Technology
Osun State University
Osogbo, Nigeria
R. Adeoye
School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences
John Moores University
Liverpool, UK
Deborah O. Aderibigbe
School of Basic Sciences
Nigeria Maritime University
Warri, Nigeria
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji
Department of Microbiology
Edo State University
Uzairue, Nigeria
O. A. Adewara
Department of Biological Sciences and
Biotechnology
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Mutiu A. Alabi
Medical Biochemistry and Pharmacology
Department
Kwara State University
Malete, Nigeria
Iyabode Felicia Areo
School of Health and Life Sciences
Teesside University
Middlesbrough, UK
J. S. Ayedun
Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Babafemi Raphael Babaniyi
Bioresources Development Center
National Biotechnology Development Agency
Abuja, Nigeria
Patel Shaifali Ben
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Harsha K. Chandrashekar
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Unoka Edith Chinyere
Department of Chemical Sciences
Dennis Osadebay University
Asaba, Nigeria
P. Gnana Deepu
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
A. I. Domavo
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Bachha Laxmi Dora
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Parisa Ebrahimbabaie
Department of Environmental Biology
Bethune-Cookman University
Daytona Beach, FL

xxii Contributors
Chidozie Ekene
Department of Biology and Forensic
Science
Admiralty University of Nigeria
Ibusa, Nigeria
Kingsley Erhons Enerijio
Department of Biological Sciences
Glorious Vision University
Ogwa, Nigeria
Shine Chikaodi Ewa
Department of Public Health and Tropical
Medicine
James Cook University
Townsville, Australia
Kingsley Chijioke Eze
Medical Department, Aquatic Bioresources
Training Centre
National Biotechnology Development
Agency
Cross River State, Nigeria
Damilola Eunice Fagbamigbe
Department of Chemistry
Federal University of Technology
Akure, Nigeria
Haya Fathima
Manipal School of Life Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Abdur-Rahim A. Giwa
Department of Pure and Applied
Chemistry
Ladoke Akintola University of Technology
Ogbomoso, Nigeria
Nisha Govender
Institute of Systems Biology
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bangi, Malaysia
Kathuroju Harikrishna
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Jogipeta Harihara
Center for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Otobong Anwanabasi Inyang
Information Technology Department, Aquatic
Bioresources Training Centre
National Biotechnology Development
Agency
Cross River State, Nigeria
C. O. Iyiola
Department of Biological Sciences and
Biotechnology
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Srinivasan Kameswaran
Department of Botany
Vikrama Simhapuri University College
Kavali, India
Arya Kaniyassery
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Ramesh B. Kasetti
North Texas Eye Research Institute
University of North Texas Health Science
Center
Fort Worth, TX
B. C. Kotun
Department of Biological Sciences and
Biotechnology
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Geethu Krishna Kumar
Manipal School of Life Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Manoj Kumar
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India

xxiiiContributors
Mohammed Evuti Mahmud
College of Nursing Science
Bida, Nigeria
Asmau M. Maude
Department of Microbiology
Federal University of Technology
Minna, Nigeria
Bhagyashree Mohakhud
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Nathan Moses
Department of Biology and Forensic Science
Admiralty University of Nigeria
Ibusa, Nigeria
Innocent Ojeba Musa
Department of Microbiology
Skyline University Nigeria
Kano, Nigeria
Saheed Ibrahim Musa
Department of Biology and Forensic Science
Admiralty University of Nigeria
Ibusa, Nigeria
Anjaneyulu Musini
Center for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Annamalai Muthusamy
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Simeon Okiki Naphtali
Obafemi Awolowo University
Department of Microbiology
Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Vivian Nathaniel
Department of Microbiology
Federal University of Technology
Minna, Nigeria
Nnenna Patrick Obasi
Department of Bio-entrepreneurship,
Aquatic Bioresources Training Centre
National Biotechnology Development Agency
Cross River State, Nigeria
Comfort Okoji
Department of Biology and Forensic
Science
Admiralty University of Nigeria
Ibusa, Nigeria
Peter O. Oladoye
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Florida International University
Miami, FL
Isaac Gbolahan Olamide
Department of Chemistry
Federal University of Technology
Akure, Nigeria
E. A. Onakoya
Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Iboyi Nathaniel Onuche
Department of Biology and Forensic
Science
Admiralty University of Nigeria
Ibusa, Nigeria
D. Rama Prasanna
Centre for Bio-Technology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Bellamkonda Ramesh
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular
Biology
University of Nebraska Medical Center
Omaha, NE
Nikhil Kumar Ramesha
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India

xxiv Contributors
Pabbati Ranjit
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
Chittepu Obula Reddy
Department of Biotechnology
Chaitanya Bharati Institute of Technology
Hyderabad, India
Kondakindi Venkateswar Reddy
Centre for Biotechnology
University College of Engineering Science and
Technolog y
Hyderabad, India
G. Vidya Sagar Reddy
Department of Biotechnology
Vikrama Simhapuri University
Nellore, India
Job Oloruntoba Samuel
Department of Microbiology
Federal University of Technology
Minna, Nigeria
Srija Sappa
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Harshitha Shettigar
Manipal School of Life Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
A. A. Soyemi
Department of Biological Sciences and
Biotechnology
Caleb University
Imota, Nigeria
Sachin Ashok Thorat
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Abd’Gafar Tunde Tiamiyu
Department of Mathematics
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Srivasta Udupa
Department of Plant Sciences
Manipal Academy of Higher Education
Manipal, India
Munachimso Odenakachi Victor-Ekwebelem
Department of Microbiology
Alex Ekwueme Federal University
Ndufu-Alike Ikwo, Nigeria
M. M. Yakiimov
Department of Microbiology
German Research Centre for Biotechnology
Braunschweig, Germany

xxv
Acknowledgments
With great honor, we acknowledge the support of the contributors to each chapter for their valu-
able contribution and timely responses leading to the success of this volume. All contributors are
immensely appreciated for their eagerness and strong support for this volume to be ready in the
scheduled time; we therefore appreciate their teamwork and partnership. We also thank anonymous
reviewers for their constructive criticism, which helped us in improving the quality of this book
by inviting the experts to contribute the additional chapters. We greatly acknowledge the Taylor&
Francis Group Editorial and Production team for their respected support; without their guidelines,
this project would not be nished on time. It is an honor and privilege to work with them all. Finally,
yet importantly, we are very much thankful to the management and colleagues at University of
Abuja (Nigeria), National Biotechnology Development Agency (Nigeria), and Universidad Técnica
de Manabí (Ecuador) for their unrestricted backing and for the establishment of treasured proposi-
tions at the time of book proposal and nal book preparation.
Sesan Abiodun Aransiola, Ph.D.
University of Abuja, Nigeria
National Biotechnology Development Agency (NABDA)
Ogbomoso, Nigeria
Naga Raju Maddela, Ph.D.
Universidad Técnica de Manabí
Portoviejo, Ecuador

Section1
Prospects of Phytoremediation for a
Safe Environment and Safe Food

DOI: 10.1201/9781032683751-2 3
1Phytoremediation Overview
and Role in Food Safety
Munachimso Odenakachi Victor-Ekwebelem
and Simeon Okiki Naphtali
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Greek word phyto, which means “plant,” and the Latin sufx remedium, which means “to clean
up or mend,” are combined to form the term phytoremediation. The term covers a broad spectrum of
plant-based remedies that use genetically modied or naturally occurring plants to clean up polluted
environments (Flathman and Lanza, 1998). It refers to a group of technologies that use plants for
waste extraction, containment, and destruction. Using vegetation, soil amendments, and agronomic
techniques, phytoremediation – also referred to as green remediation, botano-remediation, agrore-
mediation, or vegetative remediation – is considered an environmentally friendly (green) remedia-
tion technique that helps eliminate, contain, or render heavy metals in the soil harmless (Aransiola
etal., 2022). It is an emerging method that employs different plants to break down, extract, contain,
or immobilize pollutants like metals, herbicides, hydrocarbons, and chlorinated solvents from soil
and water (Helmisaari etal., 2007; Abioye etal., 2017). Although the rst case of plants being used
to remove heavy metals was recorded in 1983 and this concept has been implemented more than 300
years ago on wastewater discharge (Blaylock, 2008), this technology has received unusual attention
and limelight very recently. The buildup of heavy metals in soil and water is one of the main issues
brought on by inorganic pollutants. Their signicant presence in soils has had a major negative inu-
ence on both human health and food security. Phytoremediation techniques have been determined
to be environmentally benign and safe among the several physicochemical strategies available for
remediating heavy metal–polluted locations (Aransiola etal., 2013; Oladoye etal., 2022).
The population, activities, and processes of soil microbes are impacted by the buildup of heavy
metals in the soil. The types of heavy metals and their chemical afnity determine how they affect
enzymatic activity and alterations in microbial populations (Karaca etal., 2010). For instance, lead
(Pb) affects catalases, ureases, invertases, and acid phosphatases (Belyaeva etal., 2005); arsenic (As)
affects sulfatase and phosphatase (Speir etal., 1999); and copper (Cu) inhibits b-glucosidase (Geiger
etal., 1998). Cadmium (Cd) affects ureases, proteases, and basic phosphatases (Lorenz etal., 2006;
Elemba and Ijah, 2016). High chromium(VI) concentration in soil demonstrates different toxicity
properties generating detrimental effects in soil microbial cell metabolism (Huang etal., 2009).
Human and animal health may be at risk when heavy metal–contaminated food crops are consumed
because they can cause heavy metals to bioaccumulate and then grow as they move up the food
chain’s trophic levels (Singh and Kalamdhad, 2011). The accumulation of heavy metals in the human
body can lead to severe health complications, including itai-itai disease caused by chronic exposure
to Cd; kidney dysfunction and anemia caused by zinc (Zn); mucosa corrosion, hepatic system failure
and central nervous system damage caused by Cu; skin irritation and nervous system complications
caused by nickel (Ni); cardiovascular issues; and damage to the nervous system caused by Pb (Kae
etal., 2022). Athalatine, dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene are among the pesticides that frequently contaminate soils (Kae etal., 2022).
Due to their toxicity and extended half-life in the soil, these pollutants have a signicant negative

4Phytoremediation in Food Safety
impact on the availability of mineral nutrients, soil biota, and soil productivity. Water resources
have been tainted by various pollutants, much like soils. The majority of the variables contributing
to water contamination are caused by the release of toxic heavy metals through sewage, runoff, and
efuents from urbanization and industry (Masindi and Muedi, 2018; Parveen etal., 2020; Saleem
etal., 2020b). Water resources are often contaminated by Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd, Cr, uranium (U), and Zn,
among other metals (Prasad and Freitas, 2005). Due to heavy metal buildup in the food chain, the
heavy metals deteriorate water quality and may cause health risks associated with drinking water
(Wongsasuluk etal., 2014). In addition to heavy metals, other organic pollutants that contaminate
water resources include petroleum hydrocarbons, explosives, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pyrene, and trinitrotoluene (TNT). These pollutants can
also come from seepage, erosion, sludge and efuents from industries and municipal waste, as well
as runoff from mining and agricultural practices (Kae etal., 2022). Over time, these pollutants have
the potential to accumulate and have detrimental effects on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Remediation of water and soil pollution is one of the main issues facing our civilization today
in order to maintain ecosystem processes and functioning. Numerous physical, chemical, and bio-
logical methods have been used to clean up environmental pollution; however, their applications
are restricted because of the risks to ecosystems, labor costs, and safety concerns (Ali etal., 2013;
Babaniyi etal., 2023). Phytoremediation is an alternate approach that is becoming more and more
accepted and used. It has the potential to be a useful treatment. In order to reduce the effects of
heavy metal ingestion from such food crops, this tends to address the usage of ornamental plants as
opposed to food crops for phytoremediation.
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF PHYTOREMEDIATION
1. When used appropriately, phytoremediation is a green technology that is both environmen-
tally benign and visually acceptable to the general public (Raskin and Ensley, 2000). It is a
green technology that can be used to reduce various organic and inorganic pollutants while
also improving the environment’s aesthetics (Ghosh and Singh, 2005). For broad areas
where other methods would be costly and ineffectual, this green technology is appropriate
(Prasad and Freitas, 2005; Aransiola etal., 2013).
2. The technique of phytoremediation can be used to a wide range of organic and inorganic
chemicals. Both in situ and ex situ applications of phytoremediation are possible (USEPA,
2000; Raskin and Ensley, 2000). Because in situ applications limit disturbance of the soil
and surrounding ecosystem and lessen the spread of contamination from airborne and
watery pollutants, they are often taken into consideration.
3. Phytoremediation is reasonably simple to apply and doesn’t require costly equipment or
highly skilled workers.
4. Phytoremediation’s low cost when compared to traditional clean-up procedures is its big-
gest benet (USEPA, 2000; Raskin and Ensley, 2000).
5. It is more aesthetically pleasing than traditional methods, making it more accepted by the public.
6. The risk of spreading the contamination is reduced since excavation and transport of pol-
luted media is not necessary.
7. Sites polluted with more than one type of pollutant can be treated at the same time.
8. It helps to prevent leaching and soil erosion that may result from water activity and wind, which
in turn helps to reduce the expansion of contaminants to water and air (Ghosh and Singh, 2005).
1.3 DISADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PHYTOREMEDIATION
1. It is limited to remediative plants’ root depth.
2. Remediation with plants is a time-consuming procedure: cleaning up a hazardous waste site
might take years or more, and the pollution might not be completely removed (Rajakaruna
etal., 2006).

5Phytoremediation Overview and Role in Food Safety
3. Using non-native, invasive plants may impact biodiversity.
4. The consumption of contaminated plants by wildlife is also of concern. Harvested plant
biomass produced from the process of phytoextraction may be classied as hazardous
waste by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), therefore subject to proper
handling and disposal.
1.4 PHYTOREMEDIATION AND FOOD SAFETY
Plants absorb pollutants through their roots, most of which are water soluble, and move them
through different plant tissues where they can be volatilized, digested, or sequestered (Greenberg
et al., 2006; Abhilash, 2007; Doty et al., 2007). According to reports, some 400 plant species
from at least 45 plant families hyperaccumulate metals (Ghosh and Singh, 2005). Brassicaceae,
Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Scrophulariaceae are a few of the fami-
lies (Dushenkov, 2003). Very high bioaccumulation potential for Cd/Zn, Cu, cobalt (Co), selenium
(Se), and Ni is present in crops such as Alpine pennycress (Thlaspi caerulescens), Ipomea alpine,
Haumaniastrum robertii, Astragalus racemosus, and Sebertia acuminata (Lasat, 2002). The rst
plant species known to accumulate signicant amounts of metals in its leaves was T. caerulescens
(Baumann, 1885). Rascio (1977) conducted follow-up research on T. caerulescens and found toler-
ance and substantial Zn buildup in the plant’s shoots. There have been reports of high uptake and
resistance to heavy metals in sunower (Helianthus annuus), maize (Zea mays), Indian mustard
(Brassica juncea L.), willow (Salix viminalis), and sunower (Schmidt, 2003). B. juncea is one of
the plants in the Brassica species that merits special attention due to the numerous experiments that
have proved its signicance to the phytoextraction process of heavy metals from soil. Research has
shown that B. juncea has a signicant propensity to retain Cd, primarily in the shoots, where a Cd
level of 1450 μg Cd/g dry wt was discovered.
Furthermore, according to Salt etal. (1998), this plant has a high removal effectiveness for vari-
ous metals, including Pb (28% reduction) and Se (reduced between 13% and 48%). It also removes
zinc from soil more successfully than T. caerulescens, a renowned zinc hyperaccumulator. Rather
than in the roots, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) accumulates large levels of Cd in the leaves. It has
been discovered that sunower may remove Pb, U, cesium (Cs), and strontium (Sr) from hydroponic
solutions, and Indian mustard roots are useful in removing Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn (Lone etal.,
2008). Indian mustard and sunower plants have increased their uptake of copper, according to
Tang etal. (2003).
In Zhao and Huang’s 2018 work on Cd phytoremediation, rice was identied as one of the main
edible sources that exposes the human population in south China to rising levels of Cd. It builds up
in the grains of rice, which are subsequently cooked and eventually eaten. Supported by research
by Clemens et al. (2013), who found that food accounts for 90% of the total amount of dietary
consumption of Cd in non-smokers, and Song etal. (2017), who found that rice accounts for 56%
and 65%, respectively, of the total dietary consumption of Cd in the general Chinese population
and the population in south China. This is a concerning nding and gure because Cd is a well-
known toxin that affects humans and causes phytotoxicity as well as illnesses including cancer,
osteoporosis, and renal failure. Eating rice that has been produced in soil contaminated with Cd
over an extended period of time can lead to chronic exposure to Cd, which causes renal tubular
osteomalacia, the most well-known Cd-induced illness. The consumption of rice as food should be
done so with caution because rice will accumulate a signicant amount of Cd in its grains, which
is the edible portion of the plant, and because there is no discernible difference between rice that
has been exposed to heavy metals and rice that has not, the use of rice for phytoremediation is
extremely worrisome.
Numerous academics have looked into jute, an indigenous ber leafy crop, because of its
capacity to remove various heavy metals from the environment. Jute is a good plant for phytore-
mediation of heavy metals like Cd, but Saleem etal. (2020a) concluded in their review of the

6Phytoremediation in Food Safety
plant as a potential candidate for metal phytoremediation that it tends to lead to metal accumula-
tion in the plant, which is a major source of concern as well as a reduction in plant productivity
and yield. Concerns increase when jute use is broken down. Jute is the least expensive ber for
mass use, mostly glass ber, and China imports a lot of it and its products from Bangladesh,
India, and other nations.
There are two varieties of jute: Corchorus olitorius, also called Tosaa jute, which is native
to South Asia, and Corchorus capsularis, also known as white jute, which comes from the
impoverished peasant population in India (Faruk etal., 2012; Choudhary etal., 2013). Nearly
all African nations regularly use C. olitorius as a vegetable; its leaves are also grown for their
brous qualities and are used in soups (Saleem etal., 2019). This is quite concerning since
the buildup of heavy metals that are toxic in the jute leaves and shoots indicates that these
metals will eventually enter human systems, regardless of how hazardous they are. Natural
contaminated soil from the Mymensingh district of Bangladesh (As-contaminated soil) and
Bhalukaupazila, Bangladesh (Pb-contaminated soil), respectively, was utilized in studies by
Nizam etal. (2019) and Uddin etal. (2019) to develop various jute types. According to their
ndings, heavy metals were deposited in signicant levels by all brous crops, and the above-
ground portions of the plants exhibited higher concentrations of these harmful pollutants than
the below-ground parts. This indicates that the portion of jute that may be harvested and con-
sumed has a higher concentration of these metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, iron [Fe], and Zn) than the
portion that is typically unnecessary.
Bandiera etal. (2016) in their study “Phytoremediation Opportunities with Alimurgic Species
in Metal-Contaminated Environments,” investigated the food safety of wild edible plants grown
on contaminated soil as well as their multifunctional roles in metal uptake for phytoremediation.
The responses of a few tap-rooted perennial species, including Rumex acetosa, Cichorium intybus,
Sonchus oleraceus, Taraxacum ofcinale, Tragopogon porrifolius, and others, were examined in
their cultivation in critical open environments (i.e., landlls, ditch sediments, and the sides of heav-
ily trafcked roads) and in an articially induced environment containing high levels of soil con-
taminated with Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, and Zn in a pot-scale trial. The study’s objectives were to ascertain
whether germination would take place and to demonstrate the food safety of the items derived from
these plants. Even though the majority of the plants’ germination was unaffected by the rise in tissue
metal rate, they came to the conclusion that eating the plants is not advised because the study’s nd-
ings indicate that the plants’ excessive uptake of Pb and Cd in their leaves may surpass EU safety
thresholds (Bandiera etal., 2016).
The study’s ndings indicate that zinc was mostly well translocated and reached a high leaf
concentration, particularly in T. ofcinale (~ 60 0 mg / kg−1 dry weight, DW), one of the plants.
Given that this plant’s leaves are used as food, its use for phytoremediation should be reduced.
The increased Cd translocation also indicated potential uses for phytoextraction, especially with
C. intybus, where leaf Cd levels reached around 16 mg/kg−1 DW. In no-tillage systems, a gener-
ally high root retention of Pb and Cu may allow for their phytostabilization in the medium term,
along with notable reductions in metal leaching when compared to bare soil. However, this could
be concerning if the roots of some of the study’s plants are used for food or anything leading to
consumption by humans.
Additionally, it has been noted that cereal crops (Table1.1) such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa), sor-
ghum (Sorghum bicolor), and maize (Z. mays L.) have a high capacity to accumulate heavy metals.
If the biomass and metal content of such plants are sufcient to nish remediation in an acceptable
amount of time, they can be successfully employed to clean up heavy metal–polluted soils Kae
etal., 2022).
1.5 CONCLUSION
Although cash crops and edible plants may effectively remove heavy metals from the environ-
ment, their usage has been restricted due to concerns about potential health risks to humans. As a

7Phytoremediation Overview and Role in Food Safety
result, a more suitable substitute is required. It has been demonstrated that using ornamentals and
beautiful plants is safer and preferable. These ornamental plants are highly resistant to the harmful
effects of heavy metals and pose no harm to human health. It has been demonstrated that plants
such as Indian mustard, white willow, poplar, Indian grass, and sunower can remove two or more
contaminants within a polluted site while also becoming more aesthetically pleasing and provide
no risk to human health.
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TABLE1.1
Plants That Can Conduct Phytoremediation and Possible Contaminates Remediated
Food Crop/Cash Crop Possible Contaminants Compartment of Accumulation
Thlaspi caerulescens Cd, Zn Leaves
Maize (Zea mays) Pb, Cd Grain
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) Cd Grain
Ipomea alpine Cu Leaves
Haumaniastrum robertii Co Roots
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Sebertia Ni Shoots
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8Phytoremediation in Food Safety
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9Phytoremediation Overview and Role in Food Safety
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Phytoremediation Overview and Role in Food Safety
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Abioye, O.P. , Ijah, U.J.J. , and Aransiola S.A. (2017). Phytoremediation of soil contaminants by biodiesel plant
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10.1007/978-981-10-3084-0_4. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-981-10-3084-0.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04105-y
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approaches in environmental sustainability. In N.R. Maddela , L.K. Winkelstroter Eller , and R. Prasad (eds.),
Microbiology for Cleaner Production and Environmental Sustainability. CRC Press. ISBN: 9781032496061.
https://www.routledge.com/Microbiology-for-Cleaner-Production-and-Environmental-Sustainability/Maddela-
Eller-Prasad/p/book/9781032496061
Bandiera, M. , Dal Cortivo, C. , Barion, G. , Mosca, G. , and Vamerali, T. (2016). Phytoremediation
opportunities with alimurgic species in metal-contaminated environments. Sustainability. 8(4): 357.
Baumann, A. (1885). Das Verhalten von Zinksatzen gegen Pflanzen und im Boden. Landwirtsch. Vers.-Statn.
31: 1–53.
Belyaeva, O. , Haynes, R. , and Birukova, O. (2005). Barley yield and soil microbial and enzyme activities as
affected by contamination of two soils with lead, zinc or copper. Biol. Fertil. Soils. 41: 85–94.
Blaylock, M. (2008). Phytoremediation of Contaminated Soil and Water: Field Demonstration of
Phytoremediation of Lead Contaminated Soils. Lewis Publishers.
Choudhary, S.B. , Sharma, H.K. , Karmakar, P.G. , Kumar, A. , Saha, A.R. , Hazra, P. , and Mahapatra, B.S.
(2013). Nutritional profile of cultivated and wild jute (‘Corchorus’) species. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 2013(7): 1973.
Clemens, S. , Aarts, M.G. , Thomine, S. , and Verbruggen, N. (2013). Plant science: The key to preventing slow
cadmium poisoning. Trends Plant Sci. 18: 92–99.
Doty, S.L. , Shang, Q.T. , Wilson, A.M. , Moore, A.L. , Newman, L.A. , and Strand, S.E. (2007). Enhanced
metabolism of halogenated hydrocarbons in transgenic plants contain mammalian P450 2E1. Proc Natl Acad
Sci USA. 97: 6287–6291.
Dushenkov, D. (2003). Trends in phytoremediation of radionuclides. Plant Soil. 249: 167–175.
Elemba, O.M. , and Ijah, U.J.J. (2016). Removal of lead and chromium from soil using biosurfactants produced
by bacterial isolates from spent lubricating oil contaminated soil. Int. J. Adv. Res. 4(5): 201–211 (IMPACT
FACTOR 5.388).
Faruk, O. , Bledzki, A.K. , Fink, H.-P. , and Sain, M. 2012. Biocomposites reinforced with natural fibers:
2000–2010. Prog. Polym. Sci. 37: 1552–1596.
Flathman, P.E. , and Lanza, G.R. (1998). Phytoremediation: Current views on an emerging green technology.
J. Soil Contam. 7(4): 415–432.
Geiger, G. , Brandl, H. , Furrer, G. , and Schulin, R. (1998). The effect of copper on the activity of cellulase and
β-glucosidase in the presence of montmorillonite or Al-montmorillonite. Soil. Biol. Biochem. 30: 1537–1544.
Ghosh, M. , and Singh, S.P. (2005). A review on phytoremediation of heavy metals and utilization of it’s by
products. Appl. Ecol. Environ. Res. 3(1): 1–18.
Greenberg, B.M. , Hunag, X.D. , Gurska, Y. , Gerhardt, K.E. , Wang, W. , and Lampi, M.A. (2006). Successful
field tests of a multi-process phytoremediation system for decontamination of persistent petroleum and organic
contaminants. Proceedings of the twenty-ninth Artic and Marine Oil Spill Program (AMOP). Technical Seminar
Vol. 1. Environment Canada, pp. 389–400
Helmisaari, H.S. , Salemaa, M. , Derome, J. , Kiikkila, O. , Uhlig, C. , and Nieminen, T.M. (2007). Remediation
of heavy metal-contaminated forest soil using recycled organic matter and native woody plants. J. Environ.
Qual. 36: 1145–1153.
Huang, S.-H. , Bing, P. , Yang, Z.-H. , Chai, L.-Y. , and Zhou, L.-C. (2009). Chromium accumulation,
microorganism population and enzyme activities in soils around chromium-containing slag heap of steel alloy
factory. Transact. Nonferr. Metal. Soc. China. 19: 241–248.
Kafle, A. , Timilsina, A. , Asmita, G. , Adhikari, K. , Bhattara, A. , and Niroj, A. (2022). Phytoremediation:
Mechanisms, plant selection and enhancement by natural and synthetic agents. Environ. Adv. 8(2022):
100–203.
Karaca, A. , Cetin, S.C. , Turgay, O.C. , and Kizilkaya, R. (2010). Effects of Heavy Metals on Soil Enzyme
Activities. Soil Heavy Metals. Springer, pp. 237–262.
Lasat, M.M. (2002). Phytoextraction of toxic metals: A review of biological mechanisms. J. Environ. Qual. 31:
109–120.

Lone, M.I. , Zhen-Li, H. , Stoffella, P.J. , and Xiao, Y. (2008). Phytoremediation of heavy metal polluted soils
and water: Progresses and perspectives. Journal of Zhejiang University Sci B. 9: 210–220.
Lorenz, N. , Hintemann, T. , Kramarewa, T. , Katayama, A. , Yasuta, T. , Marschner, P. , and Kandeler, E.
(2006). Response of microbial activity and microbial community composition in soils to long-term arsenic and
cadmium exposure. Soil Biol. Biochem. 38: 1430–1437.
Masindi, V. , Muedi, K.L. , 2018. Environmental contamination by heavy metals. J. Heavy Metal . 10: 115–132.
Nizam, M.U. , Zaman, M.W. , and Rahman, M.M. (2019). Lead toxicity tolerance of jute, kenaf and Mesta at
germination phase. Bangladesh J. Seed Sci. Technol. 18: 37–44.
Oladoye, P.O. , Olumayowa, M.O. , and Olowe, M.D.A. (2022). Phytoremediation technology and food security
impacts of heavy metal contaminated soils: A review of literature. J. Chemosphere. 288(Pt 2): 132555.
Parveen, A. , Saleem, M.H. , Kamran, M. , Haider, M.Z. , Chen, J.-T. , Malik, Z. , Rana, M.S. , Hassan, A. , Hur,
G. , Javed, M.T. , 2020. Effect of citric acid on growth, ecophysiology, chloroplast ultrastructure, and
phytoremediation potential of jute (Corchorus capsularis L.) seedlings exposed to copper stress. Biomolecules.
10: 592.
Prasad, M. , and Freitas, H. (2005). Metal-tolerant plants: Biodiversity prospecting for phytoremediation
technology. Trace Elements in the Environment. CRC Press, pp. 501–524.
Rajakaruna, N. , Tompkins, K.M. , and Pavicevic, P.G. (2006). Phytoremediation: An affordable green
technology for the clean-up of metal-contaminated sites in Sri Lanka. Ceylon J. Sci. (Biological Sciences). 35:
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