Perceived Corruption in Light of Green Transition Indicators

Abstract

Objective: The aim of the study is to investigate how the areas of the green transition that promote sustainability relate to perceived levels of corruption. Theoretical Framework: The variables of corruption, economic growth, renewable energies and carbon dioxide emissions are integrated together in the long run. There is a causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions, corruption, economic growth and renewable energies. The corruption index and economic growth have a statistically significant relationship with carbon dioxide emissions. However, the impact of renewable energies and international trade slows climate change and improves the quality of the environment. Method: We based our research on publicly available internet databases. The data available here can be freely used. This means that no matter what questionnaire they are based on, their analysis does not require a research permit. Another advantage of such databases is that the research conducted using them can be reproduced and continued in the future. We modeled the level of corruption using the time series of Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index. We examined the countries that are included in both databases. After cleaning and coding data the first step was to create descriptive statistics. At the same time, the normality of the sample was tested and the homoscedasticity condition was checked, because these two latter tests determine which statistical methods can be used for the purpose of further investigations. This was followed by the examination of the question, to what extent and in what direction environmental indices influence Corruption perception. For this purpose, we made a correlation matrix. Based on it we created a regression model in which the CPI was the dependent (explanatory) variable and the environmental indices were included as independent (explanatory) variables. Results and Discussion: Corruption prevention is significantly influenced by Environmental policy, Particulate matter and Gross greenhouse gas emissions - the latter has a negative effect. The increase in waste generation also reduces the CPI, thus increasing the feeling of corruption, but this effect did not prove to be significant. In addition, recycling is an important marketing factor of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) policy. Therefore, in some ways, it is more valuable than money. There is a correlation between the perceived level of corruption and environmental indicators. These indicators explain the perception of corruption in 49.4%. Two types of causal relationships are possible: reduced corruption leads to better environmental performance; better environmental indicators reduce the perceived level of corruption. Research Implications: Compliance with the Environmental policy can help a lot in making Corruption prevention effective, primarily by preventing legal loopholes. Originality/Value: Our study contributes to the sustainability areas of the green transition and to the reduction of corruption and provides tools. Anti-corruption action exposes companies to a stricter regulatory environment, which increases the costs of violations and the risks of profiteering. As anti-corruption becomes more effective, privileges based on political connections are lost. Therefore, firms may prioritize social activities to gain reputation and resources, or to forget past violations. The fight against corruption improves external oversight and increases stakeholder attention, which requires companies to deliver higher corporate social responsibility (CSR) performance. In addition, anti-corruption measures free up previously seized resources, which is a prerequisite for companies' participation in social activities.

Full text

Rev. Gest. Soc. Ambient. | Miami | v.18.n.3 | p.1-14 | e07855 | 2024.
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RGSA – Revista de Gestão Social e Ambiental
ISSN: 1981-982X
Submission date: 03/18/2024
Acceptance date: 05/20/2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24857/rgsa.v18n3-166
Organization: Interinstitutional Scientific Committee
Chief Editor: Éverton Hillig
Assessment: Double Blind Review pelo SEER/OJS
PERCEIVED CORRUPTION IN LIGHT OF GREEN TRANSITION INDICATORS
Botond Géza Kálmán
1
Szilárd Malatyinszki
2
Zsuzsanna Zugor
3
Brigitta Szőke
4
ABSTRACT
Objective: The aim of the study is to investigate how the areas of the green transition that promote sustainability
relate to perceived levels of corruption.
Theoretical Framework: The variables of corruption, economic growth, renewable energies and carbon dioxide
emissions are integrated together in the long run. There is a causal relationship between carbon dioxide emissions,
corruption, economic growth and renewable energies. The corruption index and economic growth have a
statistically significant relationship with carbon dioxide emissions. However, the impact of renewable energies
and international trade slows climate change and improves the quality of the environment.
Method: We based our research on publicly available internet databases. The data available here can be freely
used. This means that no matter what questionnaire they are based on, their analysis does not require a research
permit. Another advantage of such databases is that the research conducted using them can be reproduced and
continued in the future. We modeled the level of corruption using the time series of Transparency International's
Corruption Perceptions Index. We examined the countries that are included in both databases. After cleaning and
coding data the first step was to create descriptive statistics. At the same time, the normality of the sample was
tested and the homoscedasticity condition was checked, because these two latter tests determine which statistical
methods can be used for the purpose of further investigations. This was followed by the examination of the
question, to what extent and in what direction environmental indices influence Corruption perception. For this
purpose, we made a correlation matrix. Based on it we created a regression model in which the CPI was the
dependent (explanatory) variable and the environmental indices were included as independent (explanatory)
variables.
Results and Discussion: Corruption prevention is significantly influenced by Environmental policy, Particulate
matter and Gross greenhouse gas emissions - the latter has a negative effect. The increase in waste generation also
reduces the CPI, thus increasing the feeling of corruption, but this effect did not prove to be significant. In addition,
recycling is an important marketing factor of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) policy. Therefore, in some
ways, it is more valuable than money. There is a correlation between the perceived level of corruption and
environmental indicators. These indicators explain the perception of corruption in 49.4%. Two types of causal
relationships are possible: reduced corruption leads to better environmental performance; better environmental
indicators reduce the perceived level of corruption.
Research Implications: Compliance with the Environmental policy can help a lot in making Corruption
prevention effective, primarily by preventing legal loopholes.
Originality/Value: Our study contributes to the sustainability areas of the green transition and to the reduction of
corruption and provides tools. Anti-corruption action exposes companies to a stricter regulatory environment,
which increases the costs of violations and the risks of profiteering. As anti-corruption becomes more effective,
1
Kodolányi János University, Székesfehérvár, Fehér county, Hungary.
E-mail: kalman.botond.geza@kodolanyi.hu Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8031-8016
2
Kodolányi János University, Székesfehérvár, Fehér county, Hungary. E-mail: mszilard@kodolanyi.hu
Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1624-4902
3
Kodolányi János University, Székesfehérvár, Fehér county, Hungary. E-mail: zugor.zsuzsanna@kodolanyi.hu
Orcid: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-6479-780X
4
Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gödöllő, Pest county, Hungary.
E-mail: szoke.brigitta@uni-mate.hu Orcid: https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6291-998X

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privileges based on political connections are lost. Therefore, firms may prioritize social activities to gain reputation
and resources, or to forget past violations. The fight against corruption improves external oversight and increases
stakeholder attention, which requires companies to deliver higher corporate social responsibility (CSR)
performance. In addition, anti-corruption measures free up previously seized resources, which is a prerequisite for
companies' participation in social activities.
Keywords: Corruption, Sustainability, Environmental Policy, Green Transition Indicators.
PERCEÇÃO DA CORRUPÇÃO À LUZ DOS INDICADORES DA TRANSIÇÃO VERDE
RESUMO
Objetivo: O objetivo do estudo é investigar a forma como as áreas da transição verde que promovem a
sustentabilidade se relacionam com os níveis de corrupção percebidos
Referencial Teórico: As variáveis da corrupção, do crescimento económico, das energias renováveis e das
emissões de dióxido de carbono estão integradas a longo prazo. Existe uma relação causal entre as emissões de
dióxido de carbono, a corrupção, o crescimento económico e as energias renováveis. O índice de corrupção e o
crescimento económico têm uma relação estatisticamente significativa com as emissões de dióxido de carbono.
No entanto, o impacto das energias renováveis e do comércio internacional abranda as alterações climáticas e
melhora a qualidade do ambiente.
Método: Baseámos a nossa investigação em bases de dados disponíveis publicamente na Internet. Os dados aqui
disponíveis podem ser utilizados livremente. Isto significa que, independentemente do questionário em que se
baseiam, a sua análise não requer uma autorização de investigação. Outra vantagem destas bases de dados é o facto
de a investigação realizada com elas poder ser reproduzida e continuada no futuro. Modelámos o nível de
corrupção utilizando a série temporal do Índice de Perceção da Corrupção da Transparência Internacional.
Examinámos os países que estão incluídos em ambas as bases de dados. Depois de limpar e codificar os dados, o
primeiro passo foi criar estatísticas descritivas. Simultaneamente, foi testada a normalidade da amostra e verificada
a condição de homocedasticidade, uma vez que estes dois últimos testes determinam quais os métodos estatísticos
que podem ser utilizados para efeitos de investigações posteriores. Seguiu-se a análise da questão de saber até que
ponto e em que sentido os índices ambientais influenciam a perceção da corrupção. Para este efeito, elaborámos
uma matriz de correlação. Com base nela, criámos um modelo de regressão em que o IPC era a variável dependente
(explicativa) e os índices ambientais eram incluídos como variáveis independentes (explicativas).
Resultados e Discussão: A prevenção da corrupção é significativamente influenciada pela política ambiental, pelo
material particulado e pelas emissões brutas de gases com efeito de estufa - esta última tem um efeito negativo. O
aumento da produção de resíduos também reduz o IPC, aumentando assim o sentimento de corrupção, mas este
efeito não se revelou significativo. Além disso, a reciclagem é um importante fator de marketing da política de
Responsabilidade Social das Empresas (RSE). Por conseguinte, em certos aspectos, é mais valiosa do que o
dinheiro. Existe uma correlação entre a perceção do nível de corrupção e os indicadores ambientais. Estes
indicadores explicam a perceção da corrupção em 49,4%. São possíveis dois tipos de relações causais: a redução
da corrupção conduz a um melhor desempenho ambiental; melhores indicadores ambientais reduzem a perceção
do nível de corrupção.
Implicações da Pesquisa: O cumprimento da política ambiental pode ajudar muito a tornar eficaz a prevenção da
corrupção, principalmente ao evitar lacunas jurídicas.
Originalidade/Valor: O nosso estudo contribui para os domínios da sustentabilidade da transição verde e para a
redução da corrupção e fornece ferramentas. A ação anticorrupção expõe as empresas a um ambiente regulamentar
mais rigoroso, o que aumenta os custos das infracções e os riscos de aproveitamento. À medida que a luta contra
a corrupção se torna mais eficaz, perdem-se os privilégios baseados em ligações políticas. Por conseguinte, as
empresas podem dar prioridade às actividades sociais para ganhar reputação e recursos, ou para esquecer violações
passadas. A luta contra a corrupção melhora a supervisão externa e aumenta a atenção das partes interessadas, o
que exige que as empresas apresentem um desempenho mais elevado em termos de responsabilidade social das
empresas (RSE). Além disso, as medidas anticorrupção libertam recursos anteriormente apreendidos, o que
constitui um pré-requisito para a participação das empresas em actividades sociais.
Palavras-chave: Corrupção, Sustentabilidade, Política Ambiental, Indicadores de Transição Ecológica.

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PERCEPCIÓN DE LA CORRUPCIÓN A LA LUZ DE LOS INDICADORES DE LA TRANSICIÓN
ECOLÓGICA
RESUMEN
Objetivo: El objetivo del estudio es investigar cómo las áreas de la transición verde que promueven la
sostenibilidad se relacionan con los niveles percibidos de corrupción
Marco Teórico: Las variables de corrupción, crecimiento económico, energías renovables y emisiones de dióxido
de carbono se integran a largo plazo. Existe una relación causal entre las emisiones de dióxido de carbono, la
corrupción, el crecimiento económico y las energías renovables. El índice de corrupción y el crecimiento
económico tienen una relación estadísticamente significativa con las emisiones de dióxido de carbono. Sin
embargo, el impacto de las energías renovables y el comercio internacional frenan el cambio climático y mejoran
la calidad del medio ambiente.
Método: Hemos basado nuestra investigación en bases de datos de acceso público en Internet. Los datos aquí
disponibles pueden utilizarse libremente. Esto significa que, independientemente del cuestionario en el que se
basen, su análisis no requiere una autorización de investigación. Otra ventaja de estas bases de datos es que la
investigación realizada con ellas puede reproducirse y continuarse en el futuro. Modelizamos el nivel de corrupción
utilizando las series temporales del Índice de Percepción de la Corrupción de Transparency International.
Examinamos los países incluidos en ambas bases de datos. Tras limpiar y codificar los datos, el primer paso fue
crear estadísticas descriptivas. Al mismo tiempo, comprobamos la normalidad de la muestra y verificamos la
homoscedasticidad, ya que estas dos últimas pruebas determinan qué métodos estadísticos pueden utilizarse para
investigaciones posteriores. A continuación analizamos la cuestión de hasta qué punto y en qué medida influyen
los índices medioambientales en la percepción de la corrupción. Para ello, elaboramos una matriz de correlaciones.
A partir de ella, creamos un modelo de regresión en el que el IPC era la variable dependiente (explicativa) y los
índices medioambientales se incluían como variables independientes (explicativas).
Resultados y Discusión: La prevención de la corrupción se ve influida significativamente por la política
medioambiental, las partículas y las emisiones brutas de gases de efecto invernadero, estas últimas con un efecto
negativo. El aumento de la producción de residuos también reduce el IPC, aumentando así la sensación de
corrupción, pero este efecto no ha demostrado ser significativo. Además, el reciclaje es un importante factor de
marketing para la política de Responsabilidad Social Corporativa (RSC). Por lo tanto, en algunos aspectos, es más
valioso que el dinero. Existe una correlación entre el nivel de corrupción percibido y los indicadores
medioambientales. Estos indicadores explican la percepción de la corrupción en un 49,4%. Son posibles dos tipos
de relaciones causales: la reducción de la corrupción conduce a un mejor comportamiento medioambiental; unos
mejores indicadores medioambientales reducen el nivel percibido de corrupción.
Implicaciones de la investigación: El cumplimiento de la política medioambiental puede contribuir en gran
medida a que la prevención de la corrupción sea eficaz, especialmente si se evitan los vacíos legales.
Originalidad/Valor: Nuestro estudio contribuye a los ámbitos de sostenibilidad de la transición ecológica y la
reducción de la corrupción y proporciona herramientas. La lucha contra la corrupción expone a las empresas a un
entorno normativo más estricto, lo que aumenta los costes de las infracciones y los riesgos de explotación. A
medida que la lucha contra la corrupción se hace más eficaz, se pierden los privilegios basados en las conexiones
políticas. Por tanto, las empresas pueden dar prioridad a las actividades sociales para ganar reputación y recursos,
o para olvidar infracciones pasadas. La lucha contra la corrupción mejora la supervisión externa y aumenta la
atención de las partes interesadas, lo que obliga a las empresas a rendir a un mayor nivel en términos de
responsabilidad social corporativa (RSC). Además, las medidas anticorrupción liberan recursos previamente
incautados, lo que constituye un requisito previo para la participación de las empresas en actividades sociales.
Palabras clave: Corrupción, Sostenibilidad, Política Medioambiental, Indicadores de Transición Ecológica.
RGSA adota a Licença de Atribuição CC BY do Creative Commons (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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1 INTRODUCTION
According to the President of the United Nations, the global cost of corruption is at least
5% of the world's gross domestic product, and companies and individuals pay more than $1
billion in bribes annually (United Nations, 2018). Corruption significantly affects the vast
majority of countries and has negative social and economic effects. Its effects on the
environment and resource management (ECM) sectors are less well known. There is
considerable evidence that in the ERM sectors (i.e. mining, irrigation, agriculture, forestry,
fisheries and conservation activities, in particular as regards protected area management and
wildlife trade) corruption is systemic. Corruption in these sectors has significant negative
environmental and economic impacts, which are expected to have negative social impacts.
When analyzing corruption and anti-corruption measures in countries fighting systemic
corruption, collective action theory should be used more to identify more effective policies
(Tacconi & Williams, 2020).
Creating a balance between economic growth and a sustainable environment is largely
the responsibility of governments. However, it has been found that sustainable development is
related to economic factors, the institutional environment and the effectiveness of
environmental regulatory policies. The interaction between a strict environmental protection
policy, the development of renewable energy consumption, financial development and the
effectiveness of the fight against corruption reduces the ecological footprint. Sustainable
development is achieved through the effectiveness of the institutional environment and
environmental regulation policies (Balsalobre-Lorente et al., 2023). The variables of
corruption, economic growth, renewable energy and carbon dioxide emissions are integrated in
the long term. There is a causal link between carbon dioxide emissions, corruption, economic
growth and renewable energy. The corruption index and economic growth have a statistically
significant relationship with carbon dioxide emissions. However, the impact of renewable
energy and international trade slows down climate change and improves the quality of the
environment (Leitão, 2021).
2 THEORETICAL PICTURE
Iglesias Troche & Martí Trull (2020) investigated the relationship between
Transparency International's corruption perception index and the level of greenhouse gas
emissions. They found that this ratio is stronger when considering total output per USD 1 000

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of GDP, but weaker when considering the variation in output per USD 1 000 between 1990 and
2012. We have also seen that most countries saw their emissions fall between 1990 and 2008,
with the least corrupt countries doing so to a greater extent. Other analyzes have shown that the
response of climate finance to reducing greenhouse gas emissions is faster in countries with
moderate levels of corruption than in countries with high and very high levels of corruption.
Empirical studies have proven that, with a 1-point increase in the Corruption Perception Index,
the likelihood of reducing emissions increases by 2.4581%, while the volume of climate finance
does not have a statistically significant effect on the performance indicator. This suggests that
current climate investments in underdeveloped countries are not able to mitigate the negative
impact of climate change (Lyonov et al., 2023). There is a negative and significant relationship
between corruption and per capita CO2 emissions for all countries and, separately, for groups
of middle-income, upper-middle-income and lower-income countries. However, this
relationship is positive in high income countries.
Another experience from the literature is that a country's overall institutional
development (a factor that also includes corruption) has a significant impact on per capita
emissions. However, corruption has a more significant impact on production than other
indicators of institutional development. There is also evidence of emissions escaping from high-
income countries to low- and upper-middle-income countries by relocating production to low-
/upper-middle-income countries, a form of moral corruption that is not reflected in reported
emissions (Devlina & Sahu, 2022). It has been proven that non-corrupt government agencies
reduce particulate air pollution directly and indirectly by increasing the level of economic
development (Liu & Dong, 2021). The direct link between air pollution (a type of
environmental crime) and corruption is also confirmed by other literature data (Ngamkaiwan,
2023).
In recent decades, there has been a growing interest in the relationship between
corruption and public policy, including environmental policy. Many studies state that
corruption has a negative impact on social welfare by reducing the rigor of environmental
policies and access to public goods. According to studies carried out on the subject (Dincer &
Fredriksson, 2018), the level of trust in the institutional system affects the relative strength of
industrial and environmental pressure groups, thus weakening the impact of corruption on the
rigor of environmental policies. The institutional system is the determining factor in
environmental protection policy. It is capable of creating and implementing the appropriate
environmental policy. And the cooperation of the international institutional system can help to
create the appropriate institutional environment, thus preventing corruption (Pellegrini & Vujic,

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2003).
The relationship between environmental sustainability and corruption was investigated
by Morse (2006). In its study, it sought to answer the question of how the level of perceived
corruption affects the evolution of environmental protection indicators. According to its results,
the corruption perception index accounts for at most 20% of the variation in environmental
indicators. A worse perception of corruption is strongly and decisively related to a weaker
climate policy. Weaker, market-based climate policies are significantly related to a higher
perception of corruption, but also to economic sectors that have received significant
environmental tax exemptions and other benefits, even in greener countries (with high levels of
trust and low corruption) (Rafaty, 2018). Despite existing theories of political economy and
descriptions of environmental/society interactions and the widespread evidence of bribery and
illegal assistance in natural resource management, the fight against corruption today is largely
ineffective and has serious consequences for the quality of the environment and the economic
environment closely related to sustainability. sectors (A. Leitão, 2016).
Green consumption means consumption which aims to minimize the adverse effects of
various products on the environment. When implementing environmental protection policies
that encourage green consumption, environmental corruption can affect production costs or
public environmental responsibility (Lu & Li, 2023). Energy productivity and energy
efficiency, which can be used as a similar indicator, can be significantly increased with more
effective control of corruption. Akorli & Adom (2023) showed that reducing corruption in low-
energy-efficient African countries significantly increases energy efficiency, so greater energy
efficiency also indicates the success of controlling corruption. The green transition requires
environmental regulation. Corruption and bureaucracy can also affect this regulation, the
energy transition and ecological quality. According to the results of a panel study covering
almost thirty years (Xu et al., 2024), green transition increases biocapacity, while corruption
control and improved quality of bureaucracy improve ecological quality.
It is interesting to note that corruption reduces the carbon footprint in the short term, but
its long-term effect already increases it. However, corruption definitely increases the ecological
footprint, as does political instability. Increasing urbanization, foreign direct investment (FDI)
flowing into the country and increased energy consumption are significantly increasing
environmental deterioration. Therefore, to improve environmental quality, political stability
and corruption control need to be increased (Asif et al., 2023). Dada (2023) analyzed similar
issues with her colleagues, based on 25-year time series. According to its results, the black
economy closely related to corruption, financial development, economic growth and

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urbanization increase the ecological footprint, while trade opening reduces it. The black
economy, economic growth and urbanization have also shown to reduce biocapacity, while
trade openness increases it. The interactive relationship between the shadow economy and
financial development shows that a strong financial system significantly mitigates the negative
impact of the shadow economy on environmental degradation.
The issue of waste is a growing problem in developed economies, and often the richest
countries try to eliminate it in low-income countries. Above all, compliance with local legal
regulations significantly increases the costs of waste management. Therefore, bribing a low-
income third-world employee can be much cheaper. Cesi’s (2019) and colleagues’ game theory
model also showed that corruption facilitates illegal waste disposal, which in turn leads to
increased waste generation. It is a phenomenon similar to the paradox of Jevons (Jevons, 1865),
with more than a century and a half, related to consumption in the economy.
The existence of a link between corruption and one of the most important services of
public interest, the management of solid urban waste, is also the subject of investigations. In
Italy, which is considered to have a high level of corruption among European countries, waste
management has often caused serious problems during crises and emergencies, due to problems
of waste collection, transport and treatment. According to the results of the investigation, in the
Italian provinces where the level of corruption and official abuse is highest, the production of
municipal waste per capita is higher, requiring additional treatment and financial expenditure;
thus, in addition to asserting private interests, there are more opportunities to commit crimes,
to the detriment of both public administration and citizens. No significant difference was found
in relation to the rate of separate waste collection and the use of landfills (Romano et al., 2021).
One of the most important areas of recycling is electronic waste. Regulation in this area
is typically strict, as it endangers human health and the environment. Therefore, illegal
recycling is common, especially in developing countries. An important policy objective is
therefore to legalize informal processing, which is often supported by significant financial
support. However, these subsidies also increase the risk of corruption. For this reason,
authorities are increasingly setting up interface organizations that end up channeling the
illegally dismantled parts for legal reuse (Williams et al., 2013).
After the literature review, the authors formulated the following research questions:
Q1 Based on the literature, how can the sample examined be characterized based on the
environmental sustainability indicators selected in this research?
Q2 What effect do the selected indicators have on the development of the perception of
corruption?

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3 METHODOLOGY
The authors responded to the research questions using statistical methods. The 2022
Sustainable Governance Indicators (SGI) database of Bertelsmann Stiftung (BS) from 41 EU
and OECD countries, which is publicly available on the internet, was used as a source
(https://www.sgi-network.org/2022/). The data includes an index measuring the effectiveness
of the fight against corruption, as well as sustainability-related indices (e.g. environmental
policy, greenhouse gas emissions, waste generation, air pollution, etc.). The authors selected
indicators from the entire database that can be associated with corruption (illegal waste disposal,
purchase and sale of emission quotas, environmental policy decisions). Based on the BS
methodology, indices are mostly statistical indicators and receive a score of 1 to 10, where a
higher score is more favorable. In the BS scoring system (1-10 points), the theoretical average
(rounded down) is 5 points.
The authors selected the following IMS indices for their study (Figure 1):
Figure 1
Indicators used by authors
Index Name
Definition
Prevention of Corruption
This issue addresses how the state and society prevent civil
servants and politicians from taking bribes by applying
mechanisms that guarantee the integrity of office holders
Environmental policy
This question concerns government activities to protect
natural resources and limit or minimize pollutants. It
examines three issues: whether the government's
environmental policy is ambitious enough, whether its effects
are tangible and whether environmental aspects are properly
integrated into policies.
Energy Productivity
It measures the economic benefit resulting from the use of
primary energy. This value is calculated using the ratio of
GDP (total money earned in a country) to total primary energy
use (TPES) (all primary fuels and primary flows a country
uses to obtain energy)
Gross greenhouse gas emissions
per capita
Particulate matter (PM)
What percentage of the population is exposed to more than 15
micrograms/m3 of PM
Biocapacity
The ability of ecosystems to regenerate what people require
from those surfaces. Life, including human life, competes for
space. The biocapacity of a given surface represents its ability
to regenerate what people require (Global Footprint Network,
2024).
Waste generation
Municipal waste produced per capita
Recycling materials
Percentage of municipal waste recovered
Source: Self-drafting

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The authors modeled the level of corruption using Transparency International's
Corruption Perceptions Index time series.
The first step was to create descriptive statistics. At the same time, the normality of the
sample was tested (Shapiro & Wilk, 1965) and the condition of homocedasticity was verified
(Levene et al., 1960), since these last two tests determine which statistical methods can be used
for the purpose of further investigations. . This was followed by an analysis of the extent to
which and in what direction environmental indices influence corruption prevention. To this end,
the authors created a regression model in which the CPI was the dependent (explanatory)
variable and the environmental indices were included as independent (explanatory) variables.
4 RESULTS AND DEBATES
Figure 2
Sample descriptive statistics
2014
201
5
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Shapiro
_Wilk's
p
Corruption Prevention
- MEAN
6.41
6.39
6.51
6.56
6.54
6.44
6.32
6.24
6.34
0,958
Waste_Generation -
MEAN
5.71
5.74
5.71
5.64
5.41
5.33
5.24
5.25
5.20
0,184
Material Recycling -
MEI
4.48
4.48
4.62
4.80
4.86
4.86
4.94
4.93
5:00
a.m.
0,191
Renewable_Energy -
MEI
4.14
4.28
4.42
4.51
4.56
4.59
4.61
4.67
4.80
0,002
Multilateral_Environm
ental_Agreements -
GEM
7.33
7.33
6.66
6.46
6.88
6.71
6.79
6.81
6.93
<0,001
Particulate matter -
Significant
5.42
6.20
a.m.
6.40
a.m.
6.62
6.61
7.19
7.10
7.13.
7.10
<0,001
Ecological footprint of
materials - Significant
5.82
5.88
5.93
5.91
5.98
5.91
5.88
5.91
5.95
0,028
Environmental policy -
NMS
5.98
6.07
6.07
6.15
6.05
6.12
6.17
6.17
6.22
0,051
N
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
41
—
Missing
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
—
Source: Self-drafting
The number of countries examined is 41, there are no missing data. Based on the
Shapiro-Wilk test (1965) performed, normality is characteristic of most indices analyzed. The
exceptions (p<0.001) are "Multilateral Environmental Agreements" and "Particulate_Matter"
(PM). The first assesses involvement in international agreements, and the other shows that a
portion of the population is exposed to more than 15 micrograms/m3 of PM. Therefore, only
non - parametric statistical procedures may be used. <0,001).

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All countries examined perform better than the theoretical average in the corruption
prevention indicator, which is slightly above average. Both waste generation and particulate
matter are above the theoretical average, which means that more waste is produced than the
average and that more people are exposed to polluted air in these countries. Multilateral
agreements also have a value above the theoretical average, which means adequate performance
in the role of international environmental protection agreements. Recycling values for materials
and renewable energy below the theoretical average, on the other hand, indicate the need for
further development (Figure 3).
Figure 3
Indicators examined and theoretical averages.
Source: Averages of favorable (dark blue) and unfavorable (red) indicators (Source: Prepared by the authors)
The regression model is described in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
Figure 4
Overall regression model test results
General Model Testing
Model
R
R²
F
(PHP
3,
PHP
4)
(PHP
3,
PHP
4)
p
1.
0,833
0,694
90.6
9
359
< .001
Source: Self-drafting
The model explains 69.4% of the evolution of Corruption prevention under the influence
of environmental indicators (R2=0.694). The fit of the model is adequate, the effect found

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cannot be attributed to chance alone (p<0.001). The VIF value for each variable is between
1.12-5.33 (a value below 10 is appropriate), i.e. there is no multicollinearity between the
variables.
Figure 5
Coefficients of the regression model
Model Coefficients - Corruption_Prevention
Predictor
Estimate
IF
t
p
Interception
2,7554
0,6307
4,369
< .001
Environmental policy
0,4928
0,0536
9,199
< .001
Particulate matter
0,1767
0,0247
7,162
< .001
Energy Productivity
0,1626
0,0588
2,767
0,006
Gross greenhouse gas emissions
-0,2809
0,0654
-4,298
< .001
Biocapacity
0,0626
0,0443
1,412
0,159
Generation of waste
-0,0649
0,0538
-1 205
0,229
Recycling materials
0,0951
0,0384
2,479
0,014
Biodiversity
-0,0791
0,0552
-1 431
0,153
Renewable energy
0,0504
0,0546
0,923
0,356
Source: Self-drafting
On the basis of Figure 5, the prevention of corruption is significantly influenced by
environmental policy, particulate matter and gross greenhouse gas emissions - the latter have a
negative effect. Compliance with environmental policy can greatly help to make corruption
prevention effective, mainly by preventing legal loopholes. Although not included in the model,
global environmental policy and related multilateral environmental agreements probably play
a role in the strong influence of environmental policy. The positive effect of increased exposure
of the population to particulate matter on the control of corruption requires some explanation.
The increase in air pollution poses a serious health risk and increases the incidence and mortality
rate of new diseases. In addition, the deterioration in air quality can already be detected by
human senses, and so the government must do something, preferably preventing air pollution.
Such preventive activity cannot therefore be accompanied by tolerated corruption. Therefore,
increased air pollution with some time lag (response latency) leads to more control of corruption
and less sense of corruption. The negative effect of gross greenhouse gas emissions is explained
by the fact that the officially recognized increase in emissions reduces the CPI, which means
an unfavorable change in the level of corruption, i.e. an increase.
If the significance level (α) is set at 5%, then energy productivity and material recycling
also have a positive effect in preventing corruption. The positive effect of energy productivity
can be explained by the fact that achieving a GDP increase with the lowest possible primary
energy consumption is a key objective for the future, so that no responsible public and economic

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leadership can tolerate corruption in this area. The increase in waste generation also reduces the
CPI, thus increasing the sense of corruption, but this effect has not been significant.
Furthermore, recycling is an important marketing factor of the Corporate Social Responsibility
(CSR) policy. It is therefore, in some respects, more valuable than money.
5 CONCLUSION
State institutions play an important role in implementing environmental sustainability,
as well as its legislative and law enforcement effectiveness. In many cases, important financial
support is also used to promote the green transition. These resources also attract corruption.
There is a clear relationship between the environmental sustainability indicators examined in
this study and the perceived level of corruption, which is explained by the authors' model at
almost 70%. The perception of the level of corruption is largely determined by the effectiveness
of environmental policy, to which participation in international ecological activities contributes.
International coordination and cooperation also contribute to taking action against corruption
and consequently to reducing the perceived level of corruption.
Anti-corruption actions expose companies to a stricter regulatory framework, which
increases the costs of infringements and risks of exploitation. As the fight against corruption
becomes more effective, privileges based on political linkages are lost. Therefore, companies
can prioritize social activities to gain reputation and resources, or to forget past violations. The
fight against corruption improves external supervision and increases the attention of
stakeholders, which requires companies to perform better in terms of corporate social
responsibility (CSR). In addition, anti-corruption measures free up previously seized resources,
which is a prerequisite for the participation of companies in social activities.
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