(PDF) MEASURING MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION IMPACTS OF HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS TOWARD SUSTAINABILITY

Volume 22 | No.2 | 2024

1ST INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL GO GREEN 2023 (i-VGG2023)

Building A Sustainable Tomorrow :

The Role Of Digital Transformation In Leading The Way

MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION RESEARCH

JOURNAL (MCRJ)

SPECIAL ISSUE Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024

1ST INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL GO GREEN 2023

(i-VGG2023)

Building A Sustainable Tomorrow : The Role Of

Digital Transformation In Leading The Way

The Malaysian Construction Research Journal is indexed in

Scopus Elsevier and ASEAN Citation Index (ACI)

eISSN No.: 2590 – 4140

Construction Research Institute of Malaysia (CREAM)

Level 14, CIDB 520, The MET Corporate Towers,

No. 20, Jalan Dutamas 2,

50480 Wilayah Persekutuan,

Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA.

Contents

Introduction

v

Editorial Advisory Board

vi

Editorial

viii

DEVELOPMENT OF SAFETY AND HEALTH COSTS FORMULA (SaHeCF)

FOR URBAN RAIL INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN MALAYSIA

1

Izatul Farrita Mohd Kamar, Asmalia Che Ahmad, Suraya Masrom and Nor Suzila Lop

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS EFFECTS ON MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

OF KENAF FIBRE REINFORCED PULVERISED FUEL ASH CONCRETE

18

Norazura Mizal Azzmi, Jamaludin Mohd Yatim, and Nazhatulzalkis Jamaludin,

Nadira Ahzahar, Zuraihana Ahmad Zawawi and Siti Zubaidah Hashim

UNVEILING THE NATURE OF DEFECTS OCCURRENCES IN

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

31

Najihah Rahimin, Haryati Mohd Isa, Thuraiya Mohd and Nur Azfahani Ahmad

OPERATIONAL SAFETY COMPLIANCE DURING THE OPERATIONAL

AND MAINTENANCE PHASE OF CONSTRUCTED PETROL STATIONS

47

Mazlina Zaira Mohammad, Hafizuddin Zubir, Nor Syamimi Samsudin, Natasha Khalil

and Azman Zainonabidin

BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: DESIGNING AN ENERGY-

EFFICIENT PUBLIC HOSPITAL IN MALAYSIA

63

Jamaludin Muhammad, Amirul Amin Ismail, Muhammad Faris Arman,

Mohammad Syathir Amini Shahbudin and Zaniman Sulong

UNVEILING THE DRIVERS OF FLASH FLOODS IN CONSTRUCTION

SITES: INSIGHTS FROM FACTORS FOR RESILIENT URBAN

DEVELOPMENT

78

Siti Nur Aishah Mohd Noor, Mohd Khairul Amri Ramly, Puteri Sidrotul Nabihah Saarani,

Zailawati Khalid and Mohamad Badruzhisham Mohd Mazlan

CHALLENGES IN SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPE OF

INDUSTRIALISED BUILDING SYSTEMS (IBS) IN HOUSING PROJECTS:

THE ROLE OF INTUITION AND HEURISTICS APPROACH

88

Mohd Rofdzi Abdullah, Mohd Najib Abd Rashid and Wan Nur Syazwani

Wan Mohammad

DEBRIS FLOOD DISCHARGE ANALYSIS AS A BASIS FOR SABO DAM

PLANNING ON THE LEPRAK RIVER AT SEMERU MOUNTAIN, EAST

JAVA

100

Andrea Sumarah Asih, Wahyu Kurniawan and Jati Iswardoyo

FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF FACILITIES MANAGEMENT

(FM) IN AGED CONDOMINIUM: A CASE STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR

110

Farhan Md Dahlan, Ashrof Zainuddin, Mohd Hasrol Haffiz Aliasak, Siti Rosemawar

Mohd Sahi and Norbaizura Abdul Wahab

MEASURING MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION IMPACTS OF HIGH-

RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

122

Martina Jasoffa Omar, Mazlina Zaira Mohammad, Nor Syamimi Samsudin,

Natasha Khalil, Iryani Abdul Halim Choo and Nur Dalila Nadzri

AN OBSERVATION ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN

STRATEGIES IN MALAYSIAN PLATINUM-RATED GREEN OFFICE

BUILDINGS

147

Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim, Sitinur Kamilah Mohd Idris, Asmalia Che Ahmad,

Edi Purwanto and Issa Tafridj

SPATIAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF SICK BUILDING SYNDROME IN A

UNIVERSITY SPACE: A GIS-BASED PHYSICAL CONTEXT MAPPING

APPROACH

163

Syed Mohammad Asyraf Syed Mohammad Anuar, Abdul Rauf Abdul Rasam,

Nawfal Kamarul Bahrain, Mawar Masri, Jamalunlaili Abdullah and Colonius Atang

EXPLORING THE BARRIERS TO ECO-INNOVATION IMPLEMENTATION

IN CONTRACTOR FIRMS

177

Siti Sarah Mat Isa, Nazirah Zainul Abidin, Wan Norizan Wan Ismail, Norhafizah Yusop

and Norsyazwana Jenuwa

UNVEILING THE PATH TO SUSTAINABILITY: EXPLORING THE

CURRENT PRACTICES OF CORPORATE REAL ESTATE SUSTAINABLE

MANAGEMENT FOR GREEN OFFICE BUILDINGS

193

Nurul Sahida Fauzi, Timothy Tunde Oladokun, Siti Nadiah Mohd Ali, Huraizah Arshad,

Nor Nazihah Chuweni and Nor Aini Salleh

EXPLORING CONCEPTUAL MODEL ON THE KEY CRITERIA AND

COMPONENTS OF GREEN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR

HOTEL OPERATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY

205

Nur Adlina Ismail, Natasha Khalil, Suwaibatul Islamiah Abdullah Sani, Noor Akmar

Shah Nordin and Husrul Nizam Husin

ANALYSIS OF MERCURY (Hg) HEAVY METAL IN RIVERS ARTISANAL

GOLD MINING KALIREJO AREA, KOKAP DISTRICT, KULON PROGO

REGENCY SPECIAL REGION OF YOGYAKARTA

223

Shilvyanora Aprilia Rande, A. A Inung Arie Adnyano and Hendro Purnomo

BIOPHILIC DESIGN TO ENHANCE THE HEALING ENVIRONMENT IN

MALAYSIAN PRIVATE HOSPITALS: EXPERTS’ PERSPECTIVES

233

Nurul Zalifah Zakaria, Suriati Ahmad and Atikah Fukaihah Amir

PRIORITISATION OF INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING THE OPERATIONAL

PERFORMANCE OF PUBLIC PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP) PROJECTS

USING AHP MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION-MAKING METHODS

245

Nor Suzila Lop, Kharizam Ismail, Haryati Mohd Isa, Natasha Khalil and Ellyyanti Tahir

BIM-BASED PROJECT CONTRACTORS' PERSPECTIVE OF BUILDING

INFORMATION MODELING (BIM) USES IN THE BIM EXECUTION PLAN

265

Wan Nur Syazwani Wan Mohammad, Shahela Mamter, Raja Nurulhaiza Raja Nhari,

Nurhasyimah Ahmad Zamri, Hasni Suryani Mat Hasan and Norzaidi Haron

A MODEL FOR ASSESSING THE COMPETENCY OF FACILITY

MANAGERS IN PRE-CONSTRUCTION HOSPITALS IN MALAYSIA

277

Norsyazwana Jenuwa, Wan Norizan Wan Ismail, Norhafizah Yusop, Siti Sarah Mat Isa

and Mohd Saidin Misnan

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 v

Introduction

This special issue in Malaysian Construction Research Journal (MCRJ) is compiled in

conjunction with the 1st International Virtual Go Green 2023 (i-VGG2023) conference that

was conducted virtually from 21st to 22nd September 2023. This conference was successfully

hosted by the Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built

Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA Perak Branch in collaboration with Research

Office, Industry, Community & Alumni Network (PJIMA), Yogyakarta National Institute of

Technology (ITNY) Indonesia and Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB)

Malaysia.

A total of 121 research papers were successfully presented at the conference themed

"Building a Sustainable Tomorrow: The Role of Digital Transformation in Leading the

Way". The theme underscores the importance of leveraging digital technologies to drive

sustainability in the construction industry to become more resilient and adaptable structures.

This is particularly important in the face of climate change, as buildings need to be designed

and constructed to withstand changing environmental conditions. Aligning to The

Construction 4.0 Strategic Plan (2021-2025) and National Policy on the IR 4.0

(Industry4WRD), digital transformation plays a pivotal role in driving sustainability within

the construction industry. Inevitably, digital transformation supports the integration of

sustainable practices such as designing energy-efficient buildings and incorporating green

construction materials.

Hence, the objective of the i-VGG2023 conference is to achieve the development of

research based on the green and sustainability agenda of United Nation Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs) at both national and international levels. At the same time, this

conference provides a publication platform for academic members and coordinates targeted

activities for the achievement of academic publication towards knowledge dissemination in

the construction industry. It is hoped that the knowledge sharing through this publication helps

to contribute ideas to the creation of a more sustainable and resilient built environment for

future generations via embracing innovative technologies and practices.

Assoc. Prof. Sr Dr. Natasha Khalil

Editor

1st International Virtual Go Green 2023,

The College of Built Environment,

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Perak,

Seri Iskandar Campus,

32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak,

MALAYSIA.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 vi

Editorial Advisory Board

M. Ramuseren, Ir

Chief Editor

Construction Research Institute of Malaysia

(CREAM)

Zuhairi Abd. Hamid, Prof., Ir, Dr.

Honorary Editorial Board

Freelance Consultant

Natasha Khalil, Assoc., Prof., Sr, Dr.

Editor

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Perak

Nor Suzila Lop, Sr, Dr.

Co-Editor

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Perak

Yuhainis Abd Talib, Assoc., Prof., Sr, Dr.

Co-Editor

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Perak

Wahyudi P. Utama, Dr.

Department of Quantity Surveying

Universitas Bung Hatta (UBH)

Padang, Indonesia

Junaidah Jailani, Dr.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam dan Alam Bina

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)

Batu Pahat, Johor

Julaida Kaliwon, Ts., Dr.

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam

Mohd Saidin Misnan, Assoc., Prof., Sr, Dr.

Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Skudai,

Johor

Mohd Zairul Mohd Noor, Assoc., Prof., Ts., Dr.

Faculty of Design and Architecture

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Wayan Supartha, Dr.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Institut Teknologi Nasional Yogyakarta (ITNY)

Indonesia

Norliana Sarpin, Ts., Dr.

Faculty of Technology Management and Business,

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)

Batu Pahat, Johor

Siti Hidayah Abu Talib, Dr.

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Built Environment

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)

Batu Pahat, Johor

Laina Hilma Sari, Dr.

Architecture Department

Universitas Syiah Kuala (USK), Banda Acheh,

Indonesia

Nor Rima Muhamad Ariff, Assoc., Prof., Sr, Dr.

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam

Izyan Yahya, Dr.

School of Housing, Building and Planning

Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)

Zalina Shari, Assoc., Prof., Dr.

Faculty of Design and Architecture

Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM)

Shamzani Affendy Mohd Din, Assoc., Prof.,

Ts., Dr.,

Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design

International University Islamic Malaysia (IIUM)

Asmah Alia Mohamad Bohari, Sr, Dr.

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Sarawak

Wenny Arminda, Dr.

Department of Architecture

Institut Teknologi Sumatera (ITERA), Indonesia

Hafiszah Ismail, Sr, Dr.

College of Built Environment

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam

Nadzirah Zainordin, Assist., Prof., Ts., Sr, Dr.

School of Architecture and Built Environment

UCSI University, Malaysia

Tengku Nilam Baizura Tengku Ibrahim, Dr.

Department of Environmental Health

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam

Roshartini Omar, Assoc., Prof., Dr.

Faculty of Technology Management and Business,

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM)

Batu Pahat, Johor

Umi Kalsom Zolkafli @ Zulkifly, Sr, Dr.

Faculty of Built Environment

Universiti Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 vii

Eeydzah Aminuddin, Assoc., Prof., Ts., Dr.

College of Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam

Maria Zura Mohd. Zain

Construction Research Institute of Malaysia

(CREAM)

Secretariat Special Issue

Nurulhuda Mat Kilau

Construction Research Institute of Malaysia

(CREAM)

Tengku Mohd Hafizi Raja Ahmad

Construction Research Institute of Malaysia

(CREAM)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 viii

Editorial

Welcome from the Editors

Welcome to this special issue in Malaysian Construction Research Journal (MCRJ) for

the 1st International Virtual Go Green 2023 (i-VGG2023). We would like to express our

sincere gratitude to our contributing authors, reviewers, organizers and readers.

This special issue in MCRJ for i-VGG2023 contains twenty (20) interesting papers

covering the theme of “Building a Sustainable Tomorrow: The Role of Digital Transformation

in Leading the Way”. It is hoped that the readers would greatly benefit from the scientific

content and quality of papers published in this issue.

Brief introduction of each article is given as hereunder:

Izatul Farritta Mohd Kamar et al., have developed a safety and health costs formula

for urban rail infrastructure projects that consists variable factors of Client Costs,

Construction Period, Employer Costs, Types of Accident Classification, Days of the Stop

Work Orders, and the Location of Body Injury. The findings offer a reliable calculator that

may assist stakeholders in estimating the costs related to safety and health in construction

projects and plan insightful safety measures plan.

Norazura Mizal Azzmi et al., have investigated the effect of chemical environment on

the mechanical characteristics of pulverized kenaf fibrous fuel ash concrete as construction

materials at a volume percent of 0.75 with a particular emphasis placed on the consequence

of acidic, alkaline and sulfate solutions. It is revealed that this concrete composite (KFPC,

cement pastes with 25% fly ash replacement with kenaf fibre) exhibit exceptional mechanical

performance and has flexural strength in both normal and aggressive conditions.

Najihah Rahimin et al., have analysed the prevalence of defects occurrences in

construction projects through systematic literature review (SLR) approach. The study has

discovered that the major causes are derived from design defects, material defects,

workmanship defects, and maintenance defects, where eleven categories of defects are

workmanship, design, maintenance, factory, lack of protection, material, documentation

defects, nature, vandalism, mishandling by users' and wear and tear.

Mazlina Zaira Mohammad et al., have analysed a comparison study between the

Behaviour Base Safety (BBS) elements in the construction industry that affected the safety

culture practice in the operation and maintenance phase in petrol stations, as sample building

cases. The outcomes of this study show the differences between among element of BBS,

including which element of BSS was the most efficient approach and effective factor affecting

based behaviour safety or safety performance in the workplace.

Jamaludin Muhammad et al., have identified the success criteria for the passive design

approach commonly used by designers, especially architects, for local public hospital design

construction projects. It considers various aspects such as building orientation, efficient

layout, natural and artificial lighting, efficient Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

(HVAC), and other mechanical systems. The findings highlight the potential benefits of an

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 ix

energy-efficient design, including reduced operational costs, improved patient comfort, and a

positive environmental impact.

Siti Nur Aishah Mohd Noor et al., have unveiled the root causes of flash floods in

construction sites where the causes encompass clogged drainage systems, rapid urban

development, and the failure to construct proper damp or levee structures. The study has

formulated strategies that are able to bolster the resilience of construction sites and curtail the

adverse consequences of flash flood events.

Mohd Rofdzi Abdullah et al., have identified the significant decision-making

approaches and behavioural patterns in selecting the Industrialised Building System (IBS)

types for housing construction projects as Decision Support Tool (DST). The result revealed

that there is a utilization of intuition from the top and middle managers from a large-scale

contractor organisation as the ability to make decisions based on gut feelings or implicit

knowledge, and experiences.

Andrea Sumarah Asih et al., have proposed a reference planning design for construction

of sabo dam structure by analysing the sediment concentration and debris flood discharge at

The Leprak River, East Java Indonesia, using Standar Nasional Indonesia (SNI). Based on the

analysis results, the sediment concentration is 0.31, while the debris flood discharge is

262.041 m3 /s.

Farhan Md Dahlan et al., have determined the factors that contributed to the efficiency

of Facilities Management (FM) practices in aging condominiums that pose a greater structural

risk. The research concluded that three of the most critical factors affecting the efficiency of

FM in aged condominiums were financial, learning and growth, and pre-conditions during the

developer’s transition period.

Martina Jasoffa Omar et al., have identified the relationship between the maintenance

and operation of high-rise residential buildings and sustainability issues due to the rising

demand for high-rise residential buildings in developing countries. The correlation results are

based on the three indicators of sustainability; economic, environment and social that focus

on building maintenance cost, environmental impacts and the usage of recycle materials and

renewable energy, and awareness on sustainability behaviours.

Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim et al., have identified the biophilic design strategies in

Malaysia’s platinum-rated green office buildings and observed through GBI checklist for

direct experience of nature, indirect experience of nature, and experience of space and place.

The findings indicated that the lower zone of the office buildings has the highest score of

biophilic elements in lighting, air, plants, colour, image, and ecological compared to the upper

zone.

Syed Mohammad Asyraf et al., have investigated the spatial risk level of Sick-Building

Syndrome (SBS) at university buildings using the Geographical Information System-Multi

Criteria Decision-Making (GIS-MCDM) method and the JKR’s SBS criteria in a physical

context. The finding has shown that some of the CBE's spaces were affected by SBS,

especially in the central region of the administration building of block A, due to some physical

effects with the leaky roof, poor air conditioning, and poor ventilation.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 x

Siti Sarah Mat Isa et al., have explored the barriers of eco-innovation (EI)

implementation faced by large contractor firms in the Malaysian construction industry

through semi-structured interviews with G7 contractor firms. The results revealed that the

barriers to EI derived from four factors; firm-specific barriers, cost difficulties, people-related

barriers, and external pressures.

Nurul Sahida Fauzi et al., have analysed the current practices of Corporate Real Estate

Sustainable Management (CRESM) for green office buildings through qualitative approach

involving semi-structured interviews with construction experts. The analysis demonstrates the

widespread implementation of Green Building Index (GBI) (as guiding element), Building

Management Systems (BMS), Building Information Modelling (BIM), Performance

Measurement Systems (PMS), and Sustainable Performance Measurement Systems (SPMS)

which reflects the commitment of organizations to adhere to sustainable practices and

optimize building.

Nur Adlina Ismail et al., have established a conceptual model of key criteria of green

building construction materials that relates to the hotel’s operational sustainability towards

economic, environmental and social aspects. The findings finalised that there are 11 criteria

of green building materials consists of Manufacturers’ Identification, Materials Declaration,

Life Cycle Assessment, Indoor Air Quality Performance, Toxic Disposable, Design

Adaptability, Regional Materials, Durability, Reusable Design, Renewable Resources and

Water Efficiency.

Shilvyanora Aprilia Rande et al., have analysed the condition of surface water against

the content of dissolved Hg in the Plampang River flow from gold mining activities, where

gold mining projects contribute to the demand for construction materials as mines are

developed, and associated infrastructure is built. The study revealed that sediment and water

samples close to community gold mining has a high concentration of mercury, thus indicates

that the mercury content is eroded and revealed into river.

Nurul Zalifah Zakaria et al., have established the biophilic design elements checklist

for Malaysian private hospitals through experts’ perspectives, towards encouraging a better

green hospital development. The findings revealed that natural light, water features, plants or

landscape, pets’ area, image of nature, natural materials, natural or soft colours, shape and

form, prospects, refuge, complex and orderly design, culture and ecology are reliable items

as biophilic design elements for hospital design.

Nor Suzila Lop et al., have analysed the relative importance weight for Key Performance

Indicators (KPIs) in the procurement contract in measuring the operational performance of

Public Private Partnership (PPP) construction projects using Analytical Hierarchy Process

(AHP) approach. From the AHP analysis, the most important element is mechanical (0.274)

and followed by electrical (0.236), operational element (0.193), civil, structural and

architectural (0.135), telecommunication (0.076), landscape and ground (0.044), pest control

and wildlife control (0.042).

Wan Nur Syazwani Wan Mohammad et al., have highlighted the key factors of

Building Information Modelling (BIM) implementation that focus on the planning-to-design

stage, based on the BIM execution plan from the perspective of the BIM-based project

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 xi

contractors. The findings showed that the planning phase via 4D modeling was remarked as

the upmost significant use in the planning-to-the-design stage. The 4D modeling involves

time-related information, installation periods and sequences, workflow rescheduling,

construction visualization, material optimization, project coordination, and project safety.

Norsyazwana Jenuwa et al., have examined the relationship between facility managers’

competence in the pre-construction hospitals with six relevant competencies; leadership and

strategy, finance and business, operation and maintenance, communication, human factors,

and real estate management, using the analysis technique of Modelling Structured Equations

Partial Smallest Square Estimation (SEM-PLS). Out of six competencies, human factor

competencies are strong predictors with the competency of the facility managers, followed by

real estate management competencies, operational and maintenance competencies, and

communication competency.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 1

DEVELOPMENT OF SAFETY AND HEALTH COSTS

FORMULA (SaHeCF) FOR URBAN RAIL

INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS IN MALAYSIA

Izatul Farrita Mohd Kamar1*, Asmalia Che Ahmad1, Suraya Masrom2 and Nor Suzila Lop1

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Seri Iskandar Campus, 32610, MALAYSIA

2Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Tapah

Campus, 32610, MALAYSIA

*Corresponding Email: izatul739@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

The rapid development of the Klang Valley Mass Rapid Transit (KVMRT) System has

contributed to a substantial amount of costs related to safety and health issues. Numerous

scholars have analysed the two recognised typologies of safety and health costs, namely,

prevention costs and accident costs. However, studies on the prevention costs during the pre-

construction stage of a project are quite rare and have mainly focused on the financial losses

or accident costs incurred by the contractor and victim. Many of the rail construction companies

or stakeholders lack knowledge and information concerning the calculation of the costs as the

existing safety cost model was developed from the manufacturing sector. Moreover, models

from the construction sector are limited to general construction. Therefore, the research aims

to develop a safety and health costs formula for urban rail infrastructure projects. Using a

quantitative research approach, a total of eight viaduct/guideway packages of the MRT 1 (SBK

Line) project and ten viaduct/guideway packages of the MRT 2 (SSP Line) projects were

examined to obtain data for the study and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS) software. The study found that the Client Costs were affected by the

Construction Period, the Employer Costs were related to the Types of Accident Classification,

the total number of Days of the Stop Work Orders, and the Location of Body Injury. The Victim

Costs were related to the number of days the victims were on Medical Leave. Finally, validation

by simulation, the safety and health costs formula were successfully developed. The findings

of the study offer a reliable calculator that may assist stakeholders in estimating the costs

related to safety and health in construction projects, and, hence, enable them to plan their

investments in terms of safety measures in a more insightful manner.

Keywords: Safety and Health Costs; Costs Formula; Costs Weightage; Costs Calculation; Urban Rail

Infrastructure Projects

INTRODUCTION

The construction industry in Malaysia contributed enormously towards Malaysia`s

national economic growth. The construction industry plays a main role in the country`s

development as well as making more contributions towards economic growth and

employment. However, compared to the other industries, the construction industry is

considered unique because most of its activities often take place outdoors and under

conditions that are not conducive to safety and health. The sites are frequently considered to

be among the dangerous places for both workers and publics (Minglong et al., 2023; Choi et

al., 2020; Misnan & Mohammed, 2007). Alcumus (2022) assesses that the average fatality

rate in the construction sector is more than twice as high as that in all other industries.

Previous studies have shown that various losses have been incurred when accidents

occurred (Davies & Teasedale, 1994; Jallon et al., 2011b; Goetsch, 2013; Pellicer et al., 2014;

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 2

Feng et al., 2015) and these losses may include costs to victims and their families as well as

to employers and society (Mossink & De Greef, 2002). In addition, construction injuries not

only give great cause for humanitarian concern but also the high cost of injury or death and

this motivates a more sustaining safety performance in the construction industry (Rajendran

2009). In the event of an accident on a construction site, it involves a huge amount of cost.

The same is true in the operation of urban railway projects. However, the quantification,

evaluation and identification of many losses incurred in an accident are hidden and difficult

to quantify, evaluate and identify (Teo & Feng, 2011; Feng et al., 2015; Pellicer et al., 2014).

Furthermore, existing research indicates that employers commonly underestimate the true

financial impact of such events (Ryan et al., 2019). Moreover, the existing model (for

example, the Traditional cost model) is difficult to apply directly in construction because they

were developed specifically for the manufacturing sector (López-Alonso et al., 2013). As a

result, the objective of this research is to develop a safety and health costs formula for

urban rail infrastructure projects in Malaysia. The findings from this research could

heighten the importance of the effect of an accident on the stakeholders’ company

economic and budgeting.

ACCIDENT COSTS FORMULA AND CALCULATIONS

Accident costs are usually calculated with much uncertainty. The study of the costs of

accidents was pioneered by Heinrich (1931) more than 80 years ago. Among the several sources

of uncertainty in the calculation is in determining the right component of the costs. Several

approaches using formula calculations were proposed for quantifying the actual total cost of an

accident. Table 1 shows several accident costs that were formulated by previous researchers.

Aaltonen et al. (1996) developed the Accident Consequence Tree (ACT) Method, which is

based on the fault tree method for calculating accident costs. The consequences of the accident

to the injured worker, the company and the national economy were identified with the aid of the

consequence tree. The ACT Method was applied to workplace accidents in 18 Finnish furniture

factories of different sizes and product types. Tang (1997) revealed that the accident costs in the

construction industry are divided into the financial costs of the construction accident and the

social costs of the construction accident. The financial costs of the construction accidents

represent the losses incurred by private investors, such as contractors, due to the occurrence of

construction site accidents. Whilst social costs are any item that will result in the utilisation of

national resources. If there were no accidents, the utilisation of these society's resources could

have been saved. The costs are based on the society’s point of view. The costs incurred by

society are in a broader perspective and the costs are higher than the financial costs incurred by

the employers.

On the other hand, the accident costs, which were formulated by Hammer and Price (2001),

are more general, and not specific to any group that incurs the cost. The accident costs were not

classified into direct costs and indirect costs, which are commonly recommended by other

researchers. They classified the total accident costs as the total sum of the accident prevention

costs + legal costs + immeasurable costs + immediate losses + insurance costs + other safety

costs + rehabilitation cost + welfare cost. Poon et al. (2008) developed the accident costs

formula from society's point of view. He defined social costs as any item that will result in the

utilisation of national resources. These costs were incurred due to worker's injury and fatality

and were separately formulated due to different accident severity.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 3

Table 1. Accident Costs Formula and Calculation from Previous Researchers

Researcher

The Formula of Accident Costs

Aaltonen et al.

(1996)

Total Costs = Individual Costs + Company Costs + National Economy

The Accident Consequence Tree (ACT) Method was developed based on the fault tree method

for calculating accident costs.

Tang (1997)

Accident Cost = Financial Cost + Social Cost

Financial Cost:

1) Loss due to the injured person.

- Compensation paid to the injured worker.

- Disability compensation.

2) Loss due to the inefficiency of the worker.

3) Loss due to medical expenses

4) Loss due to fines and legal expenses

5) Loss of productivity of other employees

6) Loss due to damaged equipment or plant

7) Loss due to damaged material or finished work

8) Loss due to idle machinery or equipment

Social costs are defined as the losses incurred by society due to the occurrence of construction

site accidents.

Hammer and

Price (2001)

Total Cost = Accident Prevention Costs + Legal Costs + Immeasurable Costs + Immediate

Losses + Insurance Costs + Other Safety Costs + Rehabilitation Cost + Welfare Cost

Poon et al.

(2008)

Social Cost = Daily Wage x 365 days x (retirement age 65 – injury age) x % disability/100

If the accident involves a fatality, it will be calculated by:

Social Cost = Daily Wage x 365 days x (retirement age 65 – death age)

Gavious et al.

(2009)

Total Cost = Cdirect + Cindirect + Cpayment + Cimmeasurable

Where, the parameters that reflect the direct costs, indirect costs, payment costs and

immeasurable costs are formulated as:

Cdirect = Cdamage + Cmedical + Cfine + Cinsurance

Cindirect = Ccapacity lost + Cschedule + Crecruit + Cwork time + Cwip + Cmang

Cpayment = M (PaynewW1󰇜 





Cimmeasurable = Creputation + Cmorale

KLIACS JKKP

(2013)

Total Cost = individual cost + employer cost + stakeholder cost

Where,

Individual cost = immediate loss of earnings + loss of future earnings + permanent afflictions +

health and rehabilitation costs + administrative costs + finding a new occupation cost + costs of

housewives’ work and relatives’ work to take care of the injured workers

Employer cost = Damage Cost + Medical Cost + Fine Cost + Insurance Cost + Search and

Rescue Costs + Capacity Lost + Schedule Cost + Recruiting Cost + Work Time Cost + Work in

Progress Cost + Management Cost + External Investigation Cost + Accident Report Cost +

Payment Cost + Immeasurable Cost

Stakeholder cost = Government cost + Consultants cost + Client cost

HSE (2014)

Total Cost = Individual Cost + Employer Cost + Government Cost

Where,

Individual cost = Loss of Income + Compensation Payments + Health and Rehabilitation Costs

+ Administrative Costs + Non-Financial Costs.

Employer cost = Sick Pay Payments + Insurance Premiums + Production Disturbance Costs +

Administrative and Legal Costs.

Government cost = Costs arising from loss of earnings to the individual (benefits payments,

reduction in tax and national insurance receipts) + Medical Treatment Costs and Rehabilitation

Costs + Administration and Legal Costs

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 4

Researcher

The Formula of Accident Costs

Pellicer et al.

(2014)

CC = [0.0745*BS] + [β*BC] + [EX*NH*10-6*ΣjkNAjk*CTjk] - [0.75*GS*EX*NH*10-6*Σjk(DLjk -

1)*NAjk]

Where,

CC = Total Expected Cost of Occupational accidents

BS = Base Salary

β = Ratio of safety budget invested in the prevention cost

BC = Budget of the construction project

EX = Exposure time at the construction site FI

NH = Number of man-hours per million hours worked for the entire Spanish construction industry

NA = Number of accidents in the entire Spanish construction industry

CT = Cost of the accident per type

GS = Daily gross salary

DL = Days of medical leave

j = accident type; k = severity of the accident

Gavious et al. (2009) proposed methods for the reliable estimation of the costs involved in

industrial accidents in an organisation, especially concerning production loss. The industrial

accident costs contained two major cost categories, which are direct costs and indirect costs.

Researchers have considered all the parameters that affect costs when an accident occurs. The

total cost of an industrial accident is the sum of its direct costs and indirect costs.

Nevertheless, KLIACS JKKP (2013) explained that the formula for the total costs

associated with workplace injuries is made up of the three distinct groups to whom the cost falls,

namely the accident victim, the victim’s employer, and other stakeholders. This combination

contributes to improving the ease of data collection and the quantity and quality of data

collected. The stakeholders are responsible during the design stage of the construction. The

client needs to invest in each safety prevention cost component that is stated in the bill of

quantities. They also need to bear the consultant’s fee based on certain charges. The relevant

stakeholder, when an accident occurs, is the government. The government needs to pay the

compensation cost to the victim. Combining the costs of these three groups gives the total cost

as a whole.

The HSE (2014) took a different approach. The formula for the total cost associated with

workplace injuries in Great Britain is made up of the three different groups that bear the cost,

namely, individuals, employers, and the government. Combining the costs of these three groups

gives the actual total cost of workplace injuries. Pellicer et al. (2014) developed a mathematical

model as a method that would permit employers to compute the estimation for each cost

category. This estimate should be applied during the construction project design phase and

execution phase at the work site. However, the model still has a few limitations. Reducing the

number of workers exposed to risks if the prevention costs increased, would substitute the

dangerous occurrence at the construction site. Designing a reliable correlation between the

prevention costs invested and the accidents that occur at the construction site is not easy.

Multiple case studies are needed to obtain reliable data to propose such a correlation and must

be validated by additional data. Moreover, in its current form, the model is not specific to any

project type and does not define the project characteristics.

In short, the literature highlights the existing accident cost formulas across the globe, but

their relations to the study environment for urban rail infrastructure projects are limited. The

diffusion of a new cost formula could provide valuable information for future calculations when

accidents occur at the MRT and LRT sites. To develop a systematic calculation for estimating

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 5

the total cost of accidents with a focus on rail infrastructure projects, all the existing formulas

that were developed by previous researchers are considered. Based on the previous studies, the

formula for the total costs related to the accident is divided into employer cost and victim cost.

The employer cost is further divided into two, direct accident cost and indirect accident cost.

The direct accident cost is the cost that is accrued directly from the accident. The costs are

typically covered by the Social Security Organisation (SOCSO) and an insurance company

(KLIACS JKKP, 2013). While the indirect accident cost is the cost item that is not covered by

the worker’s compensation insurance. For the victim cost, the costs are those borne by the victim

when the accident happened. Usually, the cost items incurred by the victim are from the indirect

accident costs, which is uninsurable.

METHODOLOGY

The process for developing the safety and health costs formula is by applying the first

stage (planning phase), the second stage (conducting phase), and the third phase (applying

phase) as provided in Figure 1. The activities in each of the phases are reviewed as follows:

Stage 1: Planning Phase – Safety and Health Costs Input

A wide variety of parameters is necessary to calculate the safety and health costs for urban

rail infrastructure projects. The determinants of the safety and health cost bearers, cost

components, cost factors, and the cost categories of this study are involved in this planning

stage. The safety and health cost parameters were determined and developed through the

literature review, preliminary survey, and main survey. The responses to the safety and health

cost inputs are to ensure that the model is correctly directed to the inputs.

Stage 2: Conducting Phase – Safety and Health Costs Process

In this phase, the critical phases for estimating the safety and health costs and the types of

projects that are significant for safety and health costs were identified based on the preliminary

survey results. In addition, the potential informants for the main study were specified to get

more accurate data (safety and health costs incurred) for the selected project. For the main

survey of this study, the Safety and Health Costs Survey (SHCS) form was distributed to the

potential informants, i.e., the contractors engaged in work packages for urban rail infrastructure

projects. After each of the costs related to the safety and health costs incurred by the stakeholders

was collected, the data were analysed. Identification of the safety and health costs components

that are commonly incurred by the cost bearers of urban rail infrastructure projects was achieved

in this phase. The study focused on two types of safety and health costs, namely prevention

costs and accident costs (direct and indirect costs).

The analysis of data was conducted after the safety and health costs input were determined,

which involved making sense of the data in terms of the outlined inputs at the beginning of the

formula’s development. Further, the safety and health cost formula and cost weightage for each

safety and health cost component were developed to ensure this formula can be applied in

estimating the safety and health costs for urban rail infrastructure projects.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 6

Stage 3: Applying Phase – Safety and Health Costs Output

In the final stage of the formula’s development, the application phase of this formula

involves reporting the findings of the safety and health costs formula. The findings were

documented and the valuable input from the respondent’s response sets is the basis for action.

The action towards improving this formula as an estimating tool for the safety and health costs

incurred in urban rail infrastructure projects was directed to the relevant management that was

accountable for accomplishing the actions.

Figure 1. Development Process of Safety and Health Costs Model

The activities in the applying phase consist of the documentation of safety and health cost

formulas and cost weightage for each safety and health cost component. The safety and health

cost formulas were developed based on the previous study, namely, divided into client costs,

employer costs, and victim costs. While the novelty of this research was the development and

determination of the cost’s weightage for each safety and health cost component and category.

The cost weightage is important to help the stakeholders in estimating each of the cost

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 7

components incurred for the prevention costs and accident costs. Moreover, the cost weightage

also illustrates the level of hazard for each type of accident involved at the MRT site. Finally,

the formula was validated by the simulation (formula testing) to measure the reliability of the

formula.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Development of Safety and Health Costs Formula

To develop a systematic safety and health costs calculation for urban rail infrastructure

projects, all the existing formulas that were developed by previous researchers were considered.

Therefore, the formulas for the total cost related to safety and health costs for urban rail

infrastructure projects were divided into weighted client costs, weighted employer costs, and

weighted victim costs. The weighted client costs are the costs incurred by the client in the pre-

construction phase. These costs are known as the prevention costs. While the weighted

employer costs include the accident costs, both direct and indirect. The direct costs are the costs

that are accrued directly from the accident. The costs are typically covered by the Social Security

Organisation (SOCSO) and insurance companies. While the indirect costs are the cost items

that are not covered by the worker’s compensation insurance.

For the weighted victim cost, the costs incurred by the victim when accidents happen are

from the indirect costs, which is uninsurable. This combination contributes to improving the

ease of data collection and the quantity and quality of the data collected. The costs were

formulated based on the regression analysis and results. The safety and health cost factors that

influence the weighted client costs, weighted employer costs and weighted victim costs were

examined in this formula. The weighted client costs have a significant relationship with the

weighted construction period. While the weighted employer costs are affected by the weighted

accident classification and the weighted days of the stop work order and the weighted location

of body injury. Only the weighted number of days for medical leave has a significant

relationship with the weighted victim costs. The weighted safety and health costs were assigned

to reflect the importance of the cost for each safety cost component and category against the

overall safety and health costs. The weighted safety and health costs equation is given as

follows:

SHCw = WCC + WEC + WVC

SHCw is the weighted Safety and Health Costs

WCC is the weighted Client Costs

WEC is the weighted Employer Costs

WVC is the weighted Victim Costs

For the Client Costs, the weighted Client Costs (WCC) equation is given as:

WCC = ACC (W1α1)

Where:

ACC is the average Client Costs

W1α1 is the weighted Construction Period

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 8

The weighted Employer Costs (WEC) equation is given as:

  󰇛    󰇜



Where:

AEC is the average Employer Costs

W2α1 is the weighted Type of Accident Classification

W2α2 is the weighted Days of Stop Work Order

W2α3 is the weighted Location of Body Injury

The weighted Victim Costs (WVC) equation is given as:

WVC = AVC (W3α1)

Where:

AVC is the average Victim Costs

W3α1 is the weighted Days of Medical Leave

Development of Cost Weightage for Each Safety and Health Cost Component

and Category

The cost weightage for each safety and health cost component was classified into specific

cost categories. The cost weightage of each component and category was calculated based on

the historical data gathered from the MRT 1 (SBK Line) Projects and MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Projects. The historical data gathered from both projects were the prevention costs and the

accident costs incurred by the MRT 1 (SBK Line) Projects. The data were gathered from experts

in the related fields. The development indicators from other research, such as the Occupational

Safety and Health Costs (OSH) Calculator were also referred to as a benchmark for this study.

The OSH Calculator was selected due to the similarity of the studies, which focus on the

construction industry. However, the OSH Calculator does not include the prevention costs and

no specific cost weightage is determined for each safety and health cost component and

category.

The weight of each safety and health cost component and category were calculated by the

mean calculation from the historical data. Moreover, the integration between the safety and

health cost components and cost categories with the weightage items is an important part of this

research to forecast the precise safety and health costs incurred for future projects. Thus, Tables

2-6 show the list of the assigned cost weightage for each safety and health cost component and

category incurred by the client, employer, and victim after going through a thorough identifying

process.

a) Weighted Client Costs (WCC)

Table 2 shows details of the cost weightage for the prevention cost components incurred

by the client. From the data analysis and findings of the preliminary survey (semi-structured

interviews) and main survey (questionnaire), there are 11 components involved for the

Prevention Costs. The weighted client costs were influenced by the weighted construction

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 9

period. The weighted construction period is divided into two cost categories, which are less

than 50 months and more than 50 months. These categories are based on the construction

period awarded to the work packages contractor. The weightage scale for the construction

period (more than 50 months) is higher than the weightage scale for the construction period

(less than 50 months) (weight=1.31) and (weight=0.39), respectively. The results show that

longer construction periods will increase the prevention costs due to the cost of the resources

(human, plant, and materials) involved in the project.

This contrasts with the findings of Lopez-Alonso et al. (2013), who studied 40 construction

works in progress in southern Spain. The results found that the costs of accident prevention were

affected by the types of accident and directly varied according to the total number of workers,

the average number of subcontractors, and the health and safety budget involved. Moreover,

Feng (2015) found that safety investment is affected by the project hazard and safety culture

levels, which means that those factors can be used as a formula for cost prediction and can be

tailored to an individual building project.

Table 2. Weighted Construction Period (W1α1) for Client Costs

No.

Prevention Cost Components

Construction Period Cost Categories

<50 Months

>50 Months

Weightage

1.

Insurance Costs

0.023

0.014

2.

PPE and Training Costs

0.027

0.056

3.

Evaluation and Monitoring Costs

0.073

0.075

4.

OSH Management & Documentation Costs

0.012

0.006

5.

Safe Working Area Costs

0.036

0.058

6.

Special Work Condition Costs

0.785

0.686

7.

Electrical Works Costs

0.003

0.005

8.

Plant Costs

-

0.052

9.

Facilities on Site Costs

0.010

0.025

10.

Housekeeping Costs

0.002

0.017

11.

Emergency Response Costs

0.028

0.006

Sub Total

1.00

Construction Period Weightage

0.39

1.31

b) Weighted Employer Costs (WEC)

Three cost factors affected the weighted employer costs, namely, the weighted Types of

Accident Classification, weighted Days of Stop Work Order, and the weighted Location of the

Body Injury. Table 3 shows details of the cost weightage for the weighted Types of Accident

Classification. The cost categories of the Accident Classification are based on NADAPOD

(2004), which are the accident Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, and Class 8. The highest weightage

scale is accident Class 1 (weight=5.635) and the lowest weightage scale is accident Class 2

(weight=0.204). While the highest weightage scale for the types of cost component is the

Damage/Repair Costs component (weight=0.423) for the accident Class 1.

This shows that employers incur high costs from fatalities due to the cost of hospital bills.

Moreover, employers also must spend some money for the victim, which includes the cost of

returning the victim’s body to his country, the cost of escort staff, including their transportation,

accommodation, and all expenses during their task and the ex-gratia payment to the victim’s

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 10

family. While the Damage/Repair Costs component contributes to the highest cost weightage

for the accident Class 1 (Fatality) due to the highest cost incurred from the machine and

equipment damage and the cost to repair including the cost of labour.

Table 3. Weighted Types of Accident Classification (W2α1) for Employer Costs

No.

Direct and Indirect Accident Cost

Components

Types of Accident Classification Cost Categories

Accident

Class 1

Accident

Class 2

Accident

Class 3

Accident

Class 8

Weightage

1.

First-Aid Treatment Costs

0.001

0.012

0.010

-

2.

Hospital Costs

0.020

0.348

0.370

-

3.

Damage/Repair Costs

0.423

-

0.073

0.653

4.

Fine Costs

0.008

-

5.

Accident Report Costs

0.0004

0.010

0.008

0.006

6.

Replacement Costs

0.001

-

7.

Administration Costs

0.007

0.177

0.093

0.132

8.

Schedule Costs

0.002

-

0.009

-

9.

Productivity Loss Costs

0.347

0.067

0.146

0.077

10.

Ex-Gratia Costs

0.163

-

0.130

-

11.

Management Costs

0.014

0.387

0.118

0.105

12.

Corrective Action Costs

0.014

-

0.042

0.027

Sub Total

1.000

Accident Classification Weightage

5.635

0.204

0.294

0.341

Table 4 shows details of the cost weightage for the Days of Stop Work Order. Three cost

categories were determined for the Days of Stop Work Order, which are 0-14 days, 15-30 days,

and more than 30 days. The highest weightage scale (weight=35.162) for the Days of Stop Work

Order is for more than 30 days. The highest weighted cost scale (weight=0.617) is for the Ex-

Gratia Costs. This shows that large costs are incurred by the employer if the number of days for

the stop work order is more than 30 days. When the work stops on-site, it will affect the costs

of the employer.

Table 4. Weighted Days of Stop Work Order (W2α2) for Employer Costs

No.

Direct and Indirect Accident Cost

Components

Days of Stop Work Order Cost Categories

0-14 Days

15-30 Days

>30 Days

Weightage

1.

First-Aid Treatment Costs

0.005

0.001

0.0005

2.

Hospital Costs

0.129

0.104

0.002

3.

Damage/Repair Costs

0.351

0.014

0.539

4.

Fine Costs

-

0.054

-

5.

Accident Report Costs

0.006

0.002

0.0001

6.

Replacement Costs

0.001

-

7.

Administration Costs

0.110

0.014

0.001

8.

Schedule Costs

0.003

0.016

-

9.

Productivity Loss Costs

0.127

0.149

0.393

10.

Ex-Gratia Costs

0.111

0.617

0.051

11.

Management Costs

0.021

0.029

0.002

12.

Corrective Action Costs

0.036

0.001

0.012

Sub Total

1.000

Stop Work Order Weightage

0.355

1.645

35.162

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 11

Table 5 reveals the weighted table for the weighted Location of the Body Injury. The cost

weightage was gathered from the cost incurred when the workers accident based on location of

body injury. The table shows that the neck is the highest weightage scale (weight=35.162).

While the lowest weightage scale is for injury to the lower limbs of the body (weight=0.234).

Previous research found that commonly working with the hands above shoulder height and

increased workloads on the shoulder and neck muscles were more frequent in workers with both

acute and chronic shoulder and neck pain.

This finding further reinforces the notion found in previous studies concerning the costs of

an accident incurred by the employer. Jallon et al. (2011b) revealed that the accident category

and the number of days lost are the factors that should be included in the calculation of indirect

accident costs. Similar findings have been observed in other studies (Tang et al., 2018; Forteza

et al., 2017; Ministry of Health Malaysia, 2017; Safe Work Australia, 2015) that revealed that

all these factors were significantly influential to in terms of the total accident costs (direct and

indirect costs).

Table 5. Weighted Location of Body Injury (W2α3) for Employer Costs

No.

Direct and Indirect Accident

Cost Components

Cost Categories (Location of Body Injury)

Head

Neck

Trunk

Upper

Limb

Lower

Limb

Multiple

Locations

General

Injuries

Weight

1.

First-Aid Treatment Costs

0.008

0.0005

0.002

0.017

0.010

0.007

0.0002

2.

Hospital Costs

0.084

0.002

0.188

0.306

0.276

0.544

0.002

3.

Damage/Repair Costs

0.022

0.539

0.010

0.153

-

0.638

4.

Fine Costs

0.110

-

5.

Accident Report Costs

0.003

0.0001

0.001

0.013

0.010

0.005

0.006

6.

Replacement Costs

0.008

-

7.

Administration Costs

0.042

0.001

0.019

0.145

0.151

0.109

0.134

8.

Schedule Costs

0.049

-

9.

Productivity Loss Costs

0.261

0.393

0.124

0.123

0.318

0.025

0.077

10.

Ex-Gratia Costs

0.236

0.051

0.626

-

0.009

-

11.

Management Costs

0.138

0.002

0.018

0.165

0.201

0.310

0.116

12.

Corrective Action Costs

0.038

0.012

0.013

0.77

0.025

-

0.026

Sub Total

1.000

Location of Body Injury Weightage

0.648

35.162

1.770

0.193

0.234

0.328

0.338

Shalini (2009) concluded that the number of days admitted in the hospital is related to the

severity of the accident in measuring the economic costs of an occupational accident.

Furthermore, Waehrer et al. (2007) described the costs of occupational injuries that were

presented as three influential factors, namely, the industry level, worker characteristics, and the

event of the injury.

However, these results can be contended by the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)

Calculator research, developed by the Department of Occupational Safety and Health. The OSH

calculator identifies a different factor that significantly affects the accident costs, which is the

zone (location of accident) factor (KLIACS JKKP, 2013). Nevertheless, this factor is not

suitable for this research due to the location of the projects being in the same zone, which is in

Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 12

c) Weighted Victim Costs (WVC)

Only one cost factor affects the weighted victim costs, i.e., the weighted Days of Medical

Leave. Table 6 shows details of the cost weightage for the weighted Days of Medical Leave.

The cost categories of the Days of Medical Leave are 0-3 days, 4-7 days, 8-14 days, 15-30 days,

and more than 30 days. The highest weightage scale is the days more than 30 days

(weight=10.494). While the lowest weightage scale (weight=0.024) for the Days of Medical

Leave is from 0-3 days. Therefore, the longer Days of Medical Leave affect the victim's costs.

Medical leave indicates the seriousness of the injuries. However, many of the workers did not

take medical leave at all. Taking medical leave might give them a bad image and employers

might not hire or pay them in the future.

This result is parallel to the study of Feng et al. (2015), where a longer period of absence of

the victim due to severe injuries may result in a higher indirect cost of the accident. Commonly,

a longer period of absence of the victim will affect the employer if the medical leave wages are

covered. However, based on the data collected from the safety personnel, most of the victims

injured on the MRT project were foreign workers. Due to this situation, the cost borne by the

foreign worker will increase whenever they are unable to work on site. Hence, the cost is

calculated based on the victim’s salary per day times the days of unpaid leave.

This finding is consistent with the findings of the final report prepared by the European

Commission, where the labour costs were estimated by the number of accidents, the number of

days lost, and the unit daily labour cost (European Commission, 2004). In addition, based on

the accident cost model developed by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) UK, the number

of days absent from work were included in the unit costs of workplace incidents report. The

report was used for appraisal of HSE interventions (HSE, 2013).

Whilst in Singapore, medical leave wages are not covered by the insurance policy, but by

the Work Injury Compensation Act under the Ministry of Manpower (MOM) Singapore (Feng

et al., 2015). Similarly, in Malaysia, the Social Security Organisation (SOCSO) only covers the

medical leave wages for the local labourers (KLIACS JKKP, 2013).

Table 6. Weighted Days of Medical Leave (W3α1) for Victim Costs

No.

Indirect Accident Cost

Components

Days of Medical Leave Cost Categories

0-3 days

4-7 days

8-14 days

15-30 days

>30 days

Weightage

1.

Cost Losses by the Victim

0.024

0.268

0.434

2.149

10.494

Simulation Process (Test Cases)

The simulation was conducted on a similar urban rail infrastructure project, which is the

Light Rail Transport Line Extension Project (LRT 2). This project was extended for the Ampang

and Kelana Jaya lines, which are in the Klang Valley. Four work package contractors (WPC),

namely AMG (Package A), AMG (Package B), KLJ (Package A) and KLJ (Package B) were

selected as samples for the simulation process. Other projects that were selected included the

MRT 2 (SSP Line) Projects. From the above projects, a total of 30 reportable accident cases,

which are Class 1 (Fatality), Class 2 (Permanent Disability), Class 3 (Temporary Disability),

and Class 8 (Dangerous Occurrence) were successfully identified.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 13

The information on the project background and the factors influencing the safety and health

costs were determined, which include the Construction Period of the project, the Types of

Accident Classification, the Days of Stop Work Order, Days of Hospital Admission, Days of

Medical Leave and Location of the Body Injury. Details regarding the data identified for the

simulation process are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Detailed Information for the LRT Line Extension Project and MRT2 (SSP Line) Project

Project Name

Construction

Period (Day)

Accident

Classification

Stop Work

Order (Day)

Hospital

Admission (Day)

Medical

Leave (Day)

Location of The

Body Injury

AMG (Package A)

27

Class 1

14

-

Trunk

AMG (Package B)

36

Class 2

3

9

Trunk

AMG (Package B)

36

Class 3

-

3

Lower Limb

AMG (Package B)

36

Class 8

4

-

No Injury

AMG (Package B)

36

Class 8

5

-

No Injury

AMG (Package B)

36

Class 8

-

No Injury

KLJ (Package A)

30

Class 3

-

Head

KLJ (Package A)

30

Class 8

-

No Injury

KLJ (Package A)

30

Class 8

-

No Injury

KLJ (Package A)

30

Class 8

-

No Injury

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 1

5

-

Head

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 1

78

-

Neck

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 2

2

7

30

Lower Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 2

2

7

30

Upper Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 3

2

6

20

Upper Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 3

1

2

62

Lower Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 3

1

-

10

Lower Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 3

2

6

20

Lower Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 3

2

7

30

Upper Limb

KLJ (Package B)

45

Class 3

1

-

4

Upper Limb

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 1

14

-

Trunk

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 8

-

No Injury

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 8

-

No Injury

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 8

-

No Injury

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 8

-

No Injury

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 8

-

No Injury

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 1

30

-

Head

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 1

30

4

Trunk

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 3

1

-

14

Upper Limb

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

53

Class 3

1

-

14

Upper Limb

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 14

Analysis of The Simulation Results

Table 8. Results of the Independent-Samples T-Test on the Proposed Safety and Health Costs Model

Project

Name

Actual Cost

(RM)

Simulation Cost

(RM)

Paired Differences

t

df

Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean

Std. Error

Difference

AMG (Package A)

20,997,309.00

9,782,176.73

.04603

.07760

.593

58

.555

AMG (Package B)

65,618,526.00

9,680,980.78

AMG (Package B)

65,604,555.00

9,653,429.89

AMG (Package B)

65,605,213.00

9,656,228.73

AMG (Package B)

65,743,345.00

9,656,228.73

AMG (Package B)

65,607,248.00

9,656,228.73

KLJ (Package A)

31,838,833.00

9,661,180.53

KLJ (Package A)

31,838,433.00

9,656,228.73

KLJ (Package A)

31,840,433.00

9,656,228.73

KLJ (Package A)

31,830,433.00

9,656,228.73

KLJ (Package B)

7,421,448.00

9,761,171.35

KLJ (Package B)

9,350,961.00

11,058,955.21

KLJ (Package B)

7,397,647.00

9,654,231.73

KLJ (Package B)

7,396,277.00

9,653,464.15

KLJ (Package B)

7,422,711.00

9,655,149.07

KLJ (Package B)

7,428,911.00

9,665,682.30

KLJ (Package B)

7,383,877.00

9,653,909.69

KLJ (Package B)

7,392,681.00

9,655,916.65

KLJ (Package B)

7,395,881.00

9,655,149.07

KLJ (Package B)

7,385,085.00

9,652,947.85

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

13,127,328.00

32,515,279.83

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

13,056,267.00

32,389,359.92

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

13,036,267.00

32,389,359.92

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

13,033,267.00

32,389,359.92

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

13,036,267.00

32,389,359.92

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

12,214,389.00

32,518,425.02

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

12,214,389.00

32,518,425.02

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

12,355,169.00

32,539,744.02

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

12,137,864.00

32,386,273.30

MRT 2 (SSP Line)

Project

12,137,369.00

32,386,273.30

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 15

Table 8 tabulates the accidents cost data run on the actual data of the safety and health costs

and the simulation of the safety and health costs from the proposed model. An independent

samples t-test was used to analyse the reliability of the formula. This test was considered after

the data were transformed to confirm the normality. There was strong evidence (t=0.593,

p=>0.50) that there is no significant difference between the actual safety and health costs and

the simulated safety and health costs. This finding further reinforced the notion that the proposed

Safety and Health Costs Formula (SaHeCF) is reliable for use by the industry as a calculator to

estimate the cost of safety and health from pre-construction up to the construction phase for

KVMRT projects specifically and for urban rail infrastructure projects generally.

CONCLUSION

This study has followed a rigorous research process by using multiple data collection.

However, there were limitations which were associated with limited scope of study. The

primary limitation is that the main surveys are only carried out for the MRT 1 (SBK Line) and

MRT 2 (SSP Line) Project. The study covered the viaduct/guideway package for both projects.

The surveys did not include other work packages due to the limitations of data, time, finances,

and resources. Further investigation needs to be done covering a bigger regional scale, covering

the whole of Malaysia is necessary as the findings could be further extended. The safety and

health costs formula development process are a significant contribution to the research. The

development of the safety and health costs formula is divided into three phases – planning phase

(safety and health costs input), conducting phase (safety and health costs process) and applying

phase (safety and health costs output). The research aims to develop a safety and health costs

formula for urban rail infrastructure projects The safety and health cost formulas cover the costs

incurred by the client, employer and victim. The client incurs the safety and health costs under

the prevention costs, while in the event of an accident, the costs are incurred by the employer

and victim. Moreover, the weightage system is aimed at making the score for each of the safety

and health cost components and categories quantitatively as an outcome of this research. The

cost weightage was obtained from the mean value for each cost component and category under

the prevention costs components and accident costs components. For the cost formula

verification, the simulation was carried out and analysed using an independent samples t-test

procedure. The purpose of the formula testing was to establish the reliability of the formula for

future use by industry stakeholders. The applicability of the safety and health costs formula

(SaHeCF) as a calculation model in estimating safety and health costs has generated a new

method that can be applied in the construction of urban rail infrastructure projects. It will help

the relevant stakeholders and related government agencies, such as the Department of Safety

and Health (DOSH) Malaysia, Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Corporation Sdn Bhd, Prasarana

Berhad, Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), Project Delivery Partner (PDP);

MMC-Gamuda KVMRT Sdn Bhd and MRCB-GK Sdn Bhd to apply a new safety and health

costs model for future urban rail infrastructure projects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank and acknowledge the fund support of research grant from MyRA

Research Grant (PhD Graduate) (Project code: 600-RMC/GPM LPHD 5/3 (061/2021))

funded by the Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 16

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 18

CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS EFFECTS ON

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF KENAF FIBRE

REINFORCED PULVERISED FUEL ASH CONCRETE

Norazura Mizal Azzmi1*, Jamaludin Mohd Yatim2, and Nazhatulzalkis Jamaludin1, Nadira

Ahzahar1, Zuraihana Ahmad Zawawi1 and Siti Zubaidah Hashim1

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Malaysia

2Department of Structures and Materials, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University Teknologi Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: noraz026@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

This study investigates the effect of the chemical environment on the mechanical

characteristics of pulverized kenaf fibrous fuel ash concrete with a volume percent of 0.75, with

a particular emphasis placed on the consequence of acidic, alkaline and sulfate solutions. The

study also explores the effect of compressive and flexural characteristics of composites and a

considerable reduction in each strength was seen; nevertheless, kenaf composites exhibited

greater strength stability. The weakening of the fibre/matrix interface caused by environmental

factors are identified using scanning electron microscopy (VPSEM). The increase in

mechanical performance over a prolonged period when exposed to various of environments

was attributed to the addition of 25% fly ash.

Keywords: Mechanical properties; kenaf fibre; strength; fly ash

INTRODUCTION

Green products are valuable alternatives for the mitigation of carbon footprint nowadays.

Concretes are the most common choice for construction materials in Malaysia due to the

availability of local resources for raw materials components, they are easier to handle and

cost-saving materials. Regardless of its popularity in materials selection, the conventional

mixture of cement, aggregate and water have profound impact to the greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions. Manufacturing of cement produces 7% of the global carbon dioxide (CO2)

emission (M.B. Ali, 2011). Thus, the increase the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere,

gradually lead to global warming and climate change issues. Bio-fibre concrete offers many

advantages as sustainable construction materials to combat carbon emissions. (Brabha H.N.,

2019; Mohammad H.B., 2020). Bio-fibres are extracted from natural resources like plants,

animals, and minerals (A. Vinod, 2020). Biofibres are organic materials and categorized into

plant fibre and animal fibre. These fibres function as reinforcement in the polymer matrices

and structural application. Numerous studies are carried out on biobased materials in concrete

mixture to enhance its diverse properties and promote green materials for construction

industries that are more energy and resource efficient (Mehta et al., 2002; Ana, 2019;

Soudabeh, 2020). Plant biofibre offers remarkable properties for low cost, low density,

considerable strength, and biodegradability that are friendly to the environment. Plant

cultivation are renewable resources with minimal impact on greenhouse gas emissions and

global warming (Mabrouk, 2017). On the other hand, the drawback of biofibre is the

deterioration of the fibre in the alkaline environment of ordinary Portland cement (OPC)

concrete (Jianqiang, 2017). There is continuous improvement on concrete mixture to develop

different properties and overcome the shortcomings. However, pre-treatment of fibre is the

effective solution to this problem, the modification of biofibre before using cementitious

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 19

materials will further assist to achieve sufficient bonding strength improving the composite

(Abbas et al., 2022). Therefore, this research aims to investigate the performance of kenaf

fibre reinforced pulverised fuel ash concrete compared to normal concrete as composite

material in building construction.

MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Materials

Kenaf is one of biofibre extracted from Kenaf plant stem which is extensively produced

as industrial raw materials for sustainable value. Kenaf bast is enriched with cellulose fibre,

which possesses a higher tensile strength compared to other cellulose fibres (Mnica Ardanuy,

2015). Its high-water absorbent capability has a substantial effect on the mechanical and

physical properties such as compressive and flexural behaviour, stress–strain responses, and

density (S. Gwon et al., 2022; Flávio de Andrade Silva, 2011). This includes the fresh state

properties like setting time, rheology, and heat of hydration (N. A. Johansen, 2009).

(Seongwoo Gwon, 2021). This study investigates the incorporation of kenaf fibre as a

strengthening component in concrete with the aim of enhancing its mechanical and physical

characteristics. In Figure 1(a), the visual representation displays the kenaf fibre, while Figure

1(b) illustrates the presence of kenaf fibre within hardened concrete, thereby assuming the

role of a binder for the coarse and fine aggregates that constitute the matrix composite.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. (a) KenafFibre and (b) Kenaf Fibre with Concrete

The absorption of water by Kenaf fibre is significantly influenced by its hydrophilic

characteristics, necessitating the implementation of appropriate treatment methods. The

previous study by Babatunde et al. (2018), investigated the efficacy of a chemical reaction in

the elimination of hydrogen bonding within the intricate network structures of cellulosic

fibres, thereby facilitating the removal of undesirable impurities such as dirt and lignin. A 5%

solution of sodium hydroxide was prepared by diluting it with distilled water. Subsequently,

the fibres were subjected to immersion in this solution for a duration of three hours,

maintaining the room temperature. This treatment aimed to effectively remove lignin, oil, and

dirt contaminants from the fibres. Subsequently, the fibrous material underwent a thorough

rinsing process with water, followed by complete immersion in water for a duration of 24

hours. Following the 24-hour duration, the liquid undergoes a transformation, manifesting a

brownish hue as a consequence of chemical reactions. Subsequently, the fibrous materials are

subjected to an additional rinsing process until the aforementioned coloration gradually

diminishes. In order to achieve optimal results, it is imperative to subject the fibre to a

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 20

desiccation process spanning approximately 48 to 72 hours, at ambient conditions, prior to its

subsequent division into segments measuring 25 millimetres in length.

The two types of binders were used in this study as shown in Table 1 are ASTM Type I

Portland cement conforming to ASTM C150 (OPC) and ASTM Class F. The pulverized fly

ash (PFA) was collected from Tanjung Bin Power Plant, Pontian, Johor conforming to ASTM

C618 Class F since the sum of SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 exceeds 70% which produces low

calcium content (Abubakar & Baharudin, 2012). Chemical composition of OPC and PFA

indicates the difference in the Calcium Oxide, Silicon Dioxide and Aluminium Oxide

composition. For comparison purposes, the following four mix proportions were adopted: (a)

OPC mixes as a control mix (b) OPC with kenaf fibre, KFC (c) cement paste with 25% fly

ash replacement (in mass percentage), PFAC (d) cement pastes with 25% fly ash replacement

(in mass percentage) with kenaf fibre, KFPC.

In the specimen preparation process, the raw materials were mechanically mixed and then

cast into steel mould with 100mm×100mm×100mm dimension for cube concrete and

100×100×500mm dimension timber moulds for prism concrete. After 24 hours, the specimens

were demoulded and cured in water for 28 days. Table 2 shows the mix proportions of KFC

and KFPC mixtures by SI unit weight per cubic metre (kg/m3). The method for producing

concrete mixes known as Concrete Mix Design (DOE) involves establishing the appropriate

ratios of cement, sand, and aggregates for the concrete mixture in order to achieve the required

level of concrete strength. Kenaf fibre 0.75% of volume fraction was selected as an optimum

value in this study compared to previous study using 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% volume fraction of

kenaf fibre (Azzmi & Yatim, 2018). Superplasticizers such as Rheobuild 1100 was selected

for this research because they have been shown to improve the workability of concrete. Figure

2 (a) depicts the sample of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), whereas Figure 2 (b) illustrates

the sample of Pulverised Fuel Ash Cement (PFA), which exhibits a darker colour compared

to the OPC.

Table 1. Chemical Composition of OPC and PFA

Oxide Composition

OPC

PFA

Calcium Oxide (CaO)

62.4

7.21

Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)

20.4

47.10

Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)

5.20

30.00

Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)

4.19

7.34

Magnesium Oxide (MgO)

1.55

1.52

Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)

2.11

0.49

Manganese Oxide (MnO)

0.15

-

Equivalent Alkalis (Na2O+0.658K2O)

0.14

2.09

Loss of ignition

2.36

2.19

Table 2. Concrete Mix Proportions

Constituent Material

(Kg/m3)

Ordinary

Portland Cement

Fly

Ash

Fine

Aggregate

Coarse

Aggregate

Water

Kenaf Fibre

0.75%

Super

Plastizer

Proportions OPC

463

-

800

867

250

-

4.63

Proportions PFAC

347.3

115.7

800

867

250

-

4.63

Proportions KFC

(Kenaf fibre +OPC)

463

-

800

867

250

9

4.63

Proportions KFPC

(Kenaf fibre+25% PFA)

347.3

115.7

800

867

250

9

4.63

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 21

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and (b) Pulverised Fuel Asih Cement (PFA)

Mix Proportions and Experimental Details

In this study, the samples of OPC, KFC, PFAC, and KFPC concrete were prepared for

three extreme environmental solutions. The mass loss of samples was measured after 90,180

and 365 days of curing in 2% acid sulphuric solution based on standard ASTM C1898-20

(2000), 5% sodium hydroxide solution adopted from ASTM C1202 (1997), and 10%

magnesium sulphate solutions from the standard in ASTM C1202 (2003). In this study,

several solutions conditions were utilized to simulate the impact of sulphate on concrete

samples in a harsh environment, as would occur in natural ground conditions. The initial

weight of the specimens and the weight of the specimens after immersion were measured to

determine the strength loss caused by sulphate deterioration. The average results of three

samples were considered for evaluation. All specimens were compared to specimens that had

been cured in water referred to the British Standard in 1881:Part lll: (1983).

Mechanical Properties Results

The deterioration of concrete specimens was investigated by evaluating the strength

distortion factor expressed in percentage was measured by days of immersion and was

calculated using the Equation below;

  

  (1)

Where:

SLF = Strength loss factor after immersion in acid sulphuric solution

Fcw = The average compressive strength of companion specimen cured in water

Fca = The average compressive strength of the specimen after immersion in acid sulphuric

solution.

The formula to determine the compressive strength of the immersion samples was

determined using the following formula in accordance with BSEN 12390-3:2009, and the

formula for determining the flexural strength of the immersion samples was determined using

the following formula in accordance with BSEN 12390-5:2009.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 22

Acidic Solution

Figure 3 illustrates that the compressive strength of all types of mixtures decreases when

the samples immersed in the acidic content. The compressive strength of companion concrete

specimens was subjected to a curing period of 365 days in water, in order to establish a

comparative analysis with specimens immersed in an acidic solution. The compressive

strength of concrete mixtures without fibre reinforcement, which include ordinary Portland

cement (OPC) and pulverized fuel ash cement (PFAC), exhibit a significant decline when

subjected to an acidic environment. The specimen underwent uniaxial stress, leading to

increased fracture in mixes of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and pulverized fuel ash cement

(PFAC). The samples experienced significant degradation of the C–S–H and O–H phases due

to the presence of sulfuric acid. KFC and KFPC had a lower compressive strength than OPC

and PFAC and were still higher than that of concrete mixtures containing fibres within. When

the concrete matrix was degraded and acid was attacked, the fibres of concrete held the

brittleness of the concrete together.

Figure 3. Compressive Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Sulphuric Acid for 365 Days

Figure 4. Strength Loss in Compressive Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Sulphuric Acid

for 365 Days

In Figure 4, the concrete flexural strength exhibits a comparable response to acid

immersion. The pozzolan effect of the blended fly ash in the concrete provides reasoning for

KFPC’s maximum strength after immersion in acid for 365 days. Concrete pores are occupied

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 23

by Ca(OH)2, which slows the acid attack's deterioration process. The durability of KFPC in

an acid attack is also attributed to the high tensile strength of kenaf fibre, which is likely in

normal conditions (Azzmi & Yatim, 2018; Azzmi et al., 2018; Reju & Jidxji Jacob, 2012).

The flexural strength of the specimens is shown in Figure 5, and it demonstrates a

decrease in the strength of all samples. After immersion, the KFPC samples have the

maximum strength with 4.10 Mpa, compared to the PFAC samples, which have 3.86 Mpa,

and the KPF samples, which have 3.03 Mpa. The OPC samples had the lowest strength of2.30

Mpa.

Figure 5. Flexural Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Sulphuric Acid After 365 Days

As shown in Figure 6, the flexural strength loss is essentially comparable for all concrete

combinations. Results with the lowest recorded number comes from the PFAC concrete

combination, which does not contain any fibre, followed by the KFC concrete mixture, which

contains both OPC and fibre. The OPC mixes show the largest loss of flexural strength, with

a value of 2.62. (Taha et al., 2015) KFPC concrete based on PFA and fibre has a strength of

2.26 after immersion and has the strongest compressive strength of all mixes. The results

indicated enhanced bending strength and that the KFPC could withstand a chemical reaction

triggered by sulfuric acid.

Figure 6. Strength Loss in Flexural Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Sulphuric Acid After

365 Days

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 24

The compressive strength of KFC and KFPC concrete mixes reduced after 365 days of

immersion in alkaline solution or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) compared to companion

concrete, as shown in Figure 7. The compressive strength of fibre-covered cube samples was

known to rise less than OPC and PFA concrete; however, immersion in alkaline increased

concrete performance. Prior to being used in the concrete composite, the fibre was treated

with NaOH solution, making it more compatible with the alkaline environment after three

hours of immersion during treatment. Adding PFA to concrete mixes also increased the

bonding of the fibre-matrix composite, which resulted in an improvement in the compressive

strength.

Figure 7. Strength Loss in Compressive Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Alkaline Solution

The loss of flexural strength, as illustrated in Figure 8, indicates that strength in the

flexural increases following immersion in an alkaline solution. The graph of four concrete

mixes depicts the increase in flexural strength in OPC, PFAC, and KPFC combinations.

Exposure to an alkali solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) resulted in the expected Alkali-

Silica Reaction (ASR) in this situation. Because of the increased alkalinity, the rate of PFA

pozzolanic reaction has increased, resulting in increased C-S-H production. This would

explain the increase in flexural strength as compared to when the material is typically cured

by water (Duraman ,2019). However, the alkaline action was incompatible with the strength

decrease in the KFC mixes due to fibre within.

Figure 8. Strength Loss in Flexural Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Alkaline Solution

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 25

Sulphate Solution

Figure 9 compares the strength loss of a companion specimen cured in water to the

strength loss of a specimen immersed in a magnesium sulphate solution. In contrast to the test

specimen, which was harmed by sulphate, curing in water at normal room temperature

benefited the companion specimens. At the end of a 365-day testing period, the strength of

concrete specimens immersed in sulphate solution is compared to the strength of companion

concrete cured in water. In the situation of strength loss, the difference in strength between

the companion specimen and those immersed in solution is considered.

Figure 9. Strength Loss in Compressive Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Sulphate Solution

Figure 10 demonstrates that the entire specimen experienced a loss of strength. On the

PFAC sample, the loss was seen to be greater than in the kenaf fibre and PFA cement samples.

For instance, a strength decreases of 19.8 was recorded for PFAC, 6.53 for KFC, and 3.28 for

KFPC specimens. The value of 7.35 indicates that the loss of OPC samples is greater than

that of KFC and KFPC samples. It is believed that immersion in sulphate solution for an

extended period contributed to the overall sample's loss of strength. The reaction of sulphate

ion leads to the formation of thaumasite and portlandite from the C-S-H phases (Bellmann &

Stark, 2007). The thaumasite content can be reduced by decreasing the calcium and silica

component of the concrete mixture. Due to the formation of ettringite and gypsum by OPC

specimens during the cement hardening process, the inclusion of pozzolana cement of fuel

ash prevented surface cracking and deterioration.

Figure 10. Strength Loss In Flexural Strength of All Concrete Mixtures Exposed to Sulphate

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 26

Figure 10 shows that the flexural strength of the OPC, KFC, and PFAC increases with

time. After 365 days, all of the mixtures gained strength because of the sulphate's activity.

The values were found to be greater in OPC and PFAC combinations devoid of fibres, while

KFPC specimens exhibited negligible SLFs. This research findings on flexural strength are

consistent with those of the prior study (Jena & Panigrahi, 2019; Okoye et al., 2016). In the

absence of fibres, PFA is seen to replace CH in the form of calcium silicate hydrate, rendering

CH inaccessible to sulphate, gypsum, and ettringite, hence decreasing specimen permeability

and preventing the sulphate ion from penetrating the concrete.

However, the addition of kenaf fibres that are incompatible with cement paste contributes

to the weakening of the material by creating gaps. When mineral mixtures are present in

cement, they significantly reduce C3A (dilution effect) and react with portlandite (CH) to

produce calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). They also exhibit increase in density and decrease

in permeability. Researchers discovered that when magnesium sulfate attacks, Mg+2 ions

drive the decalcification of C-S-H, resulting in Mg-S-H. Consequently, the presence of

portlandite (CH), which traps magnesium ions such as the mineral brucite, may be beneficial

(Bezzar, 2017).

MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS

Results in Acid Solution

PFAC concrete samples with fly ash but no fibre within decreased in size; however, the

concrete particles did not fall compared to OPC. The KFPC samples were seen to grow owing

to absorption while remaining in form, resulting in the outer layer of concrete peeling off. The

Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Micrograph (VPSEM) of KFPC in acid solution is

shown in Figure 11 (a). The samples were subjected to a high magnification of 100,000 times

in order to evaluate their surface structure. This was followed by a comprehensive analysis of

their composition. The fibre was added to increase the bridging effect of the KFPC fibre

matrix. However, after 365 days in an acid solution, the fibre swelled and deteriorated in a

specific area of the fibre. Despite this, KFPC was deemed a more durable material that uses

natural fibre and waste composite than standard concrete. The capacity of treated fibre in

composite was greater because the flexural strength did not decrease as much as regular

concrete.

(a) (b)

Figure 11. VPSEM of KFPC in Acid Solution

Kenaf Fibre

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 27

Figure 11 (b) displays VPSEM images of KFPC concrete samples following 365 days of

exposure to a severe sulphuric acid assault. When sulphuric acid solutions were applied to the

PFA matrix, gypsum production was reduced. When compared to PFA concrete, the OPC

samples produced more gypsum due to the higher concentration of Ca(OH2) present. The C-

S-H bonds were degraded, and different gypsums were produced as a consequence of the

chemical reaction between sulfuric acid and calcium. Furthermore, the SEM images showed

that the microstructure contained deposits of calcite (CaSO3) and white calcium salt (CaSO4)

as well as multiple layers of gypsum. (Charkhtab et al., 2021).

Results in Alkaline Solution

VPSEM was used to examine the performance of KFPC samples in an alkaline

environment of 5% NaOH for 365 days. Additionally, the fibre was treated with the same

solution to eliminate fibre impurities and improve its compatibility with concrete. Figure 12

shows that the flexural strength of the KFPC samples increased after immersion in sodium

hydroxide. As seen in Figure 10, the pores in the dense concrete created with KFPC were

previously filled with fly ash particles, and the porous concrete was filled with kenaf fibre.

The weight gain that occurred after immersion permits the fibre to rupture at various spots

throughout the samples.

Figure 12 (a and b) shows that the gypsum particles stick to the fibres, weakening the

interface between the fibres and the matrix, reducing the strength and load-bearing capacity

of the test specimens of concrete. It could be related to the growth of fragile crystals around

the fibres, which impeded the formation of a solid bond between the fibres and cement paste.

Gypsum and white sediments are produced when the C-S-H bonding dissolves, reducing the

density of concrete and resulting in mass loss, according to Charkhtab et al. (2021).

(a) (b)

Figure 12. VPSEM of KFPC in Alkaline Solution

Results in Sulphate Solution

As can be seen in Figure 13 (a), the VPSEM findings for KFPC concrete compositions of

PFA and fibre subjected to sulphate solutions are displayed. The VPSEM picture depicts how

specimens change in nature while immersed in sulphate. When exposed to sulphate, the OPC-

based concrete's spherical spaces progressively fill up with newly precipitated products. As

Fly Ash Particles

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 28

the pozzolanic action of PFA and subsequent development of additional hydration products

such as C-S-H gel took place in the PFA-containing mixes over time, there were less spaces

for freshly precipitated products because of exposure to sulphate in these combinations. As a

result, concrete specimens have shown improved strength and durability. Flexural strength

subsequent to immersion in sulphate exposure led to the formation of microcracks.

(a) (b)

Figure 13. VPSEM of KFPC in Sulphate Solution

Gaps were discovered in between the kenaf fibre and concrete matrix in Figure 13 (b).

When mineral mixtures are present in cement, they significantly reduce C3A (dilution effect)

and react with portlandite (CH) to produce calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). They increase in

density and decrease in permeability. When magnesium sulfate attacks, Mg+2 ions drive C-

S-H decalcification, resulting in Mg-S-H. Therefore, the presence of portlandite (CH), which

binds magnesium ions in the brucite mineral, may be useful.

CONCLUSION

The findings of the experimental study led to a few conclusions, which are as follows:

• The KFPC has strong resistance to acid attack in comparison to regular and PFA

concrete; nevertheless, the strength reduced as the time of immersion increased to 365

days.

• Subsequent to being immersed in alkaline solutions, the KFPC samples showed an

increase in their mechanical strength.

• According to the findings of the development of microcracks, the incorporation of

kenaf fibre into OPC and PFA did not result in an improvement in the performance of

the concrete when exposed to sulphate solution.

• The substance of the chemical assault on the concrete was validated by VPSEM

analysis subsequent to immersion. KFPC was able to withstand a harsh environment

because of its minimal strength loss after exposure.

• The capability of KFPC to exhibit flexural strength in both normal and aggressive

conditions demonstrates that this concrete composite exhibits exceptional mechanical

performance.

Gap Between

Fiber and Matrix

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 29

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express their special thanks to Universiti Teknologi MARA

(UiTM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and National Kenaf and Tobacco Board for

facilitating the research until completed.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 31

UNVEILING THE NATURE OF DEFECTS

OCCURRENCES IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

Najihah Rahimin1, Haryati Mohd Isa1,2*, Thuraiya Mohd3 and Nur Azfahani Ahmad4

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Perak, Malaysia

2Department of Quantity Surveying, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak

Branch, Perak, Malaysia

3Department of Real Estate Management, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA,

Perak Branch, Perak, Malaysia

4Department of Building Surveying, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak

Branch, Perak, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: harya966@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Construction defects are always of great concern in the industry because they cause delays

before handover and raise maintenance costs when buildings are occupied. Despite numerous

studies on the nature of defects occurring, it has been difficult to systematically review this

research problem due to the absence of review techniques, making it difficult for researchers

to replicate or interpret the results. Therefore, this study performs a systematic literature review

(SLR) on the nature of defects occurrences of construction defects in construction projects.

The review process included four key methodological steps, namely systematic searching

strategies based on identification, screening, and eligibility on several established databases

such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Emerald Insight, and Web of Science,

followed by data extraction and analysis. Four main themes were discovered based on the

types of construction defects: (1) architectural defects, (2) structural defects, (3) mechanical

defects, and (4) electrical defects. These four themes were divided into twenty-two sub-themes.

Lastly, four themes were discovered based on the causes of construction defects: (1) design

defects, (2) material defects, (3) workmanship defects, and (4) maintenance defects.

Keywords: Nature; defects; construction; projects

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, defects have become increasingly prevalent in the construction sector in

Malaysia (Alomari, 2022; Sellakutty et al., 2017). Even with new advancements in

construction technology, building defects persist. Indeed, it is the building's most frequent

issue in Malaysia (Hong (2016); Sambasivan & Soon (2007); Sravani & Chandgude, 2020).

These defects arise from various factors, including poor workmanship, construction materials,

and faulty design.

Nordin (2010) asserted that 53% of the designed and constructed public buildings, audited

from 2009 to 2010, are still undergoing preparations for delivery to the client due to defects.

These issues not only lead to cost overruns but also hinder the buildings to function correctly.

The National House Buyers Association (2023) reported that the majority of the defects issues

that occurred in residential projects in Malaysia range from complex structural issues, which

threaten the integrity of buildings, to simple items relating to aesthetics. Consequently, these

issues have a detrimental impact on the quality and life-cycle costs of the properties.

Jorgensen (2009) and Hassan et al. (2022) argued that most of the defects lack precise

documentation (Ilozor et al., 2004; Pheng & Wee, 2001). As a result, identical issues recur in

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 32

subsequent projects, even those undertaken by the same contractor, and the client is ultimately

responsible for fixing them at their own expense (Hassan et al., 2022). Sandanayake et al.

(2021) stated that minimising defects is a crucial yet challenging process. Identifying

significant gaps and trends in defect occurrences requires a range of procedural steps before

performing a systematic analysis and implementing an established framework (Lee et al.,

2020). Some defects led to the appearance of other defects. Thus, preventing the primary

defects can consequently avoid the appearance of many defects, as certain defects cause the

emergence of other defects. To prevent more defects from arising, it is crucial to identify the

causes of building defects at an early stage (Ilozor et al., 2004; Alomari, 2021; Borku, 2021).

Defect types, causes, and categories can be identified by meticulously tracking and

categorising defects. These significant findings can serve as lessons learned to assist the

project team in determining what went wrong, subsequently improving cost-efficiency as well

as quality (Wardhana & Hadipriono, 2003; Ilozor et al., 2004; Carillo, 2006; Le & Bronn,

2007).

Despite the abundance of available studies on construction defects (Atkinson, 1998;

Josephsen & Hammarlund, 1999; Pheng & Wee, 2001; Chong & Low, 2005; Sommerville,

2007; Zietsman, 2008), there has been limited research on defects in relation to work

discipline and their environs. Given this gap, the current research aims to conduct a systematic

literature review (SLR) focusing on the nature of defects occurrences in construction projects.

Through this approach, the authors' empirical evidence can be justified to identify the gaps

and guide the direction for future research in this field. In progressing the review, the authors

were guided by the main research question: What are the types, causes, and categories of

construction defects occur in construction projects?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Type of Construction Defects

The term 'defects' refers to shortcomings in design and construction practices or

inadequacies arising from normal wear and tear (Lambers et al., 2023; Alomari, 2021; Yacob

et al., 2019; Isa et al., 2011; Olanrewaju et al., 2010). Atkinson (2002) categorised defects

into two categories depending on when they first manifest. Physical or patent defects occur

when the building materials, the structure, or the project documents fall short of the standards

set by the contract, the law, or best practice. Process defects, on the other hand, emerge when

the construction process is performed in a way that results in an enormous loss of resources

or time compared to an optimal process. While hidden/latent defects are not visible and can

only be discovered during the occupancy stage, patent defects are readily apparent to be found

during the building inspection.

Chong and Low (2005) stated that accessing an occupied building can be challenging to

gather information on the defects' occurrence. This challenge arises because such information

is rarely disclosed to the public until it is severe enough to prompt complaints from the tenants

to the authorities. Hassan (2009) and Nordin (2010) revealed that the most defective elements

for the RMK9 projects are due to architectural defects. However, this is refuted by Amin

(2010), who claims that architectural components are more exposed than other components.

Thus, tenants are more likely to report architectural defects than mechanical defects.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 33

Hassan et al. (2022) stated that the most common types of defects occurring in buildings

in Malaysia include water seepage, cracks, and defects in finishes. Furthermore, Olanrewaju

et al. (2010) classified defects into three categories: very important defects, significant

defects, and minor defects. Examples of very important defects encompass flooding of the

property, cracking of a structural element, short-circuit of the electrical system, causing fire,

or leakage of the roof sheathing. Construction defects affect many viewpoints of a project and

can result in structural, legal, and financial consequences; rectifying them is essential. Impact

on construction time and cost, sustainability and productivity, customer satisfaction, defect

types and causes, implications for legal responsibility and prevention, and societal

repercussions are a few of the noteworthy and vital aspects of construction defects (Tayeb et

al., 2020; Koch and Schultz, 2019; Robert, 2016).

According to Gonzalez (2023) and Chris (2021), significant construction defects can

significantly affect a building's integrity, usability, and attractiveness. Such defects can

include, for example, mechanical issues, electrical problems, inadequate thermal and moisture

protection, structural integrity issues like unstable foundations, the concrete and masonry

division, and carpentry. Additionally, water intrusion causes property damage and toxic

mould exposure, design errors like poorly planned roofs resulting in water penetration, poor

drainage, or inadequate structural support, material defects like failure due to defective or

damaged building materials, and defects in construction like poor drainage and waterproofing.

On the other hand, defects that are visible and simply identified during construction, with

clear team responsibility and low cost of correction, may be considered minor construction

defects. Undersized beams, paint coating applications, and inadequately reinforced concrete

are a few instances of minor defects in construction (Gonzalez, 2023; Chris, 2021).

Causes of Construction Defects

Josephson (1999) believes that the causes of the faults can be avoided or remedied to

prevent their reoccurrence. Nevertheless, the industry has taken a while to acknowledge the

defects issue. Understanding the factors contributing to building defects is crucial for

understanding the triggered issues. Hanafi et al. (2018) noted that diverse processes can lead

to and have an impact on building defects. In general, mechanical agents, biological agents,

chemical agents, and natural disasters are the primary culprits of flaws in a building brought

on by defective agents.

The causes of construction defects in Malaysia vary and can be attributed to several

factors (Tayeb et al., 2020) and (Hassan et al., 2022). Among the identified factors are

shortage of budget, insufficient design, poor workmanship, inadequate maintenance,

inadequate contractor, poor site management, wrong method of construction, poor quality

materials, human errors, and work processes. Conversely, poor workmanship, subpar

construction materials, insufficient supervision and management, design mistakes, land

movement, and materials that do not meet the required standards are among the prevalent

triggers for construction defects Tayeb et al. (2020).

Bakri & Mydin (2014) and Khan et al. (2021) stated that wall cracks are the primary cause

of most structural defects due to overload and building settlement. Moreover, Borku (2020)

claimed that poor building practices, poor construction methods, inadequate workmanship, or

insufficient site supervision probably instigated defects occurrences. Khan et al. (2021) noted

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 34

that natural disasters and the defects they cause are unpredictable, potentially resulting in

structural damage ranging from minor cracks to collapse. Thus, it is crucial to concentrate on

the root causes of faults at various stages of a building project (Khan et al., 2021).

Categories of Construction Defects

Isa et al. (2014) categorised defects into ten categories, namely workmanship, design,

maintenance, lack of protection, material, documentation, nature, vandalism, mishandling by

users, and wear and tear.

Table 1. Categories of Defects

Defects Category

Description

Workmanship

Improper joints, improper handling of the components and improper installation

Design

Poor decisions in design i.e., specification of materials, layout and integration

between different materials and systems

Maintenance

Materials systems that are not maintained properly or non-existent during occupancy

of the building

Lack of protection

Deficiencies in the construction process that result in inadequate protection against

various elements, leading to defects in the building project

Material

Poor material quality

Documentation

Wrong or incomplete specification

Nature

Due to unpredictable nature

Vandalism

Due to deliberate destruction

Mishandling by users’

Due to human error

Wear and tear

Gradual damage upon daily usage of an item over time

(Source: Isa et al., 2014)

Workmanship faults include those that result from improper handling, improper

installation, improper material mixing, and improper joints or gaps, which the contractors

typically cause. Meanwhile, poor design decisions made by the designers are due to design

defects. Next, maintenance defects involve material systems that require adequate

maintenance or are non-existent during the building occupancy period. Then, lack of

protection defects results from inadequate protection being provided or poor/non-

maintenance of the equipment. The use of low-quality materials in the project results in

material defects by the designers or contractors. The next defect category is documentation

defects, which occur due to incorrect or incomplete specifications during the pre-contract or

construction stage. In addition, unpredictable nature and deliberate destruction contribute to

natural defects and vandalism defects. Finally, wear and tear defects occur due to gradual

damage upon daily usage of an item over time.

Hanafi et al. (2018) categorised construction defects into two types, namely structure and

non-structure. Structure defects are defined as physical damage to the designated load-bearing

elements of the building caused by the failure of load-bearing elements to the extent that the

building becomes risky to the occupants. Non-structural defects exist in building components

such as roofs, walls, columns, beams, windows, doors, floors, stairs, and apron. However, it

does not involve safety, yet it must be restored to maximise the building's functionality

(Suffian, 2013) and (Hanafi et al., 2018). In addition, Lee et al. (2018) added that there are

eight different types of faults, including poor work performance, water problems, surface

concerns, abrasion, separation, inappropriate fitting, missing mission, and cracked.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 35

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SLR was utilised to identify the types, causes, and categories of construction defects. SLR

utilises systematic, transparent, and reproducible methods at each level of the procedure to

locate and compile all pertinent research (Higgins et al., 2011) and (Shaffril et al., 2021). It is

a method for synthesising scientific data to address a specific research issue in a clear,

repeatable manner while attempting to incorporate all published data on the subject and

evaluating the quality of this data (Petticrew, 2001; Liberati et al., 2009; Lame, 2019).

Figure 1 shows the flow diagram of the study in the systematic searching strategies

process, namely identification, screening, eligibility and exclusion, and data abstraction.

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Figure 1. The Flow Diagram of The Study

Phase 1: Identification of Literature

Identification of literature is a method to search for any potential synonyms, associated

terms, and variations for the research's main keywords, which include the type of defects,

causes of defects, and categories of defects. It aims to provide the selected database with more

options for discovering additional relevant articles for the review. Shaffril et al. (2021)

claimed that the identification process involved using a thesaurus online, keywords from

previous research, keywords from Scopus, and expert suggestions.

Identification

Records retrieved using databases (Scopus, Google Scholar, Web of Science,

Science Direct and Emerald Insight) (n= 863)

The search was based on keywords such as construction, building, structure, defect,

flaw, fault, deformity, residential, urban, housing, home, project, plan, design, type,

kind, class, cause, root, category and class.

Records duplicates

were excluded (n=8)

Screening

Eligibility

Data

Abstraction

Full-text articles

assessed for eligibility

(n=53)

Study included in

qualitative synthesis

(n=18)

Records screening

(n=295)

Records excluded due to published in a form of a

review article; chapter in a book; a book,

conference proceedings; non-English publishes in

2014 and earlier (n=78)

Full text articles excluded, with reasons (n=30)

(excluded due to did not focus on nature of

defects occurrences.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 36

Wijewickrama et al. (2021) mentioned that related words, such as synonyms, related

terms, and variations of the main keywords, were searched to obtain a thorough reading of

the existing literature. On the five major databases, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science,

Emerald Insight, and Google Scholar. The use of Boolean operators, phrase searching,

truncation, wild cards, and field code functions enable the authors to construct on the existing

keywords and produce comprehensive search strings. Table 2 provides information on how

to search these five databases: Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Emerald Insight, and

Google Scholar, resulting in a total of 863 for the nature of construction defects.

Table 2. Search String 1-Nature of Construction Defects

Database

Keywords

Scopus

TITLE-ABS-KEY (((“construction” OR “building” OR “structure” AND “defect” OR “flaw” OR

“fault” OR “deformity” AND “residential” OR “urban” OR “housing” OR “home” AND “project”

OR “plan” OR “design” AND “type” OR “kind” OR “class" AND “cause” OR “root” OR

“source" AND “category” OR “class” OR “classification”)))

ScienceDirect

TS = KEY (((“construction” OR “building” OR “structure” AND “defect” OR “flaw” OR “fault”

OR “deformity” AND “residential” OR “urban” OR “housing” OR “home” AND “project” OR

“plan” OR “design” AND “type” OR “kind” OR “class" AND “cause” OR “root” OR “source"

AND “category” OR “class” OR “classification”)))

Web of Science

TS = KEY (((“construction” OR “building” OR “structure” AND “defect” OR “flaw” OR “fault”

OR “deformity” AND “residential” OR “urban” OR “housing” OR “home” AND “project” OR

“plan” OR “design” AND “type” OR “kind” OR “class" AND “cause” OR “root” OR “source"

AND “category” OR “class” OR “classification”)))

Emerald Insight

TITLE-ABS-KEY (((“construction” OR “building” OR “structure” AND “defect” OR “flaw” OR

“fault” OR “deformity” AND “residential” OR “urban” OR “housing” OR “home” AND “project”

OR “plan” OR “design” AND “type” OR “kind” OR “class" AND “cause” OR “root” OR

“source" AND “category” OR “class” OR “classification”)))

Google Scholar

TS (((“construction” OR “building” OR “structure” AND “defect” OR “flaw” OR “fault” OR

“deformity” AND “residential” OR “urban” OR “housing” OR “home” AND “project” OR “plan”

OR “design” AND “type” OR “kind” OR “class" AND “cause” OR “root” OR “source" AND

“category” OR “class” OR “classification”)))

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Table 2 shows the search string for the nature of construction defects from the five

database search engines. English-published articles were searched by including the keywords

in their titles or abstracts: ("construction" OR "building" OR "structure" AND "defect" OR

"flaw" OR "fault" OR "deformity" AND "residential" OR "urban" OR "housing" OR "home"

AND "project" OR "plan" OR "design" AND "type" OR "kind" OR "class").

Phase 2: Screening of The Identified Literature

This phase focuses on automatically screening articles based on the appropriate criteria

using the database's sorting function. The screening procedure is designed to remove any

duplicate, irrelevant, and non-English articles. By using these particular databases as a search

engine, only articles from the timeline between 2014 and 2023 were selected as one of the

inclusion criteria. In this phase, 53 were reviewed, and only 18 were found to be eligible for

this nature of construction defects paper's review.

Phase 3: Eligibility and Exclusion

In this third process, the author will manually check the retrieved articles to ensure they

satisfy the requirements. The initial stage in this approach entailed reading the titles and

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 37

abstracts of the articles. After a thorough analysis, only 18 papers were selected for the SLR.

The content of another study proved to be unrelated to the paper's objective.

Phase 4: Data Abstraction

The final phase was the data abstraction. Figure 1 shows the flow diagram of the study

before the data abstraction phase based on the data from the 18 selected literature.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The data from the literature was analysed and summarised in Table 3 to Table 5. The data

abstraction is about the nature of construction defects, where the nature of construction defects

refers to the types, causes, and categories of construction defects that occurred.

Background of The Selected Studies

From the 18 articles, a total of five papers focused their studies in Malaysia (Olanrewaju

et al., 2022; Dzulkifli et al., 2022; Talib, R. B. et al., 2021; Abdul-R. et al., 2014 and Sulieman

M. et al., 2014) Next, three papers in South Korea (Lee S. et al., 2018; Park, J. et al., 2020

and Lee et al., 2020) also two papers in Australia (Cardellicchio et al., 2021 and Sandanayake

et al., 2022). Then, two papers in the United States (Vandemark et al., 2020 and Aljassmi H

et al., 2014). Meanwhile, one paper from the United Kingdom (Hopkin T. et al., 2019), Spain

(Serrano et al., 2020), Indonesia (Pamungkas et al., 2021), Uzbekistan (Khotamov et al.,

2023), Turkey (Cogurcu M., 2015) and Sweden (Zalejska et al., 2019).

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Figure 2. Countries Where the Selected Studies Were Conducted

For publication, it is found that three articles were published in 2014 (Aljassmi H. et al.,

2014; Sulieman M. et al., 2014 and Abdul-R. et al., 2014), each article in the year 2015 and

year 2018 (Cogurcu M., 2015) and (Lee S. et al., 2018). Two articles were published in 2019

(Zalejska et al., 2019 and Hopkin T. et al., 2019), four articles in 2020 (Park J. et al., 2020;

Lee et al., 2020; Serrano et al., 2020 and Vandemark et al., 2020). Then, every three articles

published in year 2021 and year 2022 (Pamungkas et al., 2021; Talib, R. B. et al., 2021 and

Cardellicchio et al., 2021) and (Olanrewaju et al., 2022; Sandanayake et al., 2022 and

Dzulkifli et al., 2022). Lastly, only one article published in the year 2023 which is (Khotamov

et al., 2023).

5

1

2

3

1

Malaysia

Sweden

Uzbekistan

Australia

United States

South Korea

Indonesia

Spain

United Kingdom

Turkey

No of countries

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 38

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Figure 3. Publication Years of Selected Studies

Type of Construction Defects

Table 3 shows the types of construction defects that have been abstracted from the

literature obtained.

Table 3. Types of Construction Defects

Type of Construction Defects

Khotamov et al., 2023

Olanrewaju et al., 2022

Sandanayake et al., 2022

Dzulkifli et al., 2022

Pamungkas et al., 2021

Talib, R. B et al., 2021

Cardellicchio et al., 2021

Park, J et al., 2020

Lee et al., 2020

Serrano et al., 2020

Vandemark et al., 2020

Zalejska et al., 2019

Hopkin T et al., 2019

Lee S et al., 2018

Cogurcu M 2015

Aljassmi H et al., 2014

Sulieman M et al., 2014

Abdul-R et al., 2014

Architectural Defects

Non-structural cracks in finishes

✓

Stains

✓

Discolouration of paints

✓

Detachment

✓

Leakage

✓

Peeling paint

✓

Incomplete work

✓

Structural Defects

Cracks

✓

Spalling

✓

Corrosion

✓

Water leakage

✓

Damp

✓

Poor drainage

✓

Mechanical Defects

✓

Defective mechanical component

✓

Excessive noise

✓

1

3

4

2

1

3

Year 2023

Year 2022

Year 2021

Year 2020

Year 2019

Year 2018

Year 2015

Year 2014

Publication years

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 39

Type of Construction Defects

Khotamov et al., 2023

Olanrewaju et al., 2022

Sandanayake et al., 2022

Dzulkifli et al., 2022

Pamungkas et al., 2021

Talib, R. B et al., 2021

Cardellicchio et al., 2021

Park, J et al., 2020

Lee et al., 2020

Serrano et al., 2020

Vandemark et al., 2020

Zalejska et al., 2019

Hopkin T et al., 2019

Lee S et al., 2018

Cogurcu M 2015

Aljassmi H et al., 2014

Sulieman M et al., 2014

Abdul-R et al., 2014

Malfunctioning

✓

Loose

✓

Water supply system failure

✓

Faulty fixtures

✓

Electrical Defects

✓

System breakdown

✓

Electrical Sparks/Shocks

✓

Supply stoppage

✓

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Figure 4. Types of Defects

These types of defects are classified into four elements, namely architectural, structural,

mechanical, and electrical. It is supported by Chong and Low (2015), who state that defects

can divided into work disciplines such as architectural, structural, mechanical, electrical, and

biomedical, depending on the type of project. Architectural is highlighted as the most

defective element with 41% defects occurrence, followed by 39% structural defects and 14%

mechanical defects. Electrical defects are the least defective element with only 6% defects

occurrence. Architectural defects encompass issues that occur on walls, floor and finishes,

doors and fittings, windows and fittings, ceiling finishes, staircase, and roof. Cracks that

appear or penetrate structural elements of buildings, such as beams, are called structural

defects.

Mechanical defects occurred at elements of infrastructure, plant and machinery, tools and

components, and heating and ventilation. In comparison, electrical defects are defects that

occur in electrical systems, such as power supply and distribution, telecommunications,

computing instrumentation, control systems, and others.

41% 39%

14%

6%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

Type of defects

Frequnecy of Defects

Types of Defects

Architectural

Structural

Mechanical

Electrical

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 40

Causes of Construction Defects

Table 4 shows the causes of construction defects abstracted from the literature obtained.

Construction defects can result from a singular root cause with the greatest impact on

generating the construction defects or by combining many causes. Existing research that

attempts to prevent defects by analysing the relationship between root causes and failure

causes has provided insight that effective quality control performance can be achieved on

construction sites.

Table 4. Causes of Construction Defects

Causes of Construction Defects

Khotamov et al., 2023

Olanrewaju et al., 2022

Sandanayake et al., 2022

Dzulkifli et al., 2022

Talib, R. B et al., 2021

Cardellicchio et al., 2021

Park, J et al., 2020

Lee et al., 2020

Serrano et al., 2020

Vandemark et al., 2020

Zalejska et al., 2019

Hopkin T et al., 2019

Lee S et al., 2018

Cogurcu M 2015

Aljassmi H et al., 2014

Sulieman M et al., 2014

Abdul-Rahman et al., 2014

Design Defects

Design failure

✓

Overload

✓

Unwritten details in the specification

✓

Inappropriate method

✓

Material Defects

Poor material quality

✓

Inappropriate material

✓

Workmanship Defects

Poor quality managers

✓

Insufficient inspection

✓

Poor installation

✓

Poor quality of construction work

✓

Lack of proper control of construction processes

✓

Participation of incompetent specialist

✓

Maintenance Defects

Lack of routine maintenance

✓

Lack of knowledge and expertise on maintenance

aspects

✓

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Various causes of construction defects are established in the literature. From the above

table, four themes of causes of construction defects occurrence are categorised: design

defects, material defects, workmanship defects, and maintenance defects.

Hanafi et al. (2018) stated that building defects are caused by different processes and are

affected by several factors. The workmanship defect theme has more subjects than the other

two themes. Design failure contributed the most significant frequency of 10, while unwritten

details in specification contributed to the most minor frequency. Regarding materials defects,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 41

there are only two subjects: poor material quality with a frequency of 9 and inappropriate

material with a frequency of 7.

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Figure 5. Causes of Construction Defects

Lastly, poor quality of construction work has the largest frequency for workmanship

defects on the causes of construction defects. Lack of proper control of construction processes

and participation of incompetent specialists have the least frequency with only a frequency of

1. Several elements, some readily apparent to the human eye and others acutely undiscovered

within the building, are believed to contribute to structural defects (Alomari, 2022; Amin,

2010). Some construction flaws that directly impact a structure's performance can result from

poor design or construction. Additionally, poor architectural design, inadequate

manufacturing, the use of inferior materials or equipment, and a failure to adhere to plans and

specifications can all result in construction defects (Summerlin & Ogborn, 2006; Alomari,

2022).

Categories of Construction Defects

Table 5 shows the 11 categories of construction defects which have been abstracted from

the literature obtained. Workmanship flaws include errors in handling, installation, mixing of

materials, and failing to provide adequate joints or gaps. Meanwhile, design flaws result from

the designers' bad design choices. Contractors typically bring on these flaws. The use of low-

quality materials in the project can result in material defects, and these defects may be

attributed to either the designers or the contractor. Lack of protection flaws are those that

result from inadequate protection being provided, and poor maintenance or non-maintenance

of equipment or services come under this category. Additional six categories of faults are

included, including documentation defects, manufacturing defects, nature defects, vandalism

defects, user misuse, and wear-and-tear defects.

10

212

9

7

2 2

4

7

1 1

3 3

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Causes of construction defects

Causes of Construction Defects

Design failure Overload

Unwritten details in the specification Inappropriate method

Poor material quality Inappropriate material

Poor quality managers Insufficient inspection

Poor installation Poor quality of construction works

Lack of proper control of construction processes Participation of incompetent specialist

Lack of routine maintenance Lack of knowledge and expertise on maintenance aspects

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 42

Table 5. Categories of Construction Defects

Categories of Construction Defects

Khotamov et al., 2023

Olanrewaju et al., 2022

Sandanayake et al., 2022

Dzulkifli et al., 2022

Talib, R. B et al., 2021

Cardellicchio et al., 2021

Park, J et al., 2020

Lee et al., 2020

Serrano et al., 2020

Vandemark et al., 2020

Zalejska et al., 2019

Hopkin T et al., 2019

Lee S et al., 2018

Cogurcu M 2015

Aljassmi H et al., 2014

Sulieman M et al., 2014

Abdul-Rahman et al., 2014

Workmanship defects

✓

Design defects

✓

Maintenance defects

✓

Factory defects

✓

Lack of protection defects

✓

Material defects

✓

Documentation defects

✓

Nature defects

✓

Vandalism defects

✓

Mishandling by users’ defects

✓

Wear & tear defects

✓

(Source: Researchers’ Findings, 2023)

Figure 6. Categories of Construction Defects

Based on Figure 6, design defects have the most significant percentage of categories of

construction defects, with 24%. Many researchers from previous studies agreed that design

defects contribute to the most significant construction defects. Documentation defects, on the

other hand, have the lowest percentage, only 2%, among the categories of construction

defects. In contrast, workmanship defects and material defects followed with the second

largest percentage with 22% and 20%. These categories of defects have been mentioned by

22%

24%

4%

6%

4%

20%

2%

4% 4%

2%

6%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

Categories of construction defects

Categories of Construction Defects

Workmanship defects

Design defects

Maintenance defects

Factory defects

Lack of protection defects

Material defects

Documentation defects

Nature defects

Vandalism defects

Mishandling by users’ defects

Wear & tear defects

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 43

Isa et al. (2014) and Lee et al. (2018) in their research, in which Isa et al. (2014) categorised

defects into five main categories of defects.

CONCLUSION

Since it is virtually always possible to predict when defects in construction projects will

occur, more effort must be put into improving all parties involved, especially the professional

team, to reduce the probability of defects. The current study has systematically reviewed

earlier research on the nature of defects. This method allows for the discovery of gaps and

presents chances for further research by challenging any claims of rigour in some of these

studies. In this study, employing an SLR approach, 18 articles were appraised for their quality.

There are four themes in the types of defects, namely architectural defects, structural defects,

mechanical defects, and electrical defects. Furthermore, there are three themes for causes of

defects, namely design defects, material defects, and workmanship defects. Eleven categories

of defects are workmanship, design, maintenance, factory, lack of protection, material,

documentation defects, nature, vandalism, mishandling by users' and wear and tear.

With the discovery of this nature of construction defects, the parties concerned can use

this data to prevent construction defects from occurring in the future. The Malaysian

construction industry is still concerned with defects issues. Responsible parties like building

surveyors prevent the signs of flaws that frequently appear in residential projects. They must

first determine the types, causes, and classifications of defects. From here, the project team

will be able to determine acceptable solutions to defects problems. Proactive and thorough

awareness of the nature of defects is also necessary to efficiently manage building problems.

As a result, future initiatives can avoid having the same problems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The researchers would like to thank Universiti Teknologi MARA for providing the

necessary support to enable the successful implementation of this research.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 47

OPERATIONAL SAFETY COMPLIANCE DURING THE

OPERATIONAL AND MAINTENANCE PHASE OF

CONSTRUCTED PETROL STATIONS

Mazlina Zaira Mohammad1*, Hafizuddin Zubir2, Nor Syamimi Samsudin3, Natasha Khalil3 and

Azman Zainonabidin3,4

1School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) 40450, Shah

Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA

2Octagon Maju Holding Sdn Bhd, No.9, Industrial Park, Jalan Sutera 1/5A, Bukit Angkat, 43000

Kajang, Selangor, MALAYSIA

3Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak, MALAYSIA.

4Arkitek Azman Zainonabidin,19A, Persiaran Dataran 2, Bandar Seri Iskandar,32610 Seri Iskandar,

Perak MALAYSIA

*Corresponding Email: mazlinazaira@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

The improvement of management employer and safety management system commitment and

awareness in workplace safety and health, the decrease in injuries and potentially dangerous

incidents, and the improvement in working environment will influence employees to comply

with safety rules in operational and maintenance phase of petrol station industry. Yet, it was

shown that human behaviour is what contributes to building accidents the most. Therefore, the

purpose of this study to compare between the five Behaviour base safety (BBS) elements

affecting the safe working environment and to determine the efficient approach of each BBS

element has been practice in the petrol station industry. This research utilised a quantitative

method, and weighting priority placed based on collected data. Based on the elements of BBS

surveyed respondents have high safety compliance and work safely during operational and

maintenance phase. The outcomes of this study show the differences between among element

of BBS, including which element of BSS was the most efficient approach and effective factor

affecting based behaviour safety or safety performance in the workplace. In a conclusion, this

study shows that BBS elements namely a safety management system, management

commitment, safe behaviour, co-worker influence, and employee engagement can help

improve the level of compliance with safety regulations among employees.

Keywords: Behaviour base safety; Department of Occupational Safety and Health; Occupational

Safety and Health Act (OSHA); Relative Importance Index

INTRODUCTION

The construction industry in Malaysia significantly contributes to the nation's economic

growth. Safety in the workplace is a paramount concern, especially in the construction sector.

Enhancing safety has become a top priority due to the inherent high-risk work and hazards

associated with construction projects. The safety and well-being of employees are of utmost

importance to ensure their productivity and prevent accidents. Construction industry

accidents, whether involving workers or employers, can have severe consequences, including

physical or mental impairments, and can also impose a substantial financial burden on

construction budgets. This issue underscores the significance of employee behavior and

compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act (1994) (OSHA) in shaping the safety

culture and reducing accidents(Abdullah et al., 2016). The Occupational Safety and Health

Act (1994) aims to instill a culture of safety and health among all employees and employers

in Malaysia.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 48

Notably, human behavior plays a pivotal role in construction accidents. Hence, it is the

responsibility of employees to adopt a comprehensive approach focusing on both the physical

working environment and the behavioral aspects, attitudes, and beliefs of employees, all of

which influence safety behaviors and ultimately compliance (Zin and Ismail, 2012). To effect

a paradigm shift in the construction industry towards safety improvement, Salem et al. (2007)

advocate the Behavioral-Based Safety (BBS) approach as the most effective program. BBS

draws upon the principles of behavioral science, as conceptualized by Skinner (Geller, 2005).

and leverages psychological insights to reduce workplace accidents and injuries. It centers on

understanding individual actions, analysing the motivations behind these actions, and

applying preventive measures to enhance specific behavioral processes (Geller, 2005).

In the contemporary context, the safety and health of employer’s are intertwined, and

insecure workplaces heighten the risk of accidents and injuries, which can detrimentally

impact health. The BBS approach stands out as an effective strategy for mitigating unwanted

incidents in the workplace, with the core assertion that the human factor predominantly

contributes to accidents and injuries (Geller, 2005).

Numerous research studies have explored BBS in the construction industry, addressing

various elements and approaches affecting safety culture. As considered by Samsudin et al.,

2023, in construction industry has been classify into four main phases which are design

planning, construction, operational and maintenance, demolition or renovation.

Consequently, the data are extensive and often challenging to synthesize. This study aims to

pinpoint key elements of BBS that can enhance compliance with safety regulations among

employees. Specifically, the study delves into the elements of safety management systems,

management commitment, safe behaviors, peer influence, and employer engagement. The

overarching goal is to discern the differences in how these five BBS elements impact the

safety environment in the petrol station industry during both operational and maintenance

phase. Furthermore, this research endeavors to determine the most efficient approach for each

BBS element practiced in the petrol station industry and ultimately recommend the most

effective BBS elements for implementation during operational and maintenance phase.

This study's objectives are geared towards understanding which BBS elements contribute

to an efficient approach and heightened compliance with safety regulations in the petrol

station industry. By identifying these crucial elements, improvements can be made to elevate

the overall level of safety compliance in the industry, benefiting not only the sector as a whole

but also individual employees.

An Overview During Operational and Maintenance Phase in Petrol Station

Industry

The construction industry is a significant driver of development and economic growth in

countries, including Malaysia (Samsudin et al., 2022). A nation's progress is reflected in the

construction of essential infrastructure and physical facilities, making the construction

industry intricately linked with a country's economic development. Within this sector,

workplace safety emerges as a paramount concern, particularly due to the high-risk nature of

construction work and associated hazards (Samsudin et al., 2023). Enhancing safety has

become a priority, as the construction industry is inherently exposed to precarious working

conditions.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 49

The annual construction of new petrol stations is a common practice across Malaysia,

driven by the budget allocation of various clients, including industry giants such as Petron,

Shell, Petronas, BHPetrol, and Caltex. Over the past decades, the petrol station industry in

Malaysia has experienced significant growth, with multiple companies entering the market

and competing fiercely to establish new stations. Notably, Shell and Petron have set ambitious

targets to build approximately 1000 petrol stations in Malaysia. Despite the immense growth

opportunities, safety concerns are shared across the industry, as constructing and maintaining

petrol stations pose similar high-risk challenges. These include exposure to gas and vapor

from petrol or diesel, live electrical components, traffic management, confined space work,

and elevated work, among other hazards. Furthermore, each client has specific safety

regulations, necessitating consultants and contractors to attend safety training sessions

organized by their respective clients.

Accidents in the construction sector, whether involving employees or employers, can

have severe consequences, such as debilitating injuries that restrict physical or mental

functions, or even fatalities. These incidents can place a considerable financial burden on

construction budgets. The presence of this problem underscores the importance of employees'

behavior and their compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act (1994) (OSHA)

in shaping the safety culture and reducing accidents (Abdullah et al., 2016). The primary

objective of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (1994) is to cultivate a safe and healthy

work culture among all employees and employers in Malaysia (DOSH, 1994). The act

emphasizes self-compliance as a fundamental concept, rooted in the responsibility of ensuring

the safety, health, and welfare of all employees in the workplace (Samsudin, Khalil and

Zainonabidin, 2022). The introduction of a culture of safety at work represents a systematic

approach toward achieving accident-free workplaces.

In particular, the roles of employers and employees with commendable safety behavior

are pivotal in ensuring compliance with safety regulations in the construction sector and

fostering occupational safety and health improvements (Zin and Ismail, 2012). The literature

highlights several common reasons provided by employers for non-compliance, including a

lack of awareness of OSHA 1994, limited time for addressing occupational safety and health

issues, insufficient resource allocation for occupational safety and health, underestimating the

importance of OSH, and a misplaced belief in the "accidents will not occur to me" syndrome.

Conversely, employees' non-compliance is often attributed to factors such as limited

knowledge of safety and health laws, challenges in adhering to OSH rules and regulations,

frustration with compliance, and a similar "accidents would not occur to me" syndrome (Zin

and Ismail, 2012). Hence, ensuring that employers enforce safety rules and regulations while

promoting employee involvement in safety initiatives is crucial for preventing accidents, near-

misses, and injuries during work (Aryee and Hsiung, 2016).

Behavioural Based Safety (BBS)

Most of the companies in Malaysia that introduced the BBS normally have another branch

or parent organization in other countries that have already adopted BBS and are seeking to

introduce the program in this region (Osman, Awang and Yusof, 2015). BBS is a tool for

recognizing and improving employee behaviours to reduce workplace accidents. BBS's

fundamental is behaviourisms based which integrates broad principles from sound

ergonomics and positive reinforcement (Nasyrah Ibrahim et al., 2015).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 50

BBS tends to generate greater interest in the construction or manufacturing sector and has

the tremendous benefit of involving the employee of the particular person, as well as the

commitment of the company to avoid injuries in the workplace (Pathak, 2018). According to

Salem et al. (2007), the behavioural approach is especially important in solving safety

concerns because it relies on human psychology at work. Two key aspects have supported

BBS over other methods, concentrating on employee conduct that is believed to be the key

cause of injury and disease and promoting employee participation in safety problems as safety

is not seen alone. There are four basic steps in the BBS approach namely identification,

observation, intervention, referral, and monitoring (Ismail et al., 2012).

BBS technique can be treated in operational and maintenance phase and it's known as an

interventional process to correct employer’s unsafe behaviour and reduce the accident rate

(Zerguine et al., 2016). This study shows that, the general process of BBS was to identify

unsafe behaviours, develop appropriate observation checklists, provide training or educate

everyone, conduct behavioural observation and lastly provide feedback for improving the

behaviour employee and reduce the incidence rate at company level. Zerguine et al. (2016);

shows that 8 main categories were the factor cause unsafe behaviour, it is individual factors,

site condition, workgroup, contractor, supervision, project management, organizations, and

society.

METHODOLOGY

In this study, a comprehensive approach was taken to collect and analyse data to explore

safety compliance during operational and maintenance phase of petrol stations based on the

elements of behavioral-based safety. The methodology consisted of several key steps, as

outlined below.

1. Expert Content Validity:

The study initiated with a series of expert interviews aimed at obtaining validation for the

questionnaire used in the research. The content validity involved the consensus agreement of

each element with experts in the field of petrol station operational and maintenance phase.

Specifically, five experts with roles such as Safety Holder Officer, Safety Manager, and

Project Manager from contracting firms involved in operational and maintenance of petrol

station were validated. Their insights and feedback were instrumental in refining the

questionnaire and ensuring its relevance to the industry.

2. Questionnaire Survey:

Subsequently, a structured questionnaire survey was conducted to collect primary data

essential for achieving the study's objectives. The survey was designed to examine the safety

compliance in the operational and maintenance phase of petrol stations, with a focus on

behavioral-based safety exposure. The questionnaire was distributed among employees

actively engaged in petrol station operational and maintenance phase. The target population

to identify the safety compliance via behavioural-based safety exposure.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 51

3. Use of Secondary Data:

In addition to the primary data collected through the questionnaire, secondary data

sources were consulted to identify the elements of Behavioral-Based Safety (BBS) and other

relevant information. This secondary data was leveraged to design a questionnaire that would

yield accurate and comprehensive insights into the subject matter. Secondary data sources

included published literature from journals, articles, websites, research theses, and

newspapers.

4. Target Population:

The target population for this study consisted of employees involved in petrol station

operational and maintenance, with a minimum age requirement of 18 years. The questionnaire

survey was distributed among this specific group to gain insights into safety compliance in

the petrol station industry through the lens of behavioral-based safety exposure.

5. Questionnaire Structure:

The questionnaire was structured into three main sections:

• Section A: This section gathered general background and demographic information

about the respondents.

• Section B: The variables related to unsafe behavior and safety-related injury incidents

were assessed using a Likert scale, including response options such as "1:Strongly

Disagree (SD)," "2:Disagree, D," "3:Neither Agree nor Disagree," "4:Agree, A" and

"5:Strongly Agree, SA" The Likert scale utilized in this section was adapted from the

study of Zhou et al. (2008).

• Section C: This section focused on determining the efficient approach for each of the

BBS elements and, lastly, recommended the most effective BBS elements to be

implemented in petrol stations during operational and maintenance.The Likert scale

survey had been used in section B which is to determine the efficient approach each

of BBS elements and lastly section C to recommend the most effective BBS elements

to be implemented at a petrol station during operational and maintenance phase.

6. Data Collection and Analysis:

To collect responses, a Google Form was distributed to 100 intended participants via

email and the WhatsApp application. Out of these, 60 respondents successfully completed

and submitted the questionnaire, constituting 60% of the total targeted responses. The

collected data were analysed using the Social Sciences Statistical Service (SPSS) version 22.0

software. The analysis aimed to determine the frequency of responses provided by the

participants.

7. Reliability Study:

A reliability study was conducted to measure the internal consistency of the questionnaire.

Cronbach's Alpha, a commonly used reliability coefficient, was calculated to assess the

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 52

questionnaire's internal consistency. This coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values

indicating greater internal consistency of the scale items (Koonce and Kelly, 2014).

8. Ranking Analysis:

Finally, Relative Importance Index (RII) was employed to determine the ranking of the

most efficient approach for each BBS element and to identify the most effective BBS

elements. This analysis provided valuable insights into which BBS elements were considered

the most crucial for ensuring safety compliance in the petrol station industry during

operational and maintenance phases. Lastly RII to determine the ranking of the most efficient

approach for each element BBS and the most effective BBS elements. Referred to Mahesh

(2012), the formula of RII is stated (Equation 1) below:

Relative Importance Index,  

   

 (1)

W is the weight given to each likers scale by the respondent and ranges from 1 to 5.

The W ranges is 1. Strongly Disagree, 2. Disagree, 3. Neither agree or Disagree, 4. Agree,

and 5. Strongly Agree.

A is the highest weight = 5

N is the total number responses collected

DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

The internal consistency of the questionnaire used in this research was assessed using

Cronbach's Alpha in the SPSS software, resulting in a value of 0.839. According to George

and Mallery (2019). this value indicates "good" internal consistency. The survey collected

demographic information from the respondents, including age, gender, highest education

level, years of experience, organization category, client involvement in the petrol station

industry, and position within the organization.

Based on the demographic data in Section A, the majority of respondents fell within the

25 to 34 age group (65%), were male (58%), held an advanced degree (76.7%), had 1 to 5

years of work experience (46.7%), and occupied positions such as executive, engineer, safety

health officer, and others (63.3%). Furthermore, a significant portion of the respondents

worked in the capacity of contractors (61.7%).

Section B of the questionnaire was designed to assess respondents' awareness of safety

compliance, workplace environment, standard procedures related to work, and other

elements. The primary objective of this section was to determine the efficient approach of

each Behavioral-Based Safety (BBS) element practiced in the petrol station industry during

both operational and maintenance phases.

The example of RII for B10 in Table 1 is calculated based on the Equation 1 shown as

below. The other RII components and for the other table also are calculated similar as the

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 53

example. The value is different depends on the number of respondents for each component

that likert scale being evaluated.

 



󰇛󰇜󰇛󰇜󰇛󰇜󰇛󰇜󰇛󰇜

󰇛󰇜





 

Table 1 presents the results related to the safety management system component of BBS:

Table 1. Element of BBS Safety Management System Result

COMPONENT

QUESTION

RII

RANK

B10

"Do safety management team support and follow standard of procedure"

0.83

1

B9

"The safety management team always ensure the capability of contractor "

0.797

2

B7

"There is SPOC system in my department for raising our safety issues."

0.783

3

B5

"The safety audit department are conducted at regular intervals."

0.777

4

B6

The safety committee meetings are conducted effectively."

0.763

5

B8

"Safety issues raised in audits in my work area are liquidated with all

seriousness."

0.763

6

B2

"Safety and health procedures do not describe how to perform the task"

0.49

7

B4

"The permit system for work is impractical and less suited to real risks."

0.48

8

B1

"The task in this operational maintenance is difficult to do safely."

0.477

9

B3

Safety and health procedures/instructions/ rules are difficult to follow.

0.470

10

Average Value RII

0.585

According to Table 1, respondents either agreed (A) or strongly agreed (SA) with the

following elements: the safety management team's support for and adherence to standard

procedures (B10), the team's consistent commitment to ensure the contractor's capabilities

(B9), the presence of a Single Point of Contact (SPOC) system for raising safety issues (B7),

and the regular conduct of safety audits (B5). Respondents also agreed that safety committee

meetings were conducted effectively (B6), and safety-related issues raised in various audits

were addressed seriously (B8).

Conversely, respondents disagreed with statements related to the impracticality of safety

and health procedures (B2), the permit system for work being less suited to real risks (B4),

the task's difficulty in being performed safely (B1), and the difficulty in following safety and

health procedures/instructions/rules (B3). Notably, component B10 had the highest RII value

at 0.830, while B3 had the lowest RII value at 0.470.

In summary, the findings suggest that the safety management system component of BBS

has a positive impact on compliance with safety during both operational and maintenance

phase in the petrol station industry. These results align with the study by Zhou et al. (2008),

which associates safety compliance with safety management system factors, indicating a high

level of safety system compliance in the industry.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 54

Table 2. Element of BBS Management Commitment Result

COMPONENT

QUESTION

RII

RANK

B20

"The company need established a PERT according to MITI's"

0.860

1

B19

The management responsible to do enforcement of C19 control on staff

and contractor

0.853

2

B18

All employees know about emergency response plan procedures

0.800

3

B16

All the required Personal Protective Equipment (PPEs)

0.787

4

B14

Our management visibly demonstrates an interest in the safety and health

of their employee

0.783

5

B15

"I am satisfied with the facilities at our Occupational safety and health"

0.770

6

B17

Management always supports financially related to additional item during

performing work in construction or maintenance

0.767

7

B11

Productivity is often prioritized by management over safety and health

factors

0.673

8

B12

Suggestions given to improve safety and health are rarely taken seriously

0.593

9

B13

Accident investigations are often used to find out who is to blame

0.557

10

Average Value RII

0.744

Based on the results presented in Table 2, respondents disagreed with the statement of

component B13, which suggests that accident investigations are often used to find out who is

to blame. Additionally, they disagreed with component B12, which indicates that suggestions

given to improve safety and health are rarely taken seriously.

In contrast, most of the other statements or questions were agreed or strongly agreed upon

by the respondents. These statements included:

The need for the company to establish a Preparedness and Emergency Response Team

(PERT) in accordance with MITI's Manufacturing and its related services SOP for staff

and contractors (B20).

The management's responsibility for enforcing Covid-19 control measures for staff and

contractors (B19).

The assertion that all employees are knowledgeable about emergency response plan

procedures, and the management conducts training and fire drills (B18).

The availability of all required Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), such as safety

shoes, helmets, goggles, and gloves for their job (B16).

The visible interest of management in the safety and health of their employees (B14).

Satisfaction with the facilities related to Occupational Safety and Health (B15).

The financial support provided by management for additional items during construction

or maintenance work (B17).

However, respondents also agreed that productivity is often prioritized by management

over safety and health factors (B11).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 55

In summary, the findings suggest that elements related to management commitment

within the framework of BBS have a positive impact on compliance with safety regulations

during both operational and maintenance phase in the petrol station industry. This aligns with

the notion that management commitment is a crucial factor influencing the effectiveness of

safety programs, as proposed by Zohar's (1980), and it contributes to employees' improvement

in safety compliance during work.

Table 3. Elements of BBS Safe Behaviours Result

COMPONENT

QUESTION

RII

RANK

B30

Rewards for safe behaviours are a good way to increase safety awareness

levels.

0.880

1

B27

"Safety and Health is a high priority when I am performing my job

responsibilities."

0.850

2

B29

"If I saw another employee committing an unsafe practice, I would say

something directly to him or her."

0.853

3

B28

Penalties for safety violations would cause employees to work more safely.

0.820

4

B26

"In my department, safety and health issues / hazards identified are

corrected in a timely manner."

0.690

5

B22

The safety posters on display have little influence on the awareness and

behaviours of employees here.

0.640

6

B31

Usage of face mask for all employee in the work area all time was difficult

to do in work area.

0.553

7

B21

The permit system for work is impractical and less suited to real risks.

0.500

8

B25

"I am comfortable with the work environment (noise, dust, heat and

vibration) in my workplace."

0.497

9

B32

Some employees were not complying the standard procedure to control

Covid -19 in work area, we just ignored

0.403

10

B23

"Health and safety issues are not my problem."

0.397

11

B24

"Accidents happen to unlucky employees."

0.390

12

Average Value RII

0.623

Table 3 illustrates that respondents agreed with several component statements or

questions related to safe behaviors. Specifically, they agreed or strongly agreed with the

following statements:

Rewards for safe behaviors are a good way to increase safety awareness levels (B30).

"Safety and Health is a high priority when I am performing my job responsibilities" (B27).

"If I saw another employee committing an unsafe practice, I would say something directly

to him or her" (B29).

"Penalties for safety violations would cause employees to work more safely" (B28).

"In my department, safety and health issues/hazards identified are corrected in a timely

manner" (B26).

"The safety posters on display have little influence on the awareness and behaviors of

employees here" (B22).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 56

"Usage of face masks for all employees in the work area at all times was difficult to do in

the work area" (B31).

Conversely, respondents disagreed with the following statements or questions:

The permit system for work is impractical and less suited to real risks (B21).

"I am comfortable with the work environment (noise, dust, heat, and vibration) in my

workplace" (B25).

"Some employees were not complying with the standard procedure to control Covid-19

in the work area, and we just ignored it and continued to work without reporting to the

management" (B32).

"Health and safety issues are not my problem" (B23).

"Accidents happen to unlucky employees" (B24).

The top-ranked component in Table 3 is B30, with an RII value of 0.880, and the lowest-

ranked component is B24, with an RII value of 0.390.

In conclusion, the findings suggest that respondents agree that safe behaviors have a

positive effect on compliance with safety regulations during both operational and

maintenance phase in the petrol station industry.

Table 4. Element of Co-Worker Influence Result

COMPONENT

QUESTION

RII

RANK

B36

My superior often observes my work practices for the purpose of

protecting my safety and health.

0.793

1

B35

My immediate superior shows interest in the safety and health of the

employees in my department / work area.

0.783

2

B33

Colleagues do not reprimand if someone violates safety and health

procedures/instructions/rules.

0.523

3

B34

"It is not important for me to work safely if I want other employees to

respect me."

0.437

4

Average Value RII

0.634

Table 4 displays the results of the Likert scale questionnaire for the Co-worker Influence

section. Respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statements from components B36

and B35, which indicate positive co-worker influence:

"My superior often observes my work practices for the purpose of protecting my safety

and health" (B36).

"My immediate superior shows interest in the safety and health of the employees in my

department/work area" (B35).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 57

Conversely, respondents disagreed with the following statements or questions:

"Colleagues do not reprimand if someone violates safety and health

procedures/instructions/rules" (B33).

"It is not important for me to work safely if I want other employees to respect me" (B34).

The top-ranked component in Table 4 is B36, with an RII value of 0.793, while the lowest-

ranked component is B34, with an RII value of 0.437.

In summary, the findings suggest that respondents agree that the influence of colleagues

or co-workers has a positive impact on compliance with safety regulations during both

operational and maintenance phase in the petrol station industry.

Table 5. Element of Employee Engagement Result

COMPONENT

QUESTION

RII

RANK

B40

"If I have a concern about safety and health, I know whom to contact."

0.820

1

B39

The safety and health policy of my organization is clearly understood by

me.

0.813

2

B43

All employees in my work area are provided information on type, cause

and recommendations of all accidents in our company.

0.807

3

B44

I have opportunities to provide input into the health and safety program in

my organization.

0.807

3

B38

"I feel that observing both the safe / unsafe behaviours of individuals and

giving them feedback will improve the safety levels."

0.803

4

B42

"I use the safety committee team to get action on a safety complaint

which concerned me."

0.793

5

B41

The Supervisors / Front line officers of my department / section discuss

accidents with employees concerned.

0.790

6

B45

All the agreement especially regarding safety and health that had been

reached in the meeting of the safety committee members was not

communicated to me.

0.547

7

B37

"I feel like I am not involved in the formation and review of safety and

health procedures/instructions/regulations."

0.520

8

Average Value R11

0.838

Table 5 illustrates the Likert scale questionnaire results for the Employee Engagement

section. Respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the following statements:

"If I have a concern about safety and health, I know whom to contact" (B40).

"The safety and health policy of my organization is clearly understood by me" (B39).

"All employees in my work area are provided information on the type, cause, and

recommendations of all accidents in our company" (B43).

"I have opportunities to provide input into the health and safety program in my

organization" (B44).

"I feel that observing both the safe/unsafe behaviors of individuals and giving them

feedback will improve the safety levels" (B38).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 58

"I use the safety committee team to get action on a safety complaint that concerned me"

(B42).

"The Supervisors/Front line officers of my department/section discuss accidents with

employees concerned" (B41).

On the other hand, respondents disagreed with the statements:

"All the agreements, especially regarding safety and health, that had been reached in the

meeting of the safety committee members were not communicated to me" (B45).

"I feel like I am not involved in the formation and review of safety and health

procedures/instructions/regulations" (B37).

The top-ranked component in Table 5 is B40, with an RII value of 0.820, while the lowest-

ranked component is B37, with an RII value of 0.520.

In conclusion, the findings suggest that respondents agree with employee engagement

having a positive impact on compliance with safety regulations during both operational and

maintenance phase in the petrol station industry. This aligns with Hofmann and Stetzer (1996)

hypothesis that greater employee involvement in safety activities leads to enhanced employee

commitment to safety performance and reduces the tendency to commit unsafe behaviors.

Table 6. Effective Element of Base Behaviour Safety (BBS) in The Workplace

ELEMENT BASE BEHAVIOR SAFETY

RII

RANK

Safe management system

0.585

5

Management commitment

0.744

2

Safe behaviour

0.623

4

Co-worker influence

0.634

3

Employee engagement

0.838

1

Based on Table 6, the majority of respondents agree that the elements of Base Behavior

Safety (BBS) are influential and effective when implemented in the operational maintenance

phase of the petrol station industry. The top-ranking elements, considered the most effective,

is employee engagement, each with an average RII of 0.838. The second-ranking element is

management commitment, with an average RII of 0.744. Followed by co-worker influence

element, and then safe behaviour is the second last ranking. The last-ranking element of BBS

is safe management system, with an average RII of 0.585.

This result indicates a strong consensus among respondents that these BBS elements play

a significant role in enhancing safety compliance in the workplace. This aligns with the

findings of previous studies, such as Ismail et al. (2013) which highlight the importance of

influencing front-line safety behavior to foster a culture of safety within an organization.

Kabil and Sundararaju (2019), have also noted that safety management is only to support

employees' morale and positively impact safety attitudes and behaviors. Additionally, project

management commitment has consistently been found to be a significant factor in improving

safety performance at construction industry (Zerguine et al., 2016). Enhancing employee

engagement and understanding of workplace health and safety has been associated with a

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 59

reduction in accidents, occupational illnesses, and injuries, as well as improvements in the

working environment through process refinement and facility changes (Jasiulewicz-

Kaczmarek, Szwedzka and Szczuka, 2015). Overall, these findings shed light for the safety

practitioners for implementing BBS on the highly influential element affecting safety

performance.

CONCLUSION

The data collected in this research, as summarized in the literature review, aimed to

achieve the primary objectives of comparing the impact of five Base Behavior Safety (BBS)

elements on the safe working environment within the petrol station industry during

operational, and maintenance phase. These BBS elements encompassed a safety management

system, management commitment, safe behavior, co-worker influence, and employee

engagement.

The findings from the survey data gathered in sections A, B, and C were derived from

employees within the operational and maintenance phase of the petrol station industry.

Section A provided a comprehensive demographic profile of the respondents, including their

age, gender, educational background, work experience, organizational category, involvement

of clients in the petrol station industry, and positions within their respective organizations.

The results showed that the majority of respondents fell within the age range of 25 to 34 years

(65%), were predominantly male (58%), held advanced degrees (76.7%), had work

experience ranging from 1 to 5 years (46.7%), and occupied roles such as executives,

engineers, safety health officers, and others (63.3%). The majority of respondents also worked

as contractors (61.7%).

Section B aimed to fulfil the second objective of the research, which was to assess the

awareness of employees regarding workplace safety compliance, including awareness of

work environment factors, standard procedures, and other aspects. The overarching goal of

this section was to determine the effective approaches to implementing each BBS element

within the petrol station industry during operational and maintenance phase. The results,

presented in Table 1 to Table 6, showed that the Relative Importance Index (RII) values were

high (greater than 0.600) when the statements were related to positive safety compliance and

low (less than 0.500) when associated with negative statements. These results suggest that

employees in the operational and maintenance phase of the petrol station industry have a high

level of safety compliance and work safely.

The results also identified the most effective approaches within the BBS elements, as

shown in Table 1 to Table 6. Employee engagement ranked highest with an RII of 0.838,

followed by management commitment with an RII of 0.744. These two elements are

interconnected and significantly influence the base safety behaviors of employees, thereby

fostering a safer work environment. Aryee and Hsiung (2016), emphasized the importance of

management commitment in enforcing safety regulations, ensuring compliance with safety

laws, and engaging employees in safety initiatives to prevent accidents and injuries. This

study suggests that employee engagement is the most influential factor when compared to

other BBS elements.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 60

Section C aimed to fulfil the final objective of recommending the most effective BBS

elements to be implemented in the petrol station industry during operational and maintenance

phase. The results from the section C questionnaire indicated that the most recommended and

effective BBS elements, which are likely to diffuse and positively influence safety

performance within the workplace, are the safe management system, management

commitment, and employee engagement, each with an average RII of 0.857. (Neal and

Griffin, 2002), employee engagement was shown to be the most important element when

compared to another element BBS.

Kabil and Sundararaju (2019) mentioned that safety management practices not only

improve employee morale but also have a positive impact on employees' safety attitudes and

behaviors, reducing occupational injuries. Other than that, the level of project management

commitment frequently has a considerable influence on safety performance, where

involvement and encouragement, management style, and expertise are the three primary

variables influencing construction industry safety (Zerguine et al., 2016). According to

Jasiulewicz-Kaczmarek et al. (2015), the most frequently mentioned are increasing employee

engagement and understanding of workplace health and hygiene, reducing the number of

accidents, industrial illnesses, and potentially dangerous injuries, and improving the working

environment by refining processes and changing facilities.

The outcomes of this study show the differences between each element of BBS, including

which element of BSS was the most efficient approach and effective factor affecting base

behavior safety or safety performance in the workplace. The improvement of commitment

and awareness of the management employer and safety management system was, throughout

the area of workplace safety and health, the decrease in the number of injuries and potentially

dangerous incidents, as well as the enhancement working atmosphere, will influence the

employee to engage more positively in compliance with safety during operational and

maintenance phase in the petrol station industry.

RECOMMENDATION AND LIMITATION

In light of the findings from this study, it is recommended that future research endeavors

prioritize direct engagement with employees in the operational and maintenance phase of

petrol stations. This can involve interviews or face-to-face interactions using the questionnaire

to ensure a more comprehensive understanding of the employees' perspectives on safety and

compliance. While this study focused on five key BBS elements, future investigations could

explore additional factors such as the physical work environment and personal experiences,

broadening the scope of research in this domain. Moreover, these questionnaires can be

adapted for use in various industries beyond petrol stations, offering valuable insights into

safety compliance. Lastly, it is essential to consider language and literacy barriers that might

affect responses, especially for those in non-executive roles. Clear instructions and

multilingual questionnaires may improve response rates and accuracy, enhancing the quality

of future research.

Several limitations must be acknowledged in this study. The limited engagement with

operational and maintenance employees was due to time constraints and the ongoing

disruptions caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. Movement restrictions imposed by the

government hindered site visits and interviews, potentially affecting the diversity of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 61

respondents. Additionally, the distribution of questionnaires to employees posed challenges,

as they may have limited access to email or smartphones at worksites. This may have

contributed to lower response rates and potential selection bias in favor of executive roles.

Furthermore, language barriers could have deterred some employees from participating in the

survey, impacting the overall generalizability of the findings. These limitations should be

considered when interpreting the results, and future research should aim to address these

challenges for a more comprehensive understanding of safety compliance in diverse work

settings.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of this study under the Special Incentive for

Supervision in Geran Penyelidikkan Khas (GPK) by Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

[Ref. No: 600-RMC/GPK 5/3 (261/2020)].

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 63

BUILDING A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE: DESIGNING AN

ENERGY-EFFICIENT PUBLIC HOSPITAL IN MALAYSIA

Jamaludin Muhammad1, Amirul Amin Ismail1*, Muhammad Faris Arman1, Mohammad Syathir

Amini Shahbudin1 and Zaniman Sulong2

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

2VERITAS Architect Sdn. Bhd. 200301009748 (612168-X) Level 16, Tower 2, Wangsa 118, No 8, Jalan

Wangsa Delima, Wangsa Maju, 53300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: amiru683@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

As Malaysia strives to enhance its healthcare infrastructure, designing energy-efficient public

hospitals becomes crucial. This paper aims to explore the concept of energy efficiency in the

context of public hospital design in Malaysia. Based on a comparison of the findings of several

previous scholars and their relation to public issues, the researcher has discovered studies

pertaining to passive design for the energy efficiency of public hospitals in Malaysia. Therefore,

the primary purpose of this study is to identify the success criteria for passive design commonly

used by designers, especially architects, for local public hospital design projects. By

incorporating sustainable practices and utilizing innovative technologies, the proposed design

aims to minimize energy consumption, reduce carbon footprint, and promote environmental

sustainability. Expert sampling was employed and data were derived from semi-structured

interviews. Research objectives were established to minimize the potential for

overrepresentation of dominant perspectives and limit potential bias. Moreover, this study

considers various aspects such as building orientation, efficient layout, natural and artificial

lighting, efficient Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC), and other mechanical

systems. The findings highlight the potential benefits of an energy-efficient design, including

reduced operational costs, improved patient comfort, and a positive environmental impact. The

research also addresses potential challenges and provides recommendations for effective

implementation.

Keywords: Public hospital; Energy Efficient; Sustainable; Healthcare Facilities; and Hospital Design

INTRODUCTION

Buildings consume half of the energy used daily which itself increases significantly due

to the homogeneous environment created by the designer and the solution from standard

engineering. Today, most buildings tend to waste much energy by not responding to the

inhabitants' climatic conditions and comfort requirements. Therefore, energy consumption in

a building needs to be handled efficiently and optimally. It is in line with the reports issued

by the Environmental and Energy Branch under the Malaysian Public Works Department

through the Building Sector Energy Efficiency Project (BSEEP), which stated that 50% of

energy consumption wastage is in a building. The agenda of building design, particularly in

hospitals, in reducing the use of mechanical energy by establishing green buildings is a good

step forward in Malaysia (Rina et al., 2014). The introduction of green initiatives and

environmentally user-friendly practices in the hospital's design will be able to provide much

comfort to the hospital occupants and create a healthy environment. Hospitals may be

considered as icons of pain, sickness, and distress, but they are also icons of healing, life,

family, and hope (Yimin et al., 2014). They are essential buildings for any community, and

how they were designed, constructed, and operated profoundly impacts health environment

and the society.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 64

LITERATURE REVIEW

Physical Environment in Public Healthcare

In 2023, the healthcare sector in Malaysia received a significant budget allocation of

RM36.3 billion, surpassing the previous year's allocation of RM32.4 billion, RM31.9 billion,

and RM30.6 billion. This positions the healthcare sector as the second-largest recipient of the

Budget 2023, with the education sector receiving RM55.2 billion. The majority of the

allocation will be utilized for procuring essential items such as medicines, reagents, vaccines,

and disposables (MoF, 2022). Public hospitals, being a significant part of the building sector,

contribute to a substantial portion of energy consumption in Malaysia. Between 2005 and

2010, there was a noticeable upward trend in energy consumption in buildings across the

country, with a 34% increase observed (Ab. Azis et al., 2019). Addressing energy efficiency

in public hospitals becomes crucial given their substantial energy needs. By optimizing

energy usage, reducing costs, and promoting sustainability, public hospitals can contribute to

a greener future in Malaysia.

The World Health Organization (WHO) describes health as a condition of complete

physical, emotional, and social well-being and not simply the absence of sickness. It

safeguards the atmosphere from unsafe circumstances, fulfills the basic needs of healthy

living, and promotes equal social contact with an attractive environment with quality physical

characteristics and practical architectural design that brings satisfaction to life and happiness

levels. The physical environment of public healthcare plays a critical role in ensuring the well-

being of patients, staff, and visitors (Makram et al., 2022). Sustainable design is not merely

about the external aspects of a building or a particular model; it is an integrated idea with

philosophical dimensions (Alsawaf et al., 2022). Sustainable principles and practices are vital

in minimizing environmental impact and conserving resources. Key aspects of the physical

environment in public hospitals include building layout and design, safety and security

measures, lighting and ventilation systems, noise, and infection control strategies, as well as

amenities and auxiliary spaces. By creating an attractive and functional environment that

promotes communication, physical, and mental well-being, public hospitals can enhance the

overall healthcare experience (Bulakh et al., 2021). While access to and awareness of green

spaces and other common areas are frequently low, these areas are vital due to their natural

properties and can benefit staff, patients, and families by lowering stress and errors (Bernhardt

et al., 2022). The physical environment can be evaluated in terms of emotional or physical

impact on users and it can be classified into three categories of architectural elements namely

ambient environment, architectural features, and interior design features.

Passive Design Strategies in Healthcare Setting

Hospital sustainability is a paramount concept in the modern world, with the goal of

providing a patient-oriented hospital while safeguarding the ability of future generations

(Aydin et al., 2017; Alhmoud et al., 2020). Passive design plays a significant role in attaining

sustainable objectives by optimizing indoor air quality, thermal comfort, acoustics, and

lighting while minimizing energy consumption. Sustainability in public hospitals is a critical

concern in Malaysia, as its implementation aims at meeting the current healthcare needs while

minimizing environmental impact and ensuring resource efficiency. Passive design strategies

have emerged as an effective approach to optimize energy consumption and enhance the

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 65

environmental performance of hospital buildings. In the Malaysian context, the integration of

passive design principles in public hospitals holds great potential for achieving energy

efficiency, reducing operating costs, and providing a healthy indoor environment for patients

and staff. On a larger scale, it is essential for social, economic, and ecological purposes (Weisz

et al., 2011). In the future, passive design also needs to consider the technology of

construction methods to minimize the environmental impact and emphasize the efficient

building by using the BIM to also give benefits in green buildings. BIM-based sustainable

approaches enhance design and execution processes, minimizing resource use and promoting

savings in electricity and waste (Khahro et al., 2021; Vavili Faniand Kyrkou, 2020). For

lasting sustainability, location, use, adaptability, available technological resources,

orientation, volume, form, and engineering must be considered for a building (Bulakh et al.,

2020).

Proper building orientation is key for implementing cost-effective passive design

strategies that harness the natural environment. Prioritizing user comfort and energy

efficiency in hospitals fosters a conducive indoor environment for both patients and staff.

Maximizing wind-flow as natural ventilation is essential, and this requires the building's

extended facades to face the windward direction. Atriums, courtyards, and rooflights further

contribute to natural lighting and ventilation (Mahmoud, 2020). To prevent disease

transmission and optimize service benefits, well-designed ventilation and lighting systems are

paramount. These ensure a comfortable indoor environment, since such design promotes

thermal comfort (Sapian, 2019). Hospitals, as unique environments, demand a distinct

approach in which it has to emphasize on user comfort, energy efficiency, and a serene

atmosphere to prevent disease spread and facilitate optimal service utilization (Uslu, 2015).

Efficient management of energy use is crucial for hospitals and it can be attainable with

ventilation and lighting playing their vital roles. Natural ventilation has gained prominence,

especially in the context of green architecture and pandemics like COVID-19 (Park et al.,

2021). Given the challenge of high energy consumption in hospitals, implementing energy-

efficient measures, such as passive design elements, becomes imperative. Proactive

incorporation of passive design principles in the initial stages of hospital design not only

achieves notable energy and cost savings but also enhances resource management and

minimizes energy losses.

Energy Consumption in Public Hospitals

In buildings, there are two types of energy systems namely the passive and active

systems. The active system utilizes electricity which is inclusive of Heating, Ventilation, Air

Conditioning (HVAC), artificial lighting, and energy management systems (Health Research,

2014). On the other hand, the passive system involves designing buildings that leverage

natural resources for ventilation and lighting while remaining in a static state. Incorporating

both passive and active systems in public hospitals is crucial to achieving optimal

performance, energy efficiency, and user comfort. The most effective way to cut down on the

consumption of energy in public and medical settings is to use passive building design

strategies (Balali et al., 2021). Energy consumption in healthcare facilities is notably higher

compared to commercial and residential buildings. Energy audits conducted in Malaysian

public hospitals reveal inefficiencies in their energy usage, with consumption ranging from

250 kWh/m² to 400 kWh/m² per year (Ji & Qu, 2019). Unfortunately, this falls short of the

Green Building Index target of at least 200 kWh/m² per year. In foreign countries, hospital

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 66

buildings have an energy consumption rate of around 700 kWh/m² per year due to different

climates and increased (HVAC) requirements (Reddy, Sandbhor & Dabir, 2019).

Public hospital buildings in Malaysia have experienced an increase in energy

consumption over time, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lighting accounts for

approximately 36% of the energy use, while medical and office equipment contribute to about

60%. (HVAC) usage constitutes of 4% due to the predominant use of ceiling fans for

ventilation in these buildings (Reddy et al., 2019). Architects and designers must address this

growing reliance on active energy systems early in the design process to curb further

increases. Incorporating passive design strategies can optimize and improve energy

efficiency. Previous studies have explored various approaches such as reducing energy modes

for medical equipment, enhancing energy efficiency in waiting rooms and pharmacies,

implementing LED lighting in ward areas, and utilizing variable water volume (Azizi et al.,

2018; Wang et al., 2016). Despite the implementation of various technical measures to reduce

energy consumption in public hospital buildings, there is limited emphasis on passive design

as an energy-saving approach. Achieving optimal energy efficiency performance remains

challenging, with occupants responsible for only 20% of energy consumption, while the

remaining 80% is attributed to the building operations (Ahmed et al., 2014).

Energy Benchmarking Initiatives for Public Hospitals

Energy benchmarking is vital to promote energy efficiency in public hospitals, which

involves the establishment of usage benchmarks for comparison with similar facilities

(Ahmed et al., 2014). Despite a global lack of strategic evaluation of hospital performance in

asset management activities, initiatives like the UK's Energy Usage Guide for Hospital

Buildings (ECG-72) provide valuable metrics and guidelines for measuring energy utilization

and costs (Wang et al., 2016). This guide sets standards for different hospital categories that

enable the identification of potential savings and distinguishing between excellent and

standard practices. Another benchmarking guide, "Energy Efficiency in Healthcare

Buildings," utilizes a Standardized Efficiency Indicator (SEI) based on annual energy usage

data from a diverse sample of hospitals (Saidur et al., 2010). It assesses performance in terms

of excellent, fair, and harmful practices, considering factors such as building size, Degree

Days, and occupancy rates specific to each hospital type (Kamaluddin, Imran & Yang, 2016;

Wang et al., 2016). While the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers provides

comprehensive guidance on energy efficiency, such as Energy Use Guide 19 (EUG, 19),

designed for office buildings, its applicability to hospitals may be limited (Christiansen et al.,

2016).

Overall, energy benchmarking in hospitals is crucial in identifying energy-saving

opportunities. The ECG-72 guide, SEI-based benchmarking, and other standards and

guidance documents provide valuable tools and metrics to assess energy performance and

promote energy efficiency in hospital buildings. The success criteria for energy consumption

in the operating building focus on ensuring efficient energy use and meeting the needs and

satisfaction of clients and users. These criteria are derived from previous researchers and

tailored to the specific requirements and goals of the project. The success criteria include:

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 67

1. Implementation of specifications and client and user satisfaction in accordance with

the project brief.

2. Customization of design performance data to align with the preferences and

requirements of users and clients.

3. Providing reasonable returns in terms of cost, time, and material quality through

energy-efficient design performance.

4. Efficient utilization of energy by identifying and reducing dependence on mechanical

systems.

5. Designing for energy efficiency to effectively meet the needs and desires of users and

clients.

METHODOLOGY

This study aims to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical

implementation, as well as provide valuable insights into the design of energy-efficient public

hospitals in Malaysia. A survey-based approach was adopted from which the researcher

utilized semi-structured interviews as the primary data collection tool. The interview design

was derived from a comprehensive review of relevant literature and established qualitative

research frameworks (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Miller & Crabtree, 1999; DeWalt & DeWalt,

2002; Mason, 2002; Maynard & Schaeffer, 2006). Questions were carefully developed on

energy efficiency, design principles, best practices, challenges, and recommendations in

implementing sustainable design strategies in public hospitals to ensure data validity and

reliability and minimize potential bias. The semi-structured interviews allowed for a

combination of predetermined questions and flexibility in exploring additional areas of

interest, as recommended by Robson (2002). Participants were selected through purposive

sampling which involved personnel from the Public Works Department, medical planners,

and consultants with over 10 to 20 years of experience in healthcare design who were suitable

for the study's objectives (Zainudin et al., 2023; Patton, 2002). Face-to-face interviews were

chosen for their ability to elicit in-depth information and insights, creating a neutral

environment for participants to share ideas and goals (Mack et al., 2005; Leaman et al., 2010).

Transparency and clarity were maintained throughout the research process by addressing

potential limitations or partialities. The output of semi-structured interviews will be cross-

referenced with guidelines, project documentation, and industry reports to enhance

credibility. Thematic analysis will be employed to identify patterns and key findings; they are

aligned with interview data to gain insights into energy-efficient design approaches for public

hospitals in Malaysia. Care is needed to avoid overlooking patterns when focusing on

individual accounts within the thematic analysis. While manual procedures offer a more

comprehensive understanding of the healthcare environment's energy efficiency, software

specifically NVivo12 enhances data compilation and parameter management efficiency.

Manual data classification of key parameters serves as a guide for the NVivo12 coding

process. Given that the respondents converse both in Malay and English, mixed-method data

analysis is crucial, necessitating manual identification and attachment of parameters to the

passive design criteria for each developed questionnaire. The analysis of the interview data

will yield valuable insights into energy-efficient design approaches for public hospitals in

Malaysia and contribute to the body of knowledge in this field.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 68

Table 1. Respondents Expert Panel Data Information

Respondents

(Expert Panels)

Professional

Architect

(Ar.)

Academic

Qualifications

Experience in The

Industry

Experience in

Hospital Projects

Master

Degree

10-14

year

15-20

year

21 years

and

above

10-14

year

15-20

year

21 years

and

above

Architect Officer

(PWD)

Respondent 1

(Panel A)

√

Respondent 5

(Panel E)

Ar.

√

Respondent 6

(Panel F)

√

Medical Planner

(Architect)

Respondent 2

(Panel B)

Ar.

√

Respondent 7

(Panel G)

Ar.

√

Respondent 8

(Panel H)

√

Architect

(Consultant)

Respondent 3

(Panel C)

√

Respondent 4

(Panel D)

√

(Source: Muhammad, 2022)

Figure 1. The Progress of Project for Design and Construction Public Hospital in Malaysia

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Feedback on Accuracy Testing

The feedback on accuracy testing is done by utilizing a two-step validation process,

beginning with consultations with medical expert panels to validate findings from the

MOH (Ministry of Health

Malaysia)

Public Works Department

(PWD)

(Health Facility Design Unit,

Architect Branch)

Medical Planner

•Architect

•Civil and Structure Engineer

•Electrical and Mechanical

Engineer

•Quantity Surveyor

•IT Engineer

•Health Facilities Planner

Consultants

•Architect

•Civil and Structure

Engineer

•Electrical and

Mechanical Engineer

•Quantity Surveyor

•IT Engineer

Medical Brief Of

Requirement

(MBOR)

Technical Brief Of Requirement (TBOR)

Implement Hospital Design

Tender

Expert Panels

Using Qualitative method-interview

Public

Hospital

•hospital

staff

•patients

Users

Using

Quantitative

method-

questionnaire

Construction

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 69

literature review. The researchers ensured robust validation by conducting significant semi-

structured interviews with an expert panel, and refining keywords in user questionnaires based

on insights from the literature review. To facilitate user feedback, questionnaires were

distributed to patients and staff. Other measures such as streamlining contacts through the

Ministry of Health Malaysia for expert panel respondents were also taken. By integrating

insights from the literature review, thematic analysis, and expert panels, the researcher

achieved the objective of identifying two main criteria for energy-efficient passive design

strategies in public hospitals; effective positioning of building orientation, natural and

artificial lighting, and utilization of passive and active cooling systems for energy-saving

measures.

Effective Positioning of Building Orientation, Natural and Artificial Lighting

Table 2. Measures of Energy Saving for Lighting

No

Unit of

Analysis of

An Entire

Interview

Expert

Panel

Description

(Condensed Meaning

Units)

Attributed &

Parameter

(Subcategory)

Code (Related

to A Measure

of The Key

Question)

Criterion

(or

Parameter)

1

Energy

Consumption

in Ward

Space

Lighting

A, B,

C, G &

H

Incorporation of passive

design strategies from

site planning to design

stages

Passive

Design

Strategies

Function

Measures of

Energy

Saving

for Lighting

2

B, D &

G

Variable of lux

requirements (lighting

intensity) based on the

space function

Artificial

Lighting

Design

Guidelines for

Healthcare

Facilities

Specification/

Standard

3

B & D

Grid design enhances

space efficiency in

healthcare setting

Architectural

Design

Process

4

A, B,

C, D &

H

Incorporation of 2-way

system and sensors in

lighting fixtures

improving efficiency and

resources

Energy Saving

Technology

(Source: Ismail, 2023)

Panel A underscores the importance of effective positioning of the building's orientation

for optimal natural lighting and ventilation in the public hospital. The proposal suggests using

wall-mounted louvers to block excessive light. Additionally, curtain tracks are recommended

to prevent glare and ensure patient privacy as this approach is aligned with standard

specifications. Panel B emphasizes the need to prioritize ward design which has, often

overlooked considerations for office areas. Window design varies based on the room's

function, with operation theatres typically lacking windows for lighting purposes. Careful

attention is needed to ensure that window placement in the ward does not compromise

visibility and it meets the prescribed standards. The positioning of ceiling lamps should also

adhere to the required standards. Panel C suggests an innovative lighting approach by

proposing the layering of ceiling lamps aligned with the ward bed layout. Placing these lights

horizontally at the foot of the patient's bed helps prevent glare and discomfort during rest.

Panel G highlights the limitation of relying solely on natural lighting, emphasizing the need

for electrical lighting equipment to ensure consistent illumination in the ward space. The

inconsistency of natural lighting in meeting the needs of ward users underscores the reliance

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 70

on active lighting solutions. Panel H stresses the importance of proper site planning in the

following excerpt;

The first thing is site planning and then building orientation, which is sunrise and

sunset, and each one needs regulation. Then, it will start with the shape of the

building and through the shape of the building will look to the planning zoning more

than the arrangement of spaces. From here will be included the organization in the

space, including ward rooms, rooms between the wardroom and Operation Theatre

[O.T.] Respondent 8 (Panel H)

(Source: Arman, 2023)

Figure 2. Building’s Orientation in Passive Design and Basic Grid Study

Panel B and Panel D urge the importance of consultants to understand the end user's

requirements and follow the relevant guidelines. Panel G emphasizes the need for careful

spatial planning in designing public hospitals, including proper coordination of power points,

electric sockets, and electrical equipment. The selection of grids for designing public hospitals

is crucial, as highlighted by Panel B and Panel D. The commonly used basic grids are 7.2

meters, 7.8 meters, and 8.1 meters, and their selection is significant for determining corridor

and ward sizes. Panel B concluded, “The grid will usually do 8.1 meters by 8.1 meters for

four grids and this ward will be more practical”. In pursuit of energy savings and efficiency,

Panel B suggests a strategic two-way wiring system, with switches placed near the nurse

station for easy supervision by staff as highlighted by Panel D. Panel H emphasizes the use

of individual lamps for patient beds, allowing for personalized control. Panels A and C

advocate for the use of sensors to optimize energy usage. Areas with constant occupancy may

not require sensors, as artificial lighting can be controlled by the staff. LED lamps are

recommended for their energy efficiency, with specific Lux requirements for clinical areas

and wards as mentioned by Panel B: “For the clinical area you can use artificial lighting with

certain Lux you need, so there is no need for windows. However, for the patient room, your

ward cannot compromise”. While sensors can be used in auxiliary areas, they are not suitable

for wards where individual activities require different lighting needs.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 71

In summary, the synthesis reveals a holistic view of effective lighting solutions for public

hospitals. The key aspects include the strategic orientation of buildings for optimal natural

lighting and ventilation, innovative lighting solutions like wall-mounted louvers and layered

ceiling lamps, and the importance of understanding end-user requirements. Spatial planning

considerations, such as grid selection and a two-way wiring system, the integration of sensors,

LED lamps, and individual control options underline the commitment to energy-efficient

measures. Overall, the panels emphasize a comprehensive and user-centric approach to

hospital design that aligns with sustainability and energy efficiency goals.

(Source: Arman, 2023)

Figure 3. Mounted Louvers are Proposed to Effectively Block Excessive Glare

(Source: Arman, 2023)

Figure 4. Lighting Layout Corresponding with Bed Arrangement, Understanding the End User's

Requirements, and Relevant Guidelines

Utilization of Passive and Active Cooling Systems for Energy-Saving Measures

Panel G highlights that natural ventilation can help prevent and control infections among

ward patients while Panel A emphasizes that architects design large openings or windows to

maximize natural light and ventilation in the ward. Cross ventilation is created through the

design of openings to provide comfort to ward users. The choice of louvers and window types

is carefully considered during the design process. Panel D points out that passive design

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 72

methods can result in a 40% annual reduction in energy consumption. Effective furniture

layout in ward spaces as highlighted by Panel C is crucial for energy-saving measures. Room

data, including material properties of walls, ceilings, and floors, helps to determine how much

energy the layout can save. Proper space arrangement can reduce heat and decrease the need

for mechanical systems, making energy use more efficient as discussed by Panel A who

stated: “We will arrange based on the patient's position, treatment position and doctor's

position”. Panel E stresses a significant annual increase in energy consumption in public

hospitals up to 50% to 60%. Panel A notes that not all wards can have air conditioning systems

due to energy consumption limits set by the JKR-approved architecture benchmark (around

140 kilowatts). Decisions are made strategically on where air conditioning can be used. Active

energy use in the ward, like air conditioners and fans, is crucial for user comfort. The average

room temperature during the day ranges from 30 to 32 degrees Celsius, and a mix of ceiling

fans and planned natural ventilation is used to keep conditions optimal. Standard room

temperatures in the ward usually range between 18 to 24 degrees Celsius. In spaces such as

the operating theatre (OT) room and isolation ward, temperature control is essential to prevent

the spread of disease and bacteria.

Table 3. Measures of Energy Saving for Mechanical Equipment

No

Unit of

Analysis of

An Entire

Interview

Expert

Panel

Description

(Condensed Meaning

Units)

Attributed &

Parameter

(Subcategory)

Code

(related to a

measure of

the key

question)

Criterion

(or

Parameter)

1

Energy

Consumption

in Ward

Space

(Active and

Passive

Cooling

System)

A, B, D &

G

Incorporation of natural

ventilation and openings

Passive

Design

Strategies

Function

Measures of

Energy

Saving

for Working

Space

2

A, C & E

Effective furniture layout

and room data help to

determine optimum

material selection and

energy consumption

Selection of

Material

Specification/

Standard

3

A, B & C

Efficient HVAC

placement for critical

ward and staff comfort

Mechanical

Equipment

Mechanical

System

4

D

Integration of Courtyard

Design to reduce heat

and use of active

cooling system

Passive

Design

Strategies

Design

Process

5

B, D & G

Adjustable windows and

ceiling fans as

alternatives to air

conditioning to reduce

energy consumption

Mechanical

Equipment

Mechanical

System

6

A & C

Coordination between

consultants. Effective

mechanical layout plan

and 2-way wiring

system for user's

comfort

Layout Plan /

Function

(Source: Ismail, 2023)

Panels A and B note the provision of air conditioning systems in doctor's and nurses'

rooms, while the general workspace for nurses in public hospital wards may not have air

conditioning. Panel C concurs with the above statement by highlighting the importance of air

conditioning systems in critical areas like the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), Coronary Care Unit

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 73

(CCU), and other wards needing special attention “for the general ward space, we designed

the space capitalizing on natural lighting and ventilation. If the ward is for infectious patients,

it's entirely air-conditioned”. Central air conditioning systems are favored for their economy,

providing ventilation over large spaces. Emphasis is placed on the importance of separation

between clinical and non-clinical space affecting the openings for natural lighting and

ventilation in the following excerpt;

The Architect will take into account the orientation of this public hospital building.

Therefore, the rooms located to the west for the afternoon sun are clinical, and non-

clinical spaces are placed on the east-facing the morning sun because this space

requires natural lighting and ventilation such as rehab. Respondent R3 (Panel C)

(Source: Arman, 2023)

Figure 5. Proper Arrangement of Spaces and Natural Cross Ventilation for User Comfort

Courtyard design is pivotal for facilitating natural lighting and ventilation, creating an

optimal environment. Wards facing the courtyard benefit from comfortable natural

ventilation, contributing to a pleasant and well-ventilated space. Panel D explains how the

courtyard aids in cooling surrounding areas through natural ventilation, providing comfort to

users and offering pleasant views. The inclusion of green plants in the courtyard further cools

the environment and reduces reliance on mechanical cooling systems. Combining passive

design with minimal assistance from active systems results in 50% to 60% in energy

efficiency. Panel B underlines the importance of alternative cooling systems such as

adjustable windows and ceiling fans. While natural ventilation captures outside breezes,

ceiling fans are necessary for optimal comfort, as highlighted by Panel B and G. The 3rd class

wards use ceiling fans and cross ventilation for cost-effectiveness. The more luxurious 1st

class ward relies on air conditioning, and the 2nd class ward offers flexibility with options

like ceiling fans, air conditioning, or a mix of both, catering to specific needs. This approach

tailors cooling solutions to the distinct requirements of each ward class. Next, the coordination

between consultants is crucial in hospital design, with each playing a distinct role. Panel A

and Panel C also suggest a two-way wiring system for the ceiling fans which must be

strategically located based on the patient bed layout and circulation flow in the ward.

In conclusion, the panels highlight the critical role of natural ventilation and cooling

systems in public hospitals, as well as emphasize various design considerations to optimize

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 74

energy efficiency and user comfort. Passive design methods, such as effective furniture

layout, room data utilization, and proper space arrangement, are highlighted to reduce energy

consumption. Active intervention strategy such as temperature control showcases a balance

between energy efficiency and prioritizing user needs. Courtyard design, green plants, and

the combination of passive and active systems emerge as effective strategies for achieving

substantial energy savings. The coordination between consultants and builders is emphasized

for a holistic and efficient hospital design. The placement and control of ceiling fans, careful

selection of grids, and the use of energy-efficient technologies contribute to creating

sustainable and comfortable healthcare environments. Overall, the panels advocate for an

inclusive approach to hospital design, integrating both passive and active design elements.

(Source: Arman, 2023)

Figure 6. Alternative Cooling Systems Such as Adjustable Windows, Ceiling Fans, and 2-Way Wiring

Systems for User Comfort

CONCLUSION

Public hospitals operate 24 hours a day, resulting in substantial energy consumption.

Achieving a balance between energy efficiency and patient comfort is crucial in addressing

this challenge. The study uncovered a notable electricity consumption pattern in public

hospitals, particularly in lighting and medical equipment usage. Across all panels, there was

a strong consensus regarding the imperative need for adopting energy-efficient strategies.

These strategies ranged from technical approaches to simpler measures like efficient

maintenance and operational procedures. Passive design strategies in the initial planning to

design stage such as building orientation, positioning and proper space arrangement help to

reduce the dependency on active design intervention. The recommendation from the panels

was the emphasis on utilizing natural lighting to minimize the reliance on artificial lighting

and align with established building code guidelines. From the analysis, it is evident that

integrating energy efficiency considerations from the inception of hospital design is crucial.

There was a shared recognition of the significance of user involvement in the planning

process, emphasizing both mental and physical comfort. Smart utilization of both passive and

active cooling systems in public hospitals can effectively reduce energy waste without

compromising patient well-being. To successfully implement passive design in Malaysian

public hospitals, careful consideration of the local climate and building context is essential.

Factors like temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and outdoor air quality should be taken

into account to ensure the appropriateness of passive design strategies. Computational

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 75

simulations and performance evaluations can further optimize the design for specific hospital

settings, maximizing the potential benefits. Beyond the immediate environmental impact, the

incorporation of passive design from the early stages of hospital planning also can lead to

long-term operational cost savings, improved patient outcomes, and the creation of a healthier

and more sustainable healthcare environment for patients, healthcare providers, and the

community at large. Beyond the conclusions drawn from the study, further recommendations

include continuous building performance monitoring, regular energy audits, and keeping

updates on the latest smart building technologies. Furthermore, improved efficiency in human

capital can be achieved by hosting community engagement, collaborating with experts for

research initiatives, and staff training. Implementing these recommendations can contribute

not only to reduced environmental impact but also to long-term operational cost savings,

improved patient outcomes, and the overall well-being of stakeholders. In essence, aligning

public hospitals with sustainable practices is not only a necessity for environmental

stewardship but it is also a crucial step towards creating resilient, community-centric

healthcare institutions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the research participants who

generously dedicated their time and shared their expertise. Their contributions and willingness

to participate in interviews were invaluable in gathering the necessary data for this study. We

deeply value the immense support and assistance provided by everyone involved in any

capacity, as their contributions played a crucial role in the success of our research. Lastly, we

extend our heartfelt gratitude to our family and friends for their unwavering support and

compassion throughout the research process.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 78

UNVEILING THE DRIVERS OF FLASH FLOODS IN

CONSTRUCTION SITES: INSIGHTS FROM FACTORS

FOR RESILIENT URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Siti Nur Aishah Mohd Noor1*, Mohd Khairul Amri Ramly1, Puteri Sidrotul Nabihah Saarani1,

Zailawati Khalid2 and Mohamad Badruzhisham Mohd Mazlan1

1Department of Built Environment Studies & Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus, Perak, Malaysia

2Department of Construction Management, Faculty of Technology Management and Business,

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: sitinuraishahmn@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

As cities confront escalating challenges posed by climate change, the occurrence of flash

floods emerges as a formidable threat to urban development and infrastructure, with

construction sites particularly susceptible. Characterized by their sudden onset and intense

nature, flash floods can wreak havoc on construction projects, imperilling worker safety,

causing equipment and materials damage, and leading to project delays and budget overruns.

In the quest to foster resilient cities, a critical examination of the role of flood risk management

in addressing flash floods, especially within construction sites, becomes imperative. This paper

meticulously goes into the realm of flood risk management and its pivotal role in curtailing the

detrimental impacts of flash floods within construction sites. By uncovering the root causes of

flash floods in construction sites, this research seeks to contribute to the formulation of

strategies and best practices that bolster the resilience of construction sites and curtail the

adverse consequences of flash flood events. In summary, this study offers invaluable insights

into the factors driving flash floods, particularly among contractors operating in the central

region of Malaysia. Ultimately, the vision of constructing resilient cities hinges upon the

seamless integration of flood risk management practices into the fabric of urban planning and

construction processes.

Keywords: Flash flood; Risk Management; Resilient Cities; Construction Sites

INTRODUCTION

In an era marked by rapid urbanization and the increasing impacts of climate change, the

concept of building resilient cities has gained significant attention. Resilient cities are those

that can effectively adapt and respond to various shocks and stresses, including natural

disasters and climate-related hazards (Samsuri, Bakar and Unjah, 2018). Among these

hazards, flooding stands out as a major threat to urban areas worldwide, necessitating the

integration of robust flood risk management strategies into urban planning and development

(Zakaria, Zin, Mohamad, Balubaid and Mydin, 2017). The research explores the relationship

between building resilient cities and the roles of flood risk management. Within this context,

the study meticulously investigates the underlying causes of flash floods, recognizing their

dual potential to both escalate flood risks and fortify the resilience of cities. The consequences

of flooding events, both immediate and long-lasting, encompass substantial infrastructure

damages, loss of lives, economic upheaval, community displacement, and disruption of

essential services.

According to Wang, Cui, Li, Huang, Manandhar, Nitivattananon, and Fang (2022), with

climate change intensifying rainfall patterns and sea-level rise, the frequency and intensity of

flooding events are anticipated to surge, casting an even more risk to urban areas. Effectively

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 79

countering these escalating risks hinges upon the construction of cities fortified against flood-

related perils. This objective inherently encompasses the imperative of addressing flash flood

occurrences within construction sites, necessitating a comprehensive approach that

seamlessly integrates a diverse array of strategies and measures. A pivotal facet of this holistic

approach is the meticulous identification of the root causes that underline flash floods,

particularly in the context of construction sites. Recognizing that construction activities and

contractors play pivotal roles in this multifaceted landscape, this research strives to unearth

the key factors that contribute to flash floods. By doing so, it serves as a critical strategy

within the collective endeavour to ameliorate flash flood issues within the construction

industry and advance the broader goal of constructing resilient cities.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Flood Risk Management

Flood risk management related to addressing flash floods in construction areas refers to

the systematic approach of identifying, assessing, and implementing measures to minimize

the risks and impacts of flash floods on construction sites (Zhen, Liu, Zhong, Zhou, Liang,

and Zheng, 2022; Chia, Fui, Siau, Joo, and Tien, 2023). It involves a range of strategies and

actions aimed at preventing or mitigating flood-related damages ensuring workers’ safety and

minimizing disruptions to construction activities. Ideally, based on NADMA Risk

Assessment (2021), the first step in flood risk management is to conduct a comprehensive risk

assessment specific to the construction site. This involves identifying the potential sources of

flooding, evaluating the likelihood and magnitude of flash floods, and assessing the

vulnerability of the site and its infrastructures to flood hazards (Mourato, Fernandez, Pereira,

and Moreira, 2023). By understanding the risks, construction stakeholders can develop

effective mitigation measures. Besides, proper drainage design and management play a

crucial role in flood management in construction areas. This includes the design and

installation of effective drainage systems, such as drains, culverts, and retention ponds, to

effectively collect and redirect surface water away from the construction site (Chang, Sung

Lai, Pan, Liu, and Tung, 2013; NADMA Risk Assessment, 2021). In addition, regular

maintenance of drains and removal of debris is also important to ensure their optimal

functioning.

Other than that, construction activities can contribute to soil erosion, which can

exacerbate the risk of flash floods. Implementing erosion control measures such as building

sediment barriers, silt fences, and erosion control blankets, helps to prevent soil erosion and

the sedimentation of drainage systems. These measures help maintain the integrity of the site

and reduce the potential for flash flood occurrence. Besides, Pham (2018) also stated that

adhering to construction best practices is essential in flood risk management which includes

using flood-resistant building materials and techniques, elevating critical components and

electrical systems above flood level, and ensuring proper waterproofing measures are in place.

Moreover, incorporating sustainable construction practices, such as green roofs and

permeable pavements, can also help reduce surface runoff and manage stormwater

effectively. Emergency preparedness and response are also considered important steps in

flood risk management, whereby developing and implementing emergency preparedness and

response plans is crucial in addressing flash floods in construction areas (Muzamil, Zainun,

Ajman, Sulaiman, Khahro, Rohani, Mohd and Ahmad, 2022). It involves establishing clear

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 80

protocols for evacuating workers, securing equipment, and safeguarding construction

materials in the event of a flash flood. Training construction personnel on emergency

procedures and conducting regular drills can improve their readiness to respond to flood

events. In relation to that, flood risk management and flash flood in Malaysia is intertwined

and focused on reducing the adverse impacts of flash floods through proactive measures and

strategic interventions.

Flash Flood in Malaysia

Flash floods in Malaysia are a recurring natural disaster that poses significant risks to both

urban and rural areas. As mentioned previously, the country’s tropical climate, with heavy

rainfall and monsoonal patterns, contributes to the frequent occurrence of flash floods. Flash

floods are characterized by their rapid onset and short duration, often resulting from intense

rainfall in a short period of time. Malaysia’s geographical features, including its hilly terrain

and extensive river systems, play a role in exacerbating the risk of flash floods. Ideally, when

intense rainfall transpires, water runoff from slopes and highlands can swiftly accumulate,

overwhelming drainage systems and causing flash floods downstream. Low-lying areas and

regions with poor drainage systems are particularly vulnerable to flash floods.

Malaysia experiences a tropical climate with heavy rainfall, especially during monsoon

seasons. Short but intense downpours are common, leading to rapid water accumulation and

flash floods. Climate change is intensifying rainfall patterns and sea-level rise, which is

expected to increase the frequency and intensity of flooding events, further exacerbating flash

flood risks (Wang, Cui, Li, Huang, Manadhar, Nitivattananin, and Fang, 2022). Additionally,

rapid urban development in Malaysia often involves land clearing, changing natural drainage

patterns, and increasing surface runoff. The construction of impervious surfaces, such as

concrete roads and buildings, reduces the land’s ability to absorb rainfall, increasing the risk

of flash floods in urban areas. The conversion of open spaces into built-up areas further

exacerbates the problems. Besides, deforestation in Malaysia also contributes to increased

surface runoff and reduced natural water absorption. This leads to higher flash flood risks, as

forests play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance and regulating water flow.

In rural areas, flash floods can affect agricultural lands, livestock, and rural communities'

livelihoods. Efforts to address flash floods in Malaysia involve a combination of structural

and non-structural measures. Malaysia employs structural measures to mitigate flash floods,

including the construction of flood mitigation infrastructure. This involves the development

of retention ponds, flood barriers, and improvements to river channel water flow (Abdullah,

2004). These structures are designed to prevent flash floods from occurring or to reduce their

impact. On the other hand, non-structural measures focus on enhancing flood forecasting and

warning systems, improving land-use planning, promoting community preparedness, and

implementing sustainable water resources management practices (Ghani, Abdullah, Sidek,

Kassim, and Ainan, 2004). These measures aim to improve the overall preparedness and

resilience of communities and reduce the impact of flash floods.

In addition to that, the Malaysia government, through agencies like the Department of

Irrigation and Drainage (DID) and the National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA),

plays a crucial role in coordinating and implementing flood mitigation and management

efforts (Kandari, Saudi, Chyang, Kamaruddin, Saad, Azid, Saudi and Mahmud, 2018). These

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 81

agencies work to develop policies, regulations, and strategies to address flash floods and

protect communities. In terms of emergency preparedness, establishing clear protocols for

evacuating workers, securing equipment, and safeguarding construction materials in the event

of flash floods is an essential part of flood risk management (Muzamil, Zainun, Ajman,

Sulaiman, Khahro, Rohani, Mohd and Ahmad, 2022). Training construction personnel on

emergency procedures and conducting regular drills can improve their readiness to respond

to flood events.

On top of that, current methodologies to address flash floods in Malaysia also use erosion

control were implementing erosion measures, such as building sediment barriers, silt fences,

and erosion control blankets, helps prevent soil erosion and the sedimentation of the drainage

system (Pham, 2018). These measures are essential for maintaining the integrity of

construction sites and reducing the potential for flash flood occurrence. Besides, adhering to

construction best practices is crucial in flood risk management. This includes using flood-

resistant building materials and techniques, elevating critical components and electrical

systems above flood levels, and ensuring proper waterproofing measures are in place (Pham,

2018). Incorporating sustainable construction practices, such as green roofs and permeable

pavements, can also help reduce surface runoff and manage stormwater effectively.

Additionally, regular maintenance of drainage systems, including cleaning and removing

debris, is vital to ensure their optimal functioning (Chang, Sung Lai, Pan, Liu, and Tung,

2013). Properly designed and maintained drainage systems are essential in managing water

flow and reducing the risk of flash floods. Hence, the measures aim to reduce the vulnerability

of construction sites and urban areas to flash floods and enhance overall resilience to flood-

related hazards.

Current Scenario of Flash Flood in Construction Sites

In Malaysia, the current scenario of flash floods in construction sites presents significant

challenges to the construction industry and urban development. Flash floods, characterized

by their rapid onset and high intensity, pose a particular risk to construction sites due to their

vulnerability to water accumulation, inadequate drainage systems, and soil erosion (Bhuiyan,

Reza, Choy, and Pereira, 2018). One of the key factors contributing to flash floods in

construction sites in Malaysia’s tropical climate is characterized by heavy rainfall and

monsoon seasons (Muslima, Che Omar, Jamaluddin, and Taha, 2018). These weather patterns

can result in sudden and intense downpours, overwhelming the capacity of existing drainage

systems and leading to rapid water accumulation in construction sites. Inadequate or poorly

designed drainage infrastructure is a significant issue (Hammong, Chen, Djordjevic, Butler,

and Mark, 2015). These drainage systems are often ill-equipped to manage the volume of

water during heavy rainfall events. The accumulation of debris, sediment, and waste in the

drains can obstruct the passage of water, leading to localized flooding during sudden and

intense rainfalls.

Moreover, the rapid urbanization and construction activities taking place in Malaysia

further amplify the vulnerability of construction sites to flash floods. Urban development

often involves extensive land clearing, altering natural drainage patterns, and increasing

runoff. Meanwhile, construction activities, including excavation and land grading, can further

disrupt the natural topography and exacerbate soil erosion, making construction sites more

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 82

susceptible to flash floods. This is particularly concerning as Malaysia continues to

experience significant urban growth (Buiyan, Reza, Choy and Pereira, 2018). The current

scenario also highlights the need for increased awareness and preparedness among contractors

and developers regarding the occurrence and impact of flash floods on construction sites.

While certain regulations and guidelines exist, there may be gaps in their implementation and

enforcement.

Many contractors and developers may lack sufficient knowledge and understanding of

flood risk management practices specific to construction sites, leading to inadequate

mitigation measures and increased vulnerability to flash floods. In order to address the current

scenario of flash floods in construction sites in Malaysia, several measures can be taken and

necessitate immediate actions to enhance flood risk management. By implementing the

appropriate course of action, Malaysia can mitigate the impacts of flash floods in construction

sites and undoubtedly help to protect workers’ safety and foster the development of resilient

cities that can withstand the challenges posed by climate change and rapid urbanization.

Therefore, the methodology employed in this research directly aligns with the identified

causes of flash floods, particularly in construction sites.

METHODOLOGY

This study adopted a quantitative approach by distributing questionnaires to the targeted

group. The target group of this research is the contractor company that was selected from the

list of G1 to G7 contractors who have registered with CIDB and currently have construction

projects or construction sites located in the Klang Valley areas. The Klang Valley, located in

the state of Selangor and the federal territory of Kuala Lumpur is known to be prone to flash

floods. The Klang Valley encompasses major urban areas such as Kuala Lumpur, Petaling

Jaya, Shah Alam, and Klang. Flash floods occur in various parts of the Klang Valley due to

its geographical features, urbanization, and intense rainfall events. The specific areas in the

Klang Valley that are particularly prone to flash floods include lying areas, river basins, and

areas with poor drainage systems. Some notable locations prone to flash floods in Klang

Valley include the areas as elaborated in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Locations Prone to Flash Flood in Klang Valley

Area

Location Coverages

Kuala Lumpur City Center

Certain areas in the heart of Kuala Lumpur, e.g., Sungai Klang and Sungai

Gombak

Petaling Jaya

Parts of Petaling Jaya, e.g., Sungai Damansara, Sungai Kayu Ara and Sungai

Penchala

Shah Alam

The capital city of Selangor, prone to flash floods due to its urban development,

e.g., Sungai Klang and Sungai Kayangan

Klang

Location at the mouth of Sungai Klang

(Source: Kandari et al., 2018)

The sampling method used in this research is purposive sampling where the respondents

of the contractors were purposely selected from the list of G1 to G7 contractors’ companies

which only involved individuals who have construction projects within the area of location

(ongoing projects) and the contractor in question has the necessary experience to handle

construction projects within the areas as well (completed projects), as stipulated in Table 1.

All respondents’ information will then undergo data cleaning to ensure only usable data and

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 83

relevant data in the mentioned area are used for this research. At the end of the data collection

stage, there are only 50 usable questionnaires that can be proceeded further for data analysis

for this research. The output of the data will be discussed in the section below.

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

According to Figure 1, the analysis of the factors contributing to flash floods revealed

several key findings. Among the surveyed areas, the highest factors contributing to flash

floods were clogged or inadequate drainage systems (29%), rapid urban development (28%),

failure to construct proper damp and levee structures (27%), and heavy rainfall events (16%).

Clogged or inadequate drainage systems emerged as the primary factor contributing to flash

floods in the studied areas, accounting for 29% of the cases. This finding underscores the

critical role of effective drainage systems in mitigating flash flood risks. The accumulation of

debris, sediment, and waste in drains obstructs water passage, leading to localized flooding

during heavy rainfall events (Bradley, 2005). This highlights the need for regular maintenance

and cleaning of drainage infrastructure. Neglecting this aspect can result in increased

vulnerability to flash floods.

Figure 1. Factors Contributed to Flash Floods in Percentage

Rapid urban development ranked closely behind, accounting for 28% of the cases. The

expansion of urban areas often involves the construction of impervious surfaces, such as

concrete roads and buildings. This interferes with natural water absorption and increases

surface runoff. Consequently, open spaces are converted into built-up areas, reducing the

land’s capacity to absorb rainfall. These findings emphasized the critical importance of urban

planning that incorporates green infrastructure and sustainable construction practices. Such

measures can help counteract the negative effects of urban development on flood risk.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Clogged drain/inadequate drain/poor designed drainage

Rapid urban development

Failure to construct damp and levee/moisture

Heavy rainfall/short and intense rainfall

29

28

27

16

Flash Flood Factors Contribution (%)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 84

Table 2. The Mean and Standard Deviation for Factors Contributing to Flash Floods in Construction

Sites

Factors

Means

Standard Deviations

Clogged drain/inadequate drain/poor designed drainage

4.48

0.720

Failure to construct damp or levee/moisture

4.28

1.049

Rapid urban development

4.38

0.884

Heavy rainfall/short and intense rainfall

4.16

0.976

The failure to construct proper damp and levee structures was identified as another

significant factor, accounting for 27% of flash flood occurrences. This factor is closely related

to construction practices. Inadequate construction techniques, including the absence of proper

waterproofing measures and ineffective stormwater management, exacerbate flood risks in

construction sites. The key takeaway is the imperative of adhering to construction best

practices and ensuring the implementation of appropriate drainage systems and moisture

control measures during construction activities. Failing to do so increases the chances of flash

flood-prone. On the other hand, heavy rainfall events, characterized by short and intense

downpours, accounted for 16% of the observed flash flood cases. Malaysia’s climate

particularly during the monsoon seasons is characterized by periods of heavy rainfall, which

can quickly overwhelm drainage systems and lead to flash flooding (Zakaria et al., 2017).

Moreover, climate change projections indicate that extreme rainfall events may become more

frequent, underscoring the need for adaptive strategies and improved flood risk management

practices. These findings emphasize the necessity of enhancing forecasting and early warning

systems to effectively respond to heavy rainfall events.

The findings of this research also demonstrate the multifaceted nature of flash floods and

the various factors that contribute to their occurrence. Effective flood risk management

strategies should address these key factors through a combination of measures, including

regular maintenance of drainage systems, proper urban planning (MSMA 2nd Edition, 2012),

and development, adherence to construction best practices, and enhanced forecasting and

early warning systems In addition to that, collaboration among stakeholders, including

government agencies, local authorities, and the construction industry, is crucial to

successfully mitigate the impacts of flash floods and build resilient cities that can withstand

such events (Yusmah, Bracken, Sahdan, Norhaslina, Melasutra, Ghaffarianhoseini, Sumiliana

and Farisha, 2020). It is important to note that the percentages mentioned above are based on

the specific findings of this research and may vary in different geographical locations or over

time. Further research and monitoring are necessary to continuously assess and understand

the evolving factors contributing to flash floods and to inform targeted flood risk management

strategies.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this research has successfully identified and emphasized the key causes of

flash floods in construction sites in Malaysia. These causes encompass clogged drainage

systems, rapid urban development, and the failure to construct proper damp or levee

structures. Such a comprehensive understanding of these factors is vital for developing

effective flood risk management strategies. The findings expose the pressing need for robust

flood risk management strategies, especially in the context of building resilient cities. Flash

floods can have severe consequences, and recognizing their underlying causes is the first step

in mitigating their impacts effectively. On top of it, the research highlights the detrimental

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 85

impact of clogged or inadequate drainage systems, which are exacerbated by rapid urban

development. Urbanization leads to increased impervious surfaces, altering natural drainage

patterns, and elevating the risk of flash flooding. This emphasizes the importance of urban

planning that integrates green infrastructures and sustainable construction practices.

In addition, inadequate construction techniques, such as the absence of proper

waterproofing measures and ineffective stormwater management, significantly contribute to

flash flood occurrences during construction activities. Addressing these issues is paramount

to prevent flash floods on construction sites. Building resilient cities capable of withstanding

flash floods necessitates a multifaceted approach. This includes the implementation of various

measures, such as regular maintenance of drainage systems, integrating green infrastructure,

promoting sustainable construction practices, and enhancing early warning systems. These

strategies collectively enhance the resilience of cities. On top of this, the findings also

emphasize the critical role of collaboration among stakeholders, including government

agencies, local authorities, and the construction industry. Strict adherence to regulations is

essential to ensure that flood risk management practices are effectively implemented.

By recognizing that flash flood causes and impacts may evolve over time, the research

highlights the importance of continuous monitoring and adaptation. This is crucial in

responding to changing climatic conditions and urban development patterns. In essence, the

conclusion underscores the significance of understanding the root causes of flash floods in

construction sites and developing comprehensive strategies to mitigate their impact. By

implementing the suggested measure, cities in Malaysia can reduce vulnerability, enhance

overall resilience and safeguard the well-being and safety of both construction site workers

and the surrounding communities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors extend heartfelt gratitude to the numerous respondents whose active

participation and willingness to share their time, invaluable experiences, and profound

insights were instrumental in the accomplishment of this research. Their engagement and

cooperation in this study not only enriched our understanding but also underscored the

significance of their contributions to the success of this research. Additionally, we would like

to express our sincere thanks to Universiti Teknologi MARA for their unwavering support

and assistance throughout the various stages of this research. Their valuable resources,

guidance, and infrastructure significantly facilitated the completion of this study. We deeply

appreciate the contribution to our research efforts, which undoubtedly enhanced the quality

and scope of this project.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 88

CHALLENGES IN SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE

TYPE OF INDUSTRIALISED BUILDING SYSTEMS (IBS)

IN HOUSING PROJECTS: THE ROLE OF INTUITION

AND HEURISTICS APPROACH

Mohd Rofdzi Abdullah*, Mohd Najib Abd Rashid and Wan Nur Syazwani Wan Mohammad

Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: rofdzi159@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Selecting the type of Industrialised Building System [IBS] for Malaysian housing projects

involves the selection of suppliers for the construction industry from the contractor's point of

view. The challenges of choosing the best supplier or IBS manufacturer are dealt with from the

perspective of project goals and objectives. Nevertheless, for there are limited guidelines in

selecting an appropriate type of IBS for housing projects, by contractor available in Malaysian

Construction Industry. Thus, the aim of this paper is to identify the significant decision-making

approaches and challenges of decision-making in selecting the IBS types. Data collected via

survey in the form of a structured questionnaire from 101 respondents are then analysed using

IBM SPSS software. A descriptive analysis highlights the pattern of approaches in decision-

making to select the type of IBS for housing projects, the extent of individual employment and

organizational experiences toward the decision-making for housing projects in Malaysia, and

the significant level of knowledge for IBS contractors when selecting the best type of IBS for

housing project. The most frequently used approach in decision-making is ‘Intuition and

Experiences’ of which the Middle Manager is found to be the personnel that uses it.

Furthermore, the ‘Unclear Project Goals and Objectives’ is the most challenging of decision-

making in selecting the IBS types in this study. Hence, findings from the study provide insight

into the IBS players who have considered the types of approaches and challenges in decision-

making for the type of IBS selection in housing projects in the Malaysian construction industry.

Keywords: Industrialised Building System; Decision Making Approaches; Intuition; Housing Project

INTRODUCTION

In the construction industry, decision-making is a crucial aspect that impacts the success

of construction projects. Numerous decisions need to be made at different phases of the

construction process, from the initial phase until project completion (Mohd Sofberi & Zainal,

2020). Throughout these phases, decision- makers in construction must consider factors such

as cost, time, quality, safety, and regulatory compliance (Zhong et al., 2022). Moreover,

effective communication and collaboration among the project stakeholders (i.e., owners,

designers, contractors, and subcontractors) are crucial for successful decision making in the

construction process. Other than that, the adoption of technology, as exemplified in the use

of Building Information Modelling (BIM) and project management software can aid in data

driven decision-making and improve overall project outcomes (Bartels & Hahne, 2023;

Rashid et al., 2018; Wan Mohammad & Mohd Azmi, 2023).

Hence, the process of selecting the appropriate type of Industrialised Building System

(IBS) during pre-construction is categorized as a decision-making exercise. The role for

criteria to be established as preferences measures should be considered. An appropriate

preference in decision making in IBS is subjected to the level of knowledge possessed by

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 89

decision makers in an organization. The maturity of knowledge varies among professionals

and managers in construction industry and IBS depending on the level of exposure to and

creativity of the initiatives which are taken to enhance the knowledge. Nevertheless, for

contractors there are limited guidelines to select an appropriate type of IBS for housing

projects, available in the Malaysian Construction Industry (Abdullah & Egbu, 2010; Rashid

et al., 2019). Accordingly, the objectives of this paper are to identify the significant decision-

making approaches and challenges of decision-making in selecting the IBS types. To achieve

these objectives, this paper further discusses the IBS and Decision Approaches, methodology,

results and discussion.

Industrialised Building System and Decision Approaches

Industrialised Building System (IBS) is a general term which refers to construction

approaches in the context of the Malaysian construction industry. A study by Dzulkalnine,

(2019) and Hamid et al. (2008) revealed that IBS has various definitions from different

practitioners point of views. There seems to be a continuous debate and ambiguous standards.

Junid (1986) provided a definition of IBS as the process by which components of building are

conceived, planned, and fabricated, transported, and erected at site. However, Rahman and

Omar (2006) agreed with Esa and Nurudin (1998) who claimed that the IBS is defined as a

system which uses industrial production techniques either in the production of components or

assembly of the building or both.

Relatively, definition by Salam and Chai (1986) seem to be the basis for CIDB (2003) to

standardize the definition and meaning of IBS. Hence the term use of IBS in Malaysian

construction industry is a technique of construction whereby components are manufactured

in a controlled environment, either at site or off site, and transported, positioned, and

assembled into construction work (Abdullah and Egbu, 2009). Badir et al. (2002) quantified

that the type of IBS systems in Malaysia are basically based on four already identified, namely

conventional building system, cast in-situ formwork, prefabricated system, and composite

system. However, CIDB (2003) distinguished the IBS systems into five categories or types.

These are precast concrete framed building; precast concrete wall system, reinforced building

with precast concrete slabs, steel formworks’ systems and steel frame building (Abdullah &

Egbu, 2010; CIDB, 2016; 2020).

Due to the nature of the construction industry, which is fragmented, homogenous, it

requires involvement of various parties in a project organization: this may result in a situation

where consensus or agreement among project stakeholders to allow IBS to be adopted would

not be achieved (Nawi et al., 2018; Rashid et al., 2021). Kamar & Hamid (2011) and Rashid

et al. (2018) concurred with Thanoon et al. (2003) on the issues of lack of knowledge and

scientific information among project stakeholders as one the barriers to the use of IBS.

Therefore, the initiatives of knowledge management approach to externalise the tacit

knowledge possessed by the experts to explicit knowledge for sharing should be a vital

solution (1995). Without appropriate knowledge and information in IBS, the decision to

consider the IBS in construction projects at design or feasibility study stage is argumentative.

Therefore, the implementation of IBS was ignored even though the project's characteristics

were extremely appropriate to implement the IBS. It was believed that project stakeholders’

decision to choose IBS resulted from the lack of knowledge and information on their part

(Hamid et al., 2017; Hung et al., 2015).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 90

Decision Making Approaches

Management of decision making is considered as an art because it is dependent on the

experience, intuition, and creativity of the decision maker. The successful solution of a single

problem can be achieved by a variety of approaches (Karamoozian & Hong, 2023;

Khosrowshahi & Howes, 2005). The author also stated that the complex nature of today's

managerial decisions, at the executive level, especially in complex construction projects

demands high quality information and the use of scientific decision-making tools

(Karamoozian & Hong, 2023; Khosrowshahi & Howes, 2005). The information is supplied

hand in hand with the knowledge possessed by the decision makers. There are two main

categories of knowledge which deal with the managerial level. Knowledge stored in people

as tacit knowledge which should be shared helps the decision organizational making process

by making it better (Kucharska & Erickson, 2023). The sharing from manager to executive or

operatives level needs tools for explicit knowledge to go through by groupware, intranet,

company portal and others could be materialized by decision support systems as logical and

rational approaches of decision making (Akmam Syed Zakaria et al., 2018).

The Role of Heuristics and Intuition for Integrated Approaches

Slovic and Tversky (1982) infer that the approach which involves defining to intuition

from the perspective of heuristics and biases as judgment based on representatives,

availability, and anchoring and adjustment can be useful: but they may also lead to severe and

systemic errors. Tversky and Kahneman (1979) hypothesized that people use the heuristics

approach in decision-making to reduce time and effort undertaken in reasonable judgments

or systematic logic approaches. Smith and Sparrow (2008) suggest the definition of intuition

made by Barnard (1938) that human mind works with two main processes which are known

as logical and non-logical processes. Therefore, intuition expresses the approaches to

judgment, decision and action through good sense, inspiration, and brilliance which in a sense

are not equivalent to illogical or irrational judgement. Due to the error that is commonly

caused by intuition approaches, Smith and Sparrow (2008) suggested the significant roles of

implicit knowledge as organic to impress the unconscious element.

In the heuristics approach, the common errors in decision-making are created by elements

of bias. Volker (2010) claimed that mood and emotions often have a significant effect on

decision-makers. She also asserts that a heuristics approach such as a set of values and beliefs,

specific goals and operational plans are the premises for individuals when making decisions

in organisations. Due to this, the decision-making base for heuristics tends to be related to

human factors. Generally, the role of intuition judgment shall be part of the rational and

logical analysis approaches complementary. Design practitioners use their experience to

assess the impact on their specialist area while a decision is being made or when a decision is

made (Hindmarch et al., 2010).

Smith and Sparrow (2008) also discusses Khairbut negatively work on the finding of

intuitive approaches often used in decision making by senior managers where they are

positively associated with the organizational performance in an unstable environment but

negatively in a stable environment. Smith and Sparrow (2008) also concluded that the

situation in which intuition is an inappropriate approach to be used is when the problems’

situation are tightly structured, involves intellective tasks in data that are rich, objectively

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 91

quantifiable and have computationally complex domains. Hence, statistical models or rational

logical approaches would perform better than human judgment. It seems to support the

previous work by Laughlin (1980) and Klien (2003). Their findings on the favoured situations

for analytical approaches are characterized by computational complexity, a need for

justification, requirement for optimization and situations in which the objective criteria for

success exist. In addition to that, intuition is not an appropriate approach when the situation

allows the explicit criteria to be identified, reliable and valid procedures are available (Walsh

et al., 2022).

Challenge of Decision Making in Selecting Type of IBS

In any decision-making approach, there are difficulties and challenges faced by decision

makers to achieve the best solutions. However, the knowledge and information supplied as

well as the experience possessed by decision makers seem to be the main challenges. The

challenges of decision-making in selecting the type of Industrialized Building System (IBS)

underscore the need for a holistic and informed approach. Decision makers must carefully

weigh the diverse options, consider project-specific requirements, analyse costs, assess the

availability of skilled labor, and navigate regulatory complexities. Overcoming these

challenges is essential to unlock the full potential of IBS in enhancing efficiency,

sustainability, and innovation in the construction industry. This paper studied the challenges

faced by managers in construction organisation during the exercises of selecting the IBS.

METHODOLOGY

A quantitative approach in the form of structured questionnaires was used in this study to

achieve its objectives. The main objective of this study is to identify the significant decision-

making approaches and challenges of decision-making in selecting the IBS types. The closed-

ended survey questions were prepared using Google forms and sent to the respondents via

social media platforms (i.e., email) and phone call to meet the research objectives. The study’s

population comprised of 1500 Malaysian IBS contractors who had registered with

construction industry Development Board (CIDB) and these individuals represented various

designations (i.e., The Managing Director (MD), Chief Executive Officer (CEO), middle,

operational and low manager level). Later, the questionnaires were distributed by stratified

random sampling to the 300 contractors in Klang Valley. According to Roscoe (1975), in

deciding the sample size of a study, researchers are recommended to use the sample size larger

than 30 or less than 500. As a result, 101 respondents were received, yielding a 33.7%

response rate. Fellows and Liu (2003) revealed that when considering a statistical analysis,

response rate with a 25% to 35% is considered acceptable.

A structured questionnaire with three components was developed to achieve the research

objective. The first section of the questionnaire describes the respondents’ background

information, and the second section collects the decision-making approaches by using a 4-

point Likert scale, with 1 indicating ‘always’ and 4 indicating ‘never’. The final section of the

questionnaire is prepared to gauge the challenges of decision-making in selecting the IBS

types by using a 4-point Likert scale (i.e., 1 – Most Challenging; 2 – Challenging; 3 - Fairly

Challenging and 4 – Not Challenging). Then, the data from the questionnaires were analysed

using the IBM SPSS software and the descriptive analysis was employed as explained in the

next section.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 92

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Result 1: Demographic Profile

The distributions of the respondent’s designation are presented in Figure 1: it shows the

respondents’ job positions namely, 10% represents the top highest hierarchy in the

organisation either the Managing Director (MD) or Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and they

are directly involved in final and ultimate strategic decision making. The other 70% represents

middle managers and the remaining 20% represents the operational and low manager levels.

These informants held key positions within an organisation, and this suggests the high-profile

participation in the survey that adds weight to the data quality (Alashwal et al., 2017).

Figure 1. Component of Management Level in Construction Organisation

Result 2: Decision Making Approaches

In this study the respondents were asked to rate their extent of use or application of the

decision-making approaches. From the survey conducted, the intuition and experiences

scored the mean of 1.78 which is from 1 to 2 on the means of always to frequently, while 3

and 4 for sometimes and never scale. On the other hand, the decision support tools had a mean

score of 3.03 which is more toward sometimes and never from the Likert scale. In addition to

the correlation perspective, the intuition and support tools show a negative correlation. Table

1 below shows the score from 101 respondents on the approaches to the criteria for decision

making.

Table 1. Ranking of Approaches

Approaches to The Criteria

Mean

Std. Deviation

Ranking

1.

Intuition and Experiences

1.7800

.77303

1

2.

Organization Past Experiences

1.7900

.71485

2

3.

Client Instruction

1.8900

.88643

3

4

Superior Instruction

2.2600

.76038

4

5.

Management Brainstorming Meeting

2.3100

.76138

5

6.

Decision Support Tools

3.0300

.90403

6

In the realm of decision-making, professionals often navigate a complex landscape where

intuition, experiences, and various external factors come into play. A recent study delves into

the frequency and consistency of different decision-making approaches, shedding light on the

preferences and tendencies of respondents in the given context. At the forefront of decision-

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Top Management Middle Manageer Operational and

Technical Staff Other

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 93

making approaches, intuition and experience emerge as the favoured tools among

respondents. The study assigns a mean score of 1.7800 to this approach, indicating a

preference for relying on gut feelings and past knowledge. The strikingly low standard

deviation (0.77303) implies a remarkable consistency among respondents, showcasing a

unanimous inclination towards drawing upon intuition and personal experiences in decision-

making processes. Furthermore, aligning with individual intuition, organizational past

experiences also hold significant weight in the decision-making arena. The mean score of

1.7900 suggests a shared tendency among respondents to consider the historical context of

their organization when making decisions. This parallels with the consistency observed in the

first approach, indicating a collective reliance on both personal and organizational

experiences. While intuition and organizational experiences set the foundation, the study

reveals a nuanced role for external guidance in decision-making. The mean score for client

instruction, slightly higher at 1.8900, underscores the impact of external directives in shaping

decisions.

However, the comparatively higher standard deviation (0.88643) signals a greater

diversity in responses, which highlights that the influence of client instructions is more

variable among respondents (Kozioł-Nadolna & Beyer, 2021). Elevating the hierarchy of

decision-making influences, superior instruction emerges as a notable factor. The higher mean

score of 2.2600 suggests that decisions which are influenced by the superior’s instructions

occur more frequently on average. Most importantly, the lower standard deviation (0.76038)

indicates a consistent response pattern among participants, and this shows that there is a

shared proclivity for considering guidance from higher-ups in the decision-making process.

Collaborative decision-making surfaces as a notable theme, as evidenced by the mean score

of 2.3100 for decisions influenced by management brainstorming meetings. This suggests a

slight increase in frequency compared to the superior’s instruction. Similar to the superior’s

instruction approach, the standard deviation (0.76138) indicates a consistent response pattern,

underlining the reliability of this collaborative decision-making avenue. In a modern context

where technology plays a pivotal role, decision support tools emerge with the highest mean

score of 3.0300. However, the higher standard deviation (0.90403) signals a more diverse

range of responses, indicating that opinions on the use of decision support tools vary

significantly among respondents (Stanitsa et al., 2022). This suggests a more polarized stance

on the integration of technological aids in decision-making processes.

Table 2. Crosstab Between Level of Management and DM Approaches of Intuition and Experienced

Management Level

Always

Frequently

Sometimes

Never

Total

Top Management

6

1

3

0

10

Middle Manager

31

32

10

0

73

Operational and Tech Staff

2

5

2

11

Others

2

5

0

7

Total

41

43

15

2

101

Table 2 shows the crosstab between the management level and decision-making

approaches. It clearly shows that large organisation chose ‘always’ as the frequency of

intuition and experiences. In conclusion, to choose the appropriate type of IBS for housing

projects, large companies are more likely (always and frequently) to use the intuition and

experiences approaches in making their decision. It also can be summarised that Top and

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 94

Middle managers are in line with the pattern of which the size of organisation determines the

decisions which are made when it comes to intuition and experience.

In any organizational setting, the behaviors and actions of individuals at different

management levels play a crucial role in shaping the overall work environment and

influencing decision-making processes (Kozioł-Nadolna & Beyer, 2021). A recent survey

captured the frequency of certain behaviors across various management levels, shedding light

on notable patterns and differences. Top Management demonstrates a consistent approach,

with a majority of responses falling within the "Always" to "Sometimes" categories. The

relatively lower frequencies, especially in the "Always" category (6), suggest a measured and

deliberate approach to specific behaviors. This consistency aligns with the strategic and

visionary roles typically associated with top-level executives. In stark contrast to Top

Management, Middle Managers exhibit a more diverse range of behaviors, with a significant

number indicating frequent actions ("Frequently" - 32). The high frequency in the "Always"

category (31) indicates a proactive and hands-on approach. This variability in responses

suggests that Middle Managers engage in a wide spectrum of activities, reflecting the

multifaceted nature of their roles. Operational and Tech Staff display a mix of responses

across the categories, indicating a varied pattern of behaviors. While the frequencies are

generally lower compared to Middle Managers: the responses suggest a balance between

consistent and occasional engagement in the specified actions. This variability may reflect the

diverse responsibilities and specialized roles within this group. The "Others" category also

demonstrates consistency, with the majority of responses falling within the "Always" and

"Frequently" categories. This group appears to be characterized by a proactive and engaged

approach to the specified behaviors, which are aligned with the observed patterns in Top

Management.

Understanding these behavioral patterns is crucial for organizational leaders. The

consistent approaches of Top Management and Others may contribute to a stable and

visionary organizational direction. The variability in Middle Managers' behaviors suggests

adaptability and versatility, which can be harnessed for effective team management.

Recognizing the diversity in Operational and Tech Staff behaviors is essential in tailoring

support and resources to meet the specific needs of this group (Mendling et al., 2017). In

conclusion, the survey data provides a nuanced perspective on the behaviors exhibited across

different management levels. This insight is invaluable for organizational leaders who seek

to optimize their teams, enhance collaboration, and align individual behaviors with broader

strategic objectives.

Result 3: Challenge of Decision Making in Selecting Type of IBS

This paper studied the challenges faced by managers in construction organisation during

the exercises of selecting the IBS. The respondents were asked to indicate the extent of the

challenged issues. The Likert scale of 1 to 4 was set up. The “very challenging” issues were

assigned as 1, 2 – Challenging, 3 - Fairly Challenging and 4 – Not Challenging. The result

was tested on the Reliability Test with Cronbach's Alpha 0.788 and it is reliable. Table 3

summarised the findings of the challenges of selecting tasks. The unclear project goals and

objectives, uncertainty of criteria used, lack of information about IBS product and inability to

share the critical important information was the high rankings of the challenges issues with

the means score below 2.1.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 95

Table 3. Statistics of Mean Challenges to Select Type of IBS

Challenges

Mean

Std. Deviation

Ranking

Unclear Project Goals and Objectives

1.7228

.72276

1

Uncertainty Criteria Used

1.7228

.69453

2

Lack of Product Information

2.0495

.68376

3

Inability to Share Critical Important Information

2.0495

.73995

4

Prioritizing Two Criteria

2.1584

.57849

5

Limitation Choice and Alternative

2.2178

.81980

6

Lack of Skills to Operate DST

2.2574

.83251

7

Working towards needed time and cost

2.2574

.73012

8

Shortcoming Decision Support System

2.2673

.82330

9

Contradiction Intuitive and DST

2.3267

.66496

10

In the intricate world of decision-making, professionals often find themselves confronted

with an array of challenges that can significantly impact the quality and effectiveness of their

choices. A recent study, as depicted in the table below, sheds light on the mean scores,

standard deviations, and rankings associated with key challenges faced by decision-makers.

The researcher delves into the nuanced landscape of these challenges and explored their

implications for decision-making processes. The foremost challenge faced by decision-

makers is the ambiguity surrounding project goals and objectives. The mean score of 1.7228

indicates a significant struggle, while the moderate standard deviation suggests a shared

experience among respondents. This challenge underscores the critical importance of

establishing clear project foundations for effective decision-making (Ahmed & Jawad, 2022).

Closely following is the challenge of uncertainty regarding the criteria used in decision-

making, with a matching mean score of 1.7228. The moderate standard deviation implies a

collective effort is required to define and communicate decision criteria consistently (Zhong

et al., 2022). Clarity in criteria is fundamental to informed decision-making. Decision-makers

grapple with insufficient product information, ranking third with a mean score of 2.0495. The

relatively low standard deviation suggests a shared difficulty in obtaining comprehensive

product details. This challenge highlights the importance of robust information sources for

effective decision-making.

The challenge of inadequate information sharing occupies the fourth position, with a

mean score of 2.0495 and a higher standard deviation. This indicates a varied experience

among decision-makers, and it emphasizes the need for streamlined communication channels

to facilitate effective decision processes. Decision-makers face challenges in prioritizing two

criteria, ranking fifth with a mean score of 2.1584. The lower standard deviation suggests a

consistent struggle in navigating the complexities of assigning priority when faced with

competing criteria. This challenge points to the need for robust decision frameworks. The

sixth challenge involves limitations in choice and alternative, with a mean score of 2.2178

and a higher standard deviation. This reflects a diverse range of experiences among decision-

makers, highlighting the importance of broadening available options to enhance decision

flexibility. Operational challenges in utilizing Decision Support Tools (DST) rank seventh,

with a mean score of 2.2574 and a higher standard deviation. This indicates varying

proficiency levels, which gives more emphasis on the need for comprehensive training

programs to equip decision-makers with the skills required to leverage advanced tools

effectively (Yu et al., 2022) The challenge of aligning decisions with required time and cost

constraints occupies the eighth position, with a mean score of 2.2574. The moderate standard

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 96

deviation suggests a shared struggle among decision-makers, and this highlights the

importance of balancing efficiency with resource considerations. Ranked ninth is the

challenge associated with the shortcomings of Decision Support Systems (DSS), with a mean

score of 2.2673. The higher standard deviation implies varied experiences with the

effectiveness of existing DSS, signaling a need for enhancements to better support decision-

making processes. The challenge of managing the contradiction between intuitive decision-

making and the use of Decision Support Tools (DST) is ranked tenth, with a mean score of

2.3267. The relatively lower standard deviation suggests a more consistent experience among

decision-makers, highlighting the delicate balance required between traditional and

technological approaches (Yu et al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

From the survey findings, the top and middle managers from a large-scale contractor

organisation always and frequently use the intuition and past experience owned by their

organisation in business or their personal working experience to choose the appropriate type

of IBS. The process of selecting an appropriate type of IBS involves a complex interplay of

various decision-making factors, and among them, intuition and experiences play a crucial

role. The results suggest there is a utilization of intuition, often described as the ability to

make decisions based on gut feelings or implicit knowledge, and experiences, which

encompass past knowledge and lessons learned. This can significantly impact the decision-

making process in the context of IBS. Furthermore, intuition in decision making suggests a

reliance on hunches, instincts, or tacit knowledge when faced with choices related to IBS

methods. This intuitive approach may be influenced by a professional's familiarity with

certain building systems, gained through years of exposure and hands-on experience. On the

other hand, when deciding that type of IBS, the main challenges faced by decision makers are

lack of and unclear strategic project direction and shortfall of important information related

to the product and process of construction using IBS. Decision-makers must navigate

uncertainties in project goals, criteria, and information sharing while addressing the intricate

balance between intuition and advanced tools. The varying standard deviations indicate the

nuanced nature of these challenges across respondents. Organizations can leverage these

insights to tailor interventions, training programs, and decision support systems that address

specific pain points, fostering a more resilient and effective decision-making culture. As the

industry players move forward, acknowledging and proactively addressing these challenges

will be instrumental in enhancing the strategic capabilities of decision-makers and driving

organizational success.

Therefore, this paper recommended that significant knowledge and information should

be explicitly documented and shared for improved decision-making process and results. The

benefits of these knowledge management exercises will ensure the retention of tacit

knowledge owned by expert and experienced managers to be shared or transferred to the

juniors and inexperienced managers.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 100

DEBRIS FLOOD DISCHARGE ANALYSIS AS A BASIS

FOR SABO DAM PLANNING ON THE LEPRAK RIVER

AT SEMERU MOUNTAIN, EAST JAVA

Andrea Sumarah Asih1*, Wahyu Kurniawan1 and Jati Iswardoyo2

1Civil Engineering Study Program, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning, Institut Teknologi Nasional

Yogyakarta, Sleman, Yogyakarta

2Sabo Technical Center, Director General of Natural Resources, Ministry of Public Works and Public

Housing, Yogyakarta

*Corresponding Email: andrea.sa@itny.ac.id

Abstract

The Leprak River, disgorging on Semeru Volcano, is greatly potentially affected by Semeru

Volcano activity, such as lava flows, hot clouds, and cold lava floods (debris flows) during the

rainy season. Debris flows have considerable destructive power to human life, construction

infrastructure and the preservation of the surrounding environment. Mitigation and

management of debris flood disaster are structurally applied including building a sabo dam to

control the cold lava floods. Sabo dam planning requires data input in the form of planned flood

discharge, debris flood discharge based on sediment concentration and stability analysis of the

sabo dam structure. This study intends to analyse the sediment concentration and debris flood

discharge using Standar Nasional Indonesia (SNI) 2851 in 2021. Based on the analysis results,

the sediment concentration is 0.31, while the debris flood discharge is 262.041 m3/s.

Furthermore, magnitude of the debris flood discharge and sediment concentration can be used

as a reference in planning the design of the sabo dam structure.

Keywords: Debris flow; Cold lava flood; Sediment; Volcano; Mitigation

INTRODUCTION

Mount Semeru, which is located between Lumajang and Malang Regencies East Java

Province, is one of the active volcanoes in Indonesia. The research location can be seen in

Figure 1 below. In a major eruption, it emits lava flows and hot clouds that threaten high

elevations on the slopes of the mountain (Suparman et al., 2011). The volcanic activity of

Mount Semeru poses a potential hazard, both directly and indirectly, to the surrounding

community. The direct danger is eruptive material ejection, while the indirect danger is cold

lava floods (debris floods). This flood occurs due to the mixing of loose eruptive sedimentary

material with rainwater on the top of the mountain (upstream area) where the damage caused

is large and the flow velocity is high. This debris flood disaster occurs in rivers that disgorge

on Mount Semeru, one of which is the Leprak River.

High cold lava flood disasters on the Leprak River once happened in the past. According

on Wirayudha (2022), cold lava floods have been recorded since 1909 until the latest news

on April 19, 2022. Only a few floods that occurred caused floods with large discharge

intensities. The major floods occurred from 28th to 29th August 1909, from 12th to 13th

November 1976, 14th May 1981, and December 2021. The cold lava disaster in May 1981 hit

16 villages, damaged 626 hectares of rice fields, and killed 252 people. Meanwhile, the

disaster in December 2021 caused the Gladak Perak Bridge to be cut off and caused 9,417

victims to be evacuated to 402 shelters.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 101

Disaster management should, therefore, be implemented to minimize the impact.

Effective techniques for dealing with sediment and debris flow disasters structurally include

applying the technology of sabo dam construction or check dam (Rahayu et al., 2017). The

sabo dam planning process consists of several stages, such as analysing the planned flood

discharge, determining the location of the sabo dam, analysing debris flood discharge based

on sediment concentration and analysing the stability of the sabo dam structure. This study

aims to analyse sediment concentration and debris flood discharge using SNI 2851 in 2021.

This research is a follow-up to the planned flood discharge analysis research by Kurniawan

(2022).

Figure 1. Research Location Map

METHODOLOGY

Determining Sabo Dam Location

Sabo dam is a transverse water structure in the river that serves to control sediment carried

during debris floods. Sabo dam structures must be properly planned in order that they can

control debris flows effectively. In the sabo dam planning, the location must be considered

according to technical and socio-economic aspects and the dimensions of the sabo dam are

safe from the working forces. According to Aritonang (2021) site selection is chosen based

on the best location from several potential locations on topographic maps as well as field

surveys, so that later it can be accounted for from a technical and socio-economic perspective.

SNI 2851 (2021) explains that the layout of the sabo dam must comply with provisions. For

example, the location of the sabo dam must pay attention to the main function of the building

that has been determined in the sabo plan. The location of the sabo dam is determined in an

area with a large capacity where the inundation area does not endanger settlements and

agricultural land and other infrastructure. The location of the sabo dam in the sabo plan of a

watershed must be integrated with each other and protect against possible dangers of river

degradation.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 102

Sediment Control

Sediment is a solid material in the form of sand and rock with certain gradations or clay

which undergoes a process of being transported by water from one place to another. The

transport of sedimentary material in volcanic areas is known as debris flow. This debris flow

is generally caused by rainfall even though it is of low intensity but of long duration or rainfall

with high intensity but of short duration. This flow occurs in torrents and has a mass density

ranging from 1200-1300 kg/ m3 (BPSDM, 2018).

Turnbull et al. (2015) and Takahashi (2007) stated that debris flow is influenced by

natural conditions, such as slope, rock/soil type, geological structural conditions, slope

hydrology, and land use. According to Hardiyatmo (2012) debris flows can move with flow

velocities ranging from low to very high, so that the carried material can be eroded during

movement down the slope.

Cahyono (2000) and BPSDM (2018) stated that based on the location of the

sediment/debris flow and the impact caused by the movement phenomenon, the flow

movement area is divided into three areas, namely the sediment production area, the sediment

transport area and the sediment deposition area. The form of debris flow control can be

pursued in two ways, namely structural debris flow control and non-structural debris flow

control. Structurally controlling debris flows is by building sabo buildings whose location and

types are adjusted to the purpose of the building. The type of building and its location

schematically can be seen in the following figure.

(Source: Cahyono, 2000)

Figure 2. Types of Sabo Structures by Zone

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 103

Sediment Concentration

SNI 2851 (2021) explains that sediment concentration is determined based on the

sediment flow types and sediment transport zone. Debris flow occurs when the river bed slope

is greater than or equal to the critical bed slope (tan θ ≥ tan θd). Cd value, 0.9C* > Cd > 0.3.

Sediment concentration is determined using the Takahashi Formula (2007).

 

󰇛󰇜󰇛 󰇜 (1)

where:

Cd : debris flow sediment concentration

θ : riverbed slope (o)

Φ : shear angle in sedimentary material

󰇛󰇜

󰇛󰇜󰇡

󰇢 (2)

󰇛󰇜

󰇛󰇜󰇡 

󰇢 (3)

where:

 : critical riverbed slope for debris flow

 : critical riverbed slope for hyper concentrated flow

C* : sediment concentration in the riverbed before moving (0.6)

σ : specific gravity of sediment (kN/m3)

ρ : specific gravity of water (kN/m3)

ϕ : shear angle in bottom grain (°)

k : empirical coefficient in planning (0.85 to 1)

h0 : flow depth

d50 : retained cumulative bottom grain diameter 50 %.

Determination of sediment concentration based on sediment transport zoning according

to the following figure.

(Source: SNI 2851, 2021)

Figure 3. Sediment Transport Zoning

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 104

Design Discharge and Peak Flow Debris Discharge

Pratiwi (2016), stated that the potential for sediment due to volcanic eruptions is generally

calculated based on the amount of deposited material on the slopes of the mountain or in the

river bed after the eruption. The ability of water to transport sediment from the amount of

discharge can be calculated based on the flood discharge obtained from the analysis of rainfall

multiplied by the concentration of sediment in the stream. Thus, the amount of flood discharge

with sediment can be calculated later (design discharge).

According to SNI 2851 (2021) for areas with debris flood characteristics, the peak

discharge of the debris flow, the height of the debris flow, and the average speed of the debris

flow are determined based on the following formula:

 

 (4)

where:

Qsp : debris flow peak discharge (m3/s)

C* : sediment concentration (0.6)

Cd : debris flow sediment concentration (0.9 C*)

Qp : design flood discharge (m3/s)

The width of the debris flow (Bd) is determined as 80% of the width of the river (B) and

the height of the debris flow is determined using the following formula:



 (5)

where:

hd : debris flow depth (m)

Qsp : debris flow peak discharge (m3/s)

Bd : debris flow width (m)

Vdf : debris flow average velocity (m/s)

The average velocity of debris flow (Vdf) is calculated using the following formula (SNI

2851, 2021):

 



󰇛󰇜

 (6)

  

 (7)

where :

R : debris flow radius (m)

θ : riverbed slope (o)

hd : debris flow depth (m)

Bd : debris flow width (m)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 105

 

 (4)

where:

Qsp : debris flow peak discharge (m3/s)

C* : sediment concentration (0.6)

Cd : debris flow sediment concentration (0.9 C*)

Qp : design flood discharge (m3/s)

The width of the debris flow (Bd) is determined as 80% of the width of the river (B) and

the height of the debris flow is determined using the following formula:



 (5)

where:

hd : debris flow depth (m)

Qsp : debris flow peak discharge (m3/s)

Bd : debris flow width (m)

Vdf : debris flow average velocity (m/s)

The average velocity of debris flow (Vdf) is calculated using the following formula (SNI

2851, 2021):

 



󰇛󰇜

 (6)

  

 (7)

where:

R : debris flow radius (m)

θ : riverbed slope (o)

hd : debris flow depth (m)

Bd : debris flow width (m)

The research was conducted by collecting secondary data consisting of rainfall data,

topographical maps, river geometry, sediment concentrations and land cover. These data were

obtained from the Lumajang Water Resources Management Technical Implementation Unit

(UPT PSDA), East Java and the Sabo Engineering Center, Directorate General of Water

Resources, Ministry of Public and Public Housing.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Sabo Dam Site Selection

The sabo dam location was selected based on topographic map visualization with the help

of Google Earth Pro satellite imagery to determine the condition of the morphology of the

Leprak River. Based on satellite imagery, the sabo dam design, named Sabo Dam LE-CD 01,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 106

is planned to be located between two damaged sabo dams so that the morphology of the river

bed is maintained. The LE-CD 01 Sabo Dam Planning location can be seen in Figure 4 below.

The results of the satellite imagery show that the planned location of the sabo dam has a

widened upstream area and a narrower sabo area with the width of the river. This makes the

sabo dam has a large capacity to control sediment material.

Figure 4. LE-CD 01 Sabo Dam Planning Location

After the sabo dam was located, a cross section was made at the location of the planned

sabo dam to determine the condition of the cross section of the river using Google Earth Pro

software to obtain a cross section of 16 crosses with an interval of 20 m. Based on the results

of the cross section, it is estimated that the location of the sabo dam was between cross

sections 5 to 9. To ensure the exact location of the sabo dam, a more detailed cross section is

made at an interval of 5 m at CS 5 to 9 locations. From the results, 17 crosses were obtained

and the location that has the shortest river width and the largest sabo dam capacity was chosen.

Thus, the most appropriate location of the sabo dam is in the cross section 7.2 as in the

following image.

Figure 5. Cross Section 7.2

From Google Earth Pro readings, the location of Sabo Dam LE-CD 01 is determined to

be in Supiturang Village, Pronojiwo District, Lumajang Regency with coordinates

113°0'32.9"E, 8°10'39.6"S. Meanwhile, the slope of the river bed (θ) from the analysis results

at that location is 130. The location of the sabo dam with this slope has met the slope

requirements for the construction of a sabo dam.

In order to get a clearer picture of the location of the sabo dam with a river bed slope

of130, a map of the distribution of sediment transport zones was made based on the slope of

the Leprak River bed using Google Earth Pro. Sediment transport production zones in the

figure are represented in red, transport zones are represented in yellow, and sedimentation

areas are represented in green.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 107

Figure 6. Leprak Riverbed Slope

Figure 7. Distribution of Leprak River Sediment Transport Zones

Sediment Effect Analysis

The sediment effect was analysed to obtain the design flood discharge (planned flood

discharge with sediment) and the peak debris flow discharge. The planned flood discharge

with a return period of 100 years was obtained from previous research (Kurniawan, 2022)

which is 200.03 m3/s. According to SNI 2851 (2021), sabo dam planning in active volcanic

areas uses a planned flood discharge with a return period of 100 years (Q100). The flood

discharge was obtained from an analysis of the frequency of maximum daily rainfall data in

the Rejali watershed on the Leprak River. The rain data used comes from two rain stations,

namely Supiturang Station and Koboan Rainfall Station with a data length of 12 years from

2010 to 2021.The methods used in determining the planned flood discharge were the

Nakayasu Synthetic Unit Hydrograph method and the hourly Mononobe rain distribution.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 108

Sediment Concentration

Before calculating the debris flood discharge, it is necessary to ascertain the type of flow

at the sabo dam planning location and determine the amount of sediment concentration.

Determination of the type of flow at the sabo dam planning site was based on the guideline

of SNI 2851 of 2021. The guideline explains that debris flow occurs when the slope of the

river bed is greater than or equal to the critical base slope for debris flow (tan θ ≥ tan θd).

Based on the slope of the riverbed, θ = 13o from the results of the Google Earth Pro

analysis above, then the shear angle in the sediment,  = 37.1o, the mixed mass density, ρ =

1 t/m3, and the sediment mass density, σ = 2,538 t/m3 taken from previous research on Mount

Semeru by Pratiwi (2016). Furthermore, the volumetric sediment concentration value, C*=

0.6 and the empirical coefficient in planning, k = 0.85 is determined based on SNI 2851

(2021). Thus, it can be calculated that Tan θ = Tan 13o = 0.231, while Tan θd = 0.225. To sum

up, the flow in the planning location of the Leprak River includes the debris one (0.231 ≥

0.225).

The results of calculating the amount of sediment concentration, design discharge and

peak discharge of the debris flow using the formulas 1 to 7 above (SNI 2851, 2021) are then

summarized in the following table.

Table 1. Results of Analysis of Sediment Concentration and Debris Flood Discharge

Calculation Items

Calculation Results

Riverbed slope, tan θ

0.231

Critical basic slope, tan θd

0.225

Sediment concentration, Cd

0.31

Design discharge, Qd

262.041 m3/s

Debris flow peak discharge, Qsp

413.86 m3/s

Debris flow width

88 m

Debris flow height, hd

1 m

Debris flow average velocity, Vdf

4.672 m/det

CONCLUSION

1. The planning of Sabo Dam LE-CD 01 on the Leprak River is one of the ways to control

debris floods in the future considering the high potential for debris flood events as

recorded in previous events.

2. The LE-CD 01 sabo dam is planned to be located on a river bed slope (θ) of 130 with

coordinates 113°0'32.9"E, 8°10'39.6"S precisely in Supiturang Village, Pronojiwo

District, Lumajang Regency, East Java Province.

3. Based on on SNI 2851 in 2021, the sediment concentration is 0.31, while the debris flood

discharge is 262.041 m3/s.

REFERENCES

Aritonang, TD. (2021). Analisis Stabilitas dan Pengendalian Sedimen Sabo Dam WO-C3

(Oprit Kendalsari) Kali Woro, Desa Kendalsari, Kecamatan Kemalang, Kabupaten

Klaten, Propinsi Jawa Tengah. Skripsi. Fakultas Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan ITNY,

Yogyakarta.

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BPSDM. (2018). Konsep Bangunan Sabo. Kementerian PUPR. Bandung.

Cahyono, J. (2000). Pengantar Teknologi Sabo. Yayasan Sabo Indonesia. Yogyakarta.

Hardiyatmo, H.C. (2012). Penanganan Tanah Longsor & Erosi. Gadjah Mada University

Press. Yogyakarta.

Kurniawan W., Asih AS., Iswardoyo, J. (2022). Perencanaan Sabo Dam Le-Cd 01 Tipe

Terbuka Di Sungai Leprak Wilayah Gunungapi Semeru, Jawa Timur. Skripsi. Fakultas

Teknik Sipil dan Perencanaan ITNY, Yogyakarta.

Pratiwi, RDS. (2016). Perencanaan Sabo Dam Tipe Terbuka (Tipe Lubang) sebagai

Bangunan Pengendali Sedimen Gunung Semeru di Sungai Mujur Kabupaten Lumajang.

Skripsi. Fakultas Teknik Sipil Dan Perencanaan ITS, Surabaya.

Rahayu N., Dermawan V., Sisinggih D. (2017). Analisa Potensi Sedimen Debris Di DAS

Konto Pasca Erupsi Gunung Kelud 2014. Jurnal Teknik Pengairan, Volume 8, Nomor 2,

Nopember 2017, hlm 231 -240.

SNI 2851-2021. (2021). Desain Sabodam. Badan Standardisasi Nasional. Jakarta.

Suparman, dkk. 2011. SABO Untuk Penanggulangan Bencana Akibat Aliran Sedimen. Edisi

ke-3, Yayasan Air Adhi Eka. Jakarta.

Takahashi, T. (2007). Debris flow Mechanics, Prediction and Countermeasures. Taylor &

Francis.

Turnbull, B., Bowman, E. T. & McElwaine, J. N. (2015). Debris flows: Experiments and

modelling. Comptes Rendus Physique 16(1): 86.

Wirayudha, R. (2022). Amuk Semeru di Masa Lalu. URL:

https://historia.id/sains/articles/amuk-semeru-di-masa-lalu-6jknw/page/1. Accessed on

15 April 2022.

Wong, A. H. H. (1993) Susceptibility to Soft Rot Decay in Copper-Chrome-Arsenic Treated

and Untreated Malaysian Hardwoods. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Oxford. 341 pp.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 110

FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF FACILITIES

MANAGEMENT (FM) IN AGED CONDOMINIUM: A CASE

STUDY OF KUALA LUMPUR

Farhan Md Dahlan1*, Ashrof Zainuddin1, Mohd Hasrol Haffiz Aliasak1, Siti Rosemawar Mohd Sahi2

and Norbaizura Abdul Wahab1

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

2Institut Penilaian Negara (INSPEN), Jabatan Penilaian dan Perkhidmatan Harta, Kementerian

Kewangan Malaysia, Persiaran INSPEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: farha221@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Poor management practises by condominium management bodies have resulted in disputes

between residents and management bodies. The purpose of this research is to determine and

identify the factors contributing to the efficiency of facilities management (FM) in aged

condominiums. Using the method used by Sajan (2015), a quantitative approach was used to

try to get real data. The factors were initially identified through a literature review. Then, 348

questionnaires were sent to respondents, including facility managers, committee members,

and residents. 52 percent of the questionnaires were filled out, creating a database that can

be used for descriptive and ranking analyses. The research concluded that three of the most

critical factors affecting the efficiency of FM in aged condominiums were financial, learning and

growth, and pre-conditions during the developer’s transition period. Measures to improve the

inefficiency of FM in aged condominiums were obtained, such as improvement of the

management of financial accounts, enforcement and ensuring the payment is done timely, an

intervention of the government to ensure that the developer is responsible for the management

and governance decisions, as well as leadership and motivation among the facilities managers,

staff, and residents.

Keywords: Facilities management; Condominium; Efficiency

INTRODUCTION

Facilities management (FM) is an organisational support function. It is the integration of

processes within an organisation to maintain and develop services to enhance the

effectiveness of its primary activities. FM ensures that each component of a building functions

optimally and meets the changing needs of its users.

FM affects neighbourhood conditions. Neighbourhood conditions constitute one of the

most expected qualities of life indicators, such as rights for safety, harmony, good conditions

of facilities and physical buildings, and conducive neighbourhoods. From 2002 to 2011, the

United Kingdom government initiated the Housing Market Renewal Initiative (HMRI)

Pathfinder programme, which is a scheme of demolition, refurbishment, and new building

aimed at renewing failing housing markets in particular states across the nation (Kasim,

2011). This case study gives insight into the fact that there is a need and opportunity for FM

to realign its business operations with the public interest as the initial strategy for tackling the

social and economic deprivations of the identified neighbourhoods across the nation.

In other citations, Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United

Nations Human Rights, 2008) stipulates that anyone has the right to an acceptable standard

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 111

of living. In addition, the Malaysian National Housing Policy (2018–2025) emphasises the

maintenance of existing housing in order to develop cohesive and high-quality

neighbourhoods. These two references suggest the need to assess the factors affecting the

efficiency of facility management in aged condominiums.

Relative to individual landed housing, residents, particularly the homeowners of

condominiums, will have less independence from their neighbours (Guilding et al., 2014).

This is because they are part of the same management body that manages the condominium.

This impacts the residents due to factors such as house rules or by-law creation, repair and

maintenance operations, and the setting of service charges and contributions to the sinking

fund. Condominiums feature essential facilities such as a playground for children and building

services such as an elevator, electricity supply, and water supply (Tiun, 2006). Additionally

included are vertical transportation systems, landscaping and gardening, swimming pools,

sports and recreational facilities, social facilities, sheltered parking areas, and high-security

accessibility (Au-Yong, Jin, Chua et al., 2019). The more facilities that are provided, the more

complex the management becomes.

The management and maintenance of these common properties, services, facilities, and

physical buildings are crucial to ensuring their operability and functionality. Eventually,

demanding integration of FM discipline and local communities towards the effectiveness of

FM organisations aiming for an acceptable standard of living. It is essential to manage

common properties, services, facilities, and physical buildings in a systematic and effective

way, as it will affect the economic value of the condominiums (Rahmawati, Utomo, Suhailah

et al., 2020). As stressed by Abidoye and Chan (2016), property state of repair, availability of

neighbourhood security, and neighbourhood characteristics, as well as property age, are most

influential on the economic value of condominiums.

Such complexities are more apparent in regions where residents' demographic profiles are

diverse. Such a circumstance requires systematic and organised management. Several prior

studies have determined that aged condominiums pose a greater risk than modern high-rises.

If a structure collapses, ignorance can have disastrous results. Such occurrences render it

impossible to extend the lifecycle of a building and hasten its demise (Vergara, Gruis, & van

der Flier, 2019). In turn, these will have an effect on real estate revenue (Hui et al., 2013).

The management and maintenance of FM in the residential setting should be seriously

attended to following Malaysia’s agreement in the Declaration of Habitat Agenda and Agenda

21, which was agreed in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 on sustainable development (Federal

Department of Town and Country Planning, 2016). The sustainability aspect should be

prioritised by the Malaysian government until the matter becomes a core essence of the Tenth

Malaysian Plan (2011–2015). The matters were also recently clarified in the essence of the

Malaysian National Housing Policy (2018–2025).

Recent evidence claims that the FM of common properties, services, facilities, and

physical buildings has a significant effect on the quality of the residents’ buildings. According

to Jonsson (2020), the FM strategies applied by housing cooperatives (known as management

bodies in Malaysia) would have a significant effect on the residents’ perception of the

building’s quality. Formecitation by Sia, Chin Yew, Lim, et al. (2017) argued that the quality

of facilities and services provided by management was also found to determine the extent of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 112

residents’ satisfaction with the building. Hence, the pieces of evidence indicate that residents

need to "feel in control of their environment", thus emphasising the existence of a relationship

between human beings and their places of residence, as cited by previous scholars (Dupuis &

Thorns, 1998).

Such indicates the relevance between the demands of FM disciplines and local

community in providing common properties, services, facilities and physical building at

optimum functionality and meet the residents’ need in changing conditions. Thus, there is a

need to achieve an acceptable standard of living and develop a cohesive and good quality

neighbourhood in aged condominium. Further, enhance the life span of the building, ensure

the common properties, services, facilities and physical building fit for its purpose, maintain

the economic value of the properties and enhance the residents’ safety and comfort.

Annually, building maintenance costs typically increase by 0.5% (Lee et al., 2016). Ivor

(1987) predicted that the cost of maintaining the building would increase dramatically over

the next twenty years, before levelling off dependent on the longevity of the structure.

However, postponing maintenance work and neglecting to perform it regularly would cause

the cost of repairing a building facility to exceed its actual cost.

Likewise, due to the natural deterioration of the building itself, the relationship between

building age and building performance may theoretically be linked to a lack of financial

resources to maintain or repair aged buildings (Yau et al., 2008). When the age of a building

increases, some major maintenance activities, such as painting work, the replacement of new

roof tiles, mechanical and electrical elements, and other works, are required to extend the life

of the building. This indicates that the financial resources for maintenance activities are likely

to increase as the building ages. Financial resources in condominiums are limited as they

come from service charges and sinking fund payments by homeowners. However, the quality

of services provided by the management affects the payment behaviour of the residents

(Rasip, 2017), which in turn leads to insufficient funds.

In order to ensure the efficiency of FM for aged condominiums is improved, it is

important to determine the factors affecting them. By identifying the factors, it provides more

information regarding the efficiency of FM in aged condominiums. Then, the result could

assist the management bodies in reducing the dispute among the residents and management

bodies. Therefore, the main objective of this research was to identify the critical factors

affecting the efficiency of FM in aged condominiums that have been described by other

researchers.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE EFFICIENCY OF FACILITIES MANAGEMENT IN

AGED CONDOMINIUM

This section provides the factors affecting the efficiency of FM organisations managing

aged condominiums. In this research, the identification of factors focuses on internal and

external factors (Vieira et al., 2019) of FM organisations, with a focus on human-related

factors because, according to Aziz et al. (2016) and Muhamad Ariff (2018), the role of

stakeholders is a key determinant of management effectiveness in high-rise-type housing. In

condominium living, the effectiveness of property and facility maintenance is important in

both economic and socio-political aspects (Tiun, 2006). Improving an organisation’s

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 113

performance requires identifying and measuring the impact of management practises

(Demirbag et al., 2006; Salaheldin, 2009). Such would facilitate the achievement of the

government’s aspirations, which include the maintenance of existing housing (Jabatan

Perumahan Negara, 2018) under the Malaysian National Housing Policy (2018–2025). This

research involves seven (7) factors identified by the literature as the following:

Financial Factor

The services provided by an FM organisation include the management, administration,

and maintenance of common properties, services, and physical structures. For the smooth

management of these tasks, sufficient financial resources are required. Financial in managing

condominiums are used for administration, maintenance spending, exclusive facilities

maintenance, and also for major which needs a large amount of money. Residents' payment

of service charges and contributions to a sinking fund are the only sources of income for these

housing schemes. If the budget is insufficient, then appropriate repairs and maintenance

cannot be performed. It led to catastrophic results in the event of building failure (Gifford,

2007), as well as in ageing structures (Vergara et al., 2019). In turn, this impacts the residents'

safety and comfort, shortens the building's lifecycle, and causes the common areas, services,

and physical structure to malfunction.

Committee Members’ Factor

Committee members are unit owners who are elected at the annual general meeting

(AGM) by the residents. They include the chairman, secretary, and treasurer, who serve as

the pillars of decision making as the top management. In managing condominiums, they are

indispensable as the mechanism representing the residents' voice. They are responsible for the

upkeep and administration of the common properties, services, facilities, and physical

structures. This measure ensures that the aged condominium maintains an acceptable level of

quality and functionality.

Pre-Condition During Developer Transition Period

The developer constructs the condominium from the stage of strategic definition to the

stage of transfer to subsequent management. According to Blandy, Dixon, and Dupuy (2006),

the capacity of a developer to coordinate governance, decision-making, and overall

development management has long-term implications. These actions are reflected in the

contracts signed, the quality of the building, the design and layout, the service charge

forecasting, and the funds raised to maintain common areas (Easthope, Warnkern, Sherry et

al., 2014; Sajan, 2015; Waziri, 2016). Upon completion, the developer is responsible for

determining, among other things, the service charges settings and service providers. These

are indications that the developer's role during the pre-construction phase of a condominium

has a direct bearing on the effectiveness of the FM management of aged housing.

Learning and Growth

The learning and growth process calls for the participation of the key stakeholders. The

key stakeholders in the management of building maintenance are the maintenance manager

and staff, organisations, building users, and maintenance service providers (Au-Yong, Shah

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 114

Ali et al., 2017). The same researchers claimed that the involvement of key stakeholders with

close communication among them improves the effectiveness of FM. A principal aim of

learning and growth is directed at measuring human capital. Ratnasingam (2009) recognised

human capital as the skills, knowledge, expertise, business cultural attitudes, and the degree

of training given to employees. In the FM industry, human capital is critical for continuous

enhancement of the delivered services, which De Toni et al. (2007) argued to be dependent

on the service or the outsourcing process. De Toni et al. (2007) reiterated that new services

or just little innovations may alter and upgrade the current services and outsourcing processes.

Competence Facilities Manager

A facilities manager is appointed by a management organisation to provide agency

services on their behalf. Yong Yung (2015) states that the agent is a trustee appointed by unit

proprietors to administer their assets for a third party. In other terms, the agent is maintenance

staff involved in the maintenance of the condominium, holding the position of building

managers, building executives, facilities manager, or resident's manager, who labour daily for

the official housing scheme management body. They are responsible for the creation and

implementation of maintenance programmes (Chua et al., 2018). They play a crucial role in

FM because they superintend the maintenance process and ensure that related duties are

effectively carried out. The facilities manager was a member of the Managing Agent (MA)

staff in the current study.

Residents

Typically, the owners of a building are involved in its day-to-day management and daily

use. Residents are the primary beneficiaries of effective management and the primary victims

of ineffectual management (Gao, 2015). Residents, particularly homeowners, have greater

incentives to participate in FM management than other stakeholders (government,

management body, individual homeowners, MA if appointed, tenants, and the general public,

including pedestrians and visitors). Statutorily, they are required to administer their

condominium (Gao, 2015). Their function is essential to effective management practises.

Leadership and Motivation

Motivation and leadership are inextricably linked. Leadership is defined by Oxford

University Press as "the state or position of being a manager or the person in charge" (Oxford

University Press, 2021). In the meantime, motivation is defined as what employees do, how

they do it, and their level of effort. Graves and Sarkis (2018) reference Meyer et al. According

to Graves and Sarkis (2018), employees who perceived their managers to be more engaged in

environmental transformational leadership reported greater motivation, positive emotions,

additional resources, and collaboration. Environmental values were also associated with both

internal and external employee motivation. Moreover, the relationship between leadership

and motivation was moderated by employees' values; leadership perceptions were most

positively associated with internal motivation among employees with strong environmental

values. Consequently, environmental transformational leadership may be most effective at

boosting the internal motivation of employees who value the environment.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 115

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research was conducted using a quantitative approach, based on the work undertaken

by Sajan (2015), to which a face-to-face survey was recognized as the most suitable method

if the accessibility to reach the respondents is a significant challenge due to the privacy and

security of residents. Purposive sampling was adopted to determine potential and relevant

respondents who have been or are currently involved in FM in the aged condominium within

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Furthermore, the respondents were required to answer questions

based on their experience or involvement in FM for aged condominiums. In this research, a

total of 348 questionnaires were distributed to the committee members as the owners’ front-

line representative, facilities manager with the position of building managers, building

executives, facilities manager, strata manager or resident’s manager which work in daily basis

of official management body; and residents used to be members of the committee members.

Aged housing schemes were chosen in accordance with Section 85A of the Building,

Road, and Drainage Act 1974 (Act 133) for buildings that are 5 storeys and above. The Act

stipulates that after the 10th year from the first date of Certificate of Completion and

Compliance (CCC) or Certificate of Fitness for Occupation (CFO). It is mandatory for the

building owner to conduct regular inspections of their building. These criteria of selection are

more significant to the research as maintenance activities in condominium are found to be at

their greatest cost impact within more than ten (10) years post-construction (Kim et al., 2019).

These buildings have shown obvious signs of obsolescence. Out of 181 responses, 152 were

found to be useful and valid for the analysis. The remaining questionnaires were incomplete

or invalid for some reason. Hence, a response rate of 52 per cent was achieved.

Data Analysis and Discussion

This research involved 152 respondents, of which each aged condominium is represented

by three (3) groups of respondents; committee members, residents who used to be committee

members, and facilities manager. The findings of the descriptive analysis for the category of

respondents are shown in Table 1. The majority of the respondents are supervisors (47.37

percent), followed by residents (38.81 percent). Committee members constituted the lowest

category of respondents (13.82 percent). This is not surprising given that they work on a

voluntary basis and in a part-time mode. They are also considered busy individuals with their

full-time job, hence the difficulty in reaching them. Body Text: Times New Roman, 11 pt.

All paragraphs must be differentiated by 0.64 cm tab.

Table 1. Category of Respondents (n=152)

Respondents’ Characteristic

Subprofile

Frequency

Percentage

Category of Respondents

Committee members

21

13.82%

Residents

59

38.81%

Facilities Manager

72

47.37%

Total

152

100.00%

The committee members’ and facilities managers’ length of holding their current position

was needed to identify their experience and maturity in matters relating to the management

of FM in aged condominium. Based on the number of respondents, the results indicate that

most of the committee members and facilities managers have less than five (5) years of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 116

experience in their current position (46.23 per cent). Among them, thirty-four (34) are

facilities managers who have less than five (5) years in their current position, while nine (9)

of them are committee members. The residents were not considered in this query.

About 23.66 per cent are 5 to 10 years in their current position, followed by those who

are eleven (11) to fifteen (15) years in their current position (11.83 per cent). About 6.45 per

cent of the respondents have held their current position for more than 16 years. They consist

of five (5) facilities managers and only one (1) committee member (Table 2). Whereas the

missing value is 11.83 percent. This finding indicates that the lack of experience among the

committee members and facilities managers, who are the key stakeholders in managing

condominiums, as most of them have less than 5 years of experience. Such a state implies that

they have less knowledge and experience in managing aged condominiums.

Table 2. Length of Holding Current Position

Respondents’

Characteristic

Subprofile

Frequency (n)

Percentage

Committee

Members

Supervisor

Total

Length of Holding

Current Position among

Committee members

and Supervisor (n= 93)

Less than 5 years

9

34

43

46.23%

5 to 10 years

2

20

22

23.66%

11 to 15 years

2

9

11

11.83%

More than 16 years

1

5

6

6.45%

Missing value

7

4

11

11.83%

Total

21

72

93

100.00%

Ranking analysis was used by ranking the key variables shown in Table 3. The mean

score (with 1 – not very critical to 5 – very critical) was used to rank the factors affecting the

efficiency of FM in aged condominiums. The main purpose of ranking analysis is to indicate

the differences in the level of critical on FM efficiency among the variables.

Table 3. Ranking Analysis Based on Type of Respondent

Factors

Overall (n=152)

Mean

Std. Deviation

Rank

Financial

4.20

0.84

1

Residents

4.13

0.81

2

Pre-condition during Developer Transition Period

4.12

0.93

3

Leadership & Motivation

4.02

0.91

4

Committee Members

3.97

0.89

5

Competence Facilities Managers

3.89

0.97

6

Learning & Growth

3.83

0.95

7

In Table 3, the financial factor (µ = 4.20) was rated the highest rank as the most critical

factors affecting the efficiency of FM in aged condominiums. This means that the financial

factor was identified as crucial for controlling the quality and functionality of properties and

assets. The result of analysis is proven that budget shortage was found to possibly lead

improper repair and maintenance. It is believed that an organization’s budget shortage

impeding repair and maintenance activities (Chong, Mohammed, Abdullah et al., 2019). This

factor may have catastrophic consequences in the event of building failure (Gifford, 2007),

not to mention in ageing structures (Vergara et al., 2019). The safety and convenience of the

residents are compromised, the building's lifespan is truncated, and the common areas,

services, facilities, and physical structure may become inoperable. The service charges are

imposed by the developer according to facilities provided, hence timely payment will avoid

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 117

arrears and may affect the FM in the condominiums as the financial resources come from the

residents.

Residents’ factor (µ = 4.13) was ranked second for factors affecting the efficiency of FM

in aged condominiums. Residents typically utilise a building on a daily basis and participate

in its day-to-day management. They are required by law to manage their condominiums. The

residents must share the responsibilities in order to live in peace and harmony. Collective

actions are necessary among them (Ho et al., 2006; Gao, 2015; Gao & Chen, 2016) in order

to attain the same benefits and an acceptable standard of living. Hence, every resident is bound

by the laws and regulations enshrined in Section 32 Act 757 and the Third Schedule, Strata

Management Regulations 2015, By-Laws. The residents also need to consider building

maintenance as stipulated in Act 757; it is essential for the residents to make payment of the

service charges and sinking funds. Therefore, it is determined that residents’ role is the key

to good management practices.

Easthope and Randolph (2016) reported that the developer’s action during the initial

establishment of the scheme can have a significant impact on effective governance throughout

the life of the building. The statement is verified by this finding, whereby the pre-condition

during developer transition period (µ = 4.12) are one of the highest ranked factors (third)

affecting the efficiency of FM in aged condominiums. This finding confirms Sajan's (2015)

assertion that poor design, inadequate building regulation, and potential certification

inconsistencies are the primary prospective causes of high operational maintenance costs.

Easthope et al. (2014) argued that developers are accountable for selecting their design and

construction professional team from the stage of strategic definition to the point of vacant

possession. As a result, identifying operation and maintenance concerns during the strategic

definition phase is crucial, as the measure will impact a building's sustainability.

Leadership and motivation (µ = 4.02) were the fourth-ranked factor that affecting the

efficiency of FM in aged condominiums. It is believed that leadership qualities are essential

in facilities managers to enable them to assist the committee members in the delivery of FM

operational activities. According to Lee et al. (2016) housing management ascertained that

the higher the leadership of the office managers (known as facilities managers), the higher the

residents’ satisfaction. Residents’ satisfaction reflects the quality of facilities and maintenance

services appearing in the physical conditions of the building (Sia et al., 2017). In addition,

FM work tasks largely require continuous and recurrent maintenance activities. Facilities

managers may lose interest and motivation to work. This is proven by this research as most

of the facilities managers involved were less than five years working experience in the current

condominiums. The differences of residents’ backgrounds in terms of socio-economic status,

culture, types of residents, attitude or action towards the property, and interests in occupying

the strata housing schemes, are bound to cause disagreements and disputes among the staff

and residents (Yau, 2018). Therefore, Ling and Wong (2016) suggested promoting a sense of

responsibility and renewed interest among staff will result in greater internal work motivation.

It is determined that committee members (µ = 3.97) were ranked the fifth-ranked. This

finding is consistent with Tyagi et al.'s (2015) assertion that top management is accountable

for all activities within an organisation, particularly the formulation of a vision for the

successful implementation of mandated and proposed changes. In the context of this study,

"top management" refers to the committee members elected by unit owners to represent them

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 118

in the management and governing of their condominiums. Their primary responsibility is to

make decisions within the framework established by the management of the housing scheme

in order to achieve the goals set by the management (Johnston and Too, 2015). The remaining

factors competence facilities manager (µ = 3.89) and learning and growth (µ = 3.83) can also

conclude as critical because they fall within the range of critical scale. However, learning and

growth were perceived as the least critical.

Based on the ranking analysis results, the authors found that the first-ranked factor that

affecting the FM in aged condominium is financial factors. However, three of the highest-

ranked factors were residents, pre-condition during developer transition period and leadership

and motivation. As a result, the important factors to be considered in aged condominiums are

financial factor, residents, pre-condition during developer transition period, and leadership

and motivation.

CONCLUSION

The literature review identified seven factors affecting the efficiency of FM in aged

condominiums. After the analysis of data, it was found that four of the most critical factor

affecting the efficiency of FM in aged condominiums were financial factor, residents, pre-

condition during developer transition period and leadership and motivation. In summary,

various measures to improve the efficiency of the FM in aged condominiums were outline as

follows:

1. Improvement of the management of financial accounts, service charges amount,

adequacy of finance to manage the overall expenditure as well as the collection from

the residents.

2. The enforcement and ensuring the payment done timely to avoid arrears in addition

of collective action among the heterogenous residents and staffs.

3. An intervention of government to ensure that the developer is responsible for the

management and governance decisions as early as in the strategic definition stage.

The decisions might relate to establishing management contracts, initial development

budgets, by-laws, the establishment of service utility and facility contracts etc., to

facilitate long-term housing scheme development functionality and viability.

4. Leadership and motivation among the facilities managers, staff, and the residents.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express their gratitude towards Universiti Teknologi MARA,

Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus for the support in the form of a grant [900-

KPK/PJI/GKIPP/01(0013/2018)] which made this research possible.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 122

MEASURING MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION

IMPACTS OF HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY

Martina Jasoffa Omar1, Mazlina Zaira Mohammad1, Nor Syamimi Samsudin2*, Natasha Khalil2,

Iryani Abdul Halim Choo2 and Nur Dalila Nadzri3

1School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, University Teknologi Mara (UiTM) 40450, Shah

Alam, Selangor, MALAYSIA

2Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA,Perak Branch, 32610, Seri Iskandar,Perak, MALAYSIA

3Manchester School of Architecture, Manchester Metropolitan University, Chatham Building, Cavendish

Street, Manchester M15 6BR, United Kingdom

*Corresponding Email: norsya992@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

The construction industry often neglects the importance of maintenance and operation

processes due to a lack of exposure and awareness regarding their significant impacts. The

main goals of this systematic literature review research paper are to review the relationship

between the maintenance and operation of high-rise residential buildings and sustainability

issues due to the rising demand for high-rise residential buildings in developing countries and

to identify maintenance and operation impacts by assessing the indicators used. The next goal

of this systematic literature review research paper is to provide the conceptual framework from

the previous research data for measuring the maintenance and operation impacts on the

sustainability of high-rise residential buildings. The developed conceptual framework can help

and guide future researchers to identify and be more aware of maintenance and operation

impacts on the sustainability of high-rise residential buildings. By following the PRISMA

protocol of conducting the systematic literature review (SLR), three stages of screening are

conducted, and two software had been used which is Scimago and Atlas.ti software to evaluate

and produce the quantitative analysis of the eighteen (18) selected papers. The development

of a network diagram from the Atlas.ti helps the development of the conceptual framework and

highlights the key findings of the three pillars of sustainability where economic (on the economic

performance and investment), environmental (emission, rules and regulations, energy

consumption, material resources, and sewage and wastes), and social (customers, employee

and law and regulations).

Keywords: Maintenance impact; Operation Impact; Sustainability; Sustainable; and High-rise

Residential Building

INTRODUCTION

Construction projects are commonly defined as organised processes of constructing,

renovating, and refurbishing buildings, structures, or infrastructure. They encompass five

vital phases: initiation, planning, implementation, performance, and monitoring, with the final

phase being closure. Initiation, as articulated by Lingard et al., 2017), represents the stage

where all necessary steps are taken before project approval. This phase primarily focuses on

defining the project at a high level and aligning it with the business cases it aims to address.

The planning phase involves the development of a comprehensive plan that guides the project

through implementation and closure. The implementation phase entails putting the project

plan into action. The performance and monitoring phase, in contrast to other phases, is

ongoing, spanning from the project’s outset to its completion. This phase involves constant

oversight of tasks and the comparison of actual performance with planned performance. The

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 123

final phase, closure, is where all deliverables are finalised, and all work is completed in

accordance with the project plan and scope, as noted by Safa et al., 2015.

In the context of Asian countries like Malaysia, characterised by higher population

density, economic development, and urbanisation, there is a growing demand for high-rise

residential buildings. Over time, Malaysia’s construction industry has matured, with the

quality of the environment becoming a key factor in attracting potential buyers and

developers. ‘Green buildings’ and ‘sustainability’ have become well-known concepts among

both potential buyers and developers. To maintain the sustainability of these buildings, regular

maintenance is imperative. High-rise buildings, characterised by their multi-story design,

often require mechanical vertical transportation, such as elevators.

Within the construction process, two critical criteria that significantly influence the

building’s lifecycle are design and maintenance, as highlighted by Samsudin et al., 2023.

Unfortunately, maintenance is frequently overlooked during building construction, with

maintenance teams seldom involved in the design process. This oversight leads to challenges

for maintenance teams, making it difficult for them to carry out their responsibilities

effectively, as discussed by Silva et al., 2016. The awareness of maintenance-sustainability

issues has been growing among researchers, with studies like those Aksah et al., 2016;

Chohan et al., 2015; De Silva & Ranasinghe, 2010, shedding light on the topic. However,

while sustainability is a popular term in contemporary research, most researchers tend to focus

on one sustainability pillar in their studies rather than consider a holistic view with a detailed

classification of maintenance impacts on all three dimensions or pillars of sustainability.

Furthermore, maintenance practices still rely on conventional measures to evaluate their

impact on sustainability, and until 2015, most papers lacked sustainability indicators for

assessing maintenance and operation impacts on these three sustainability pillars. However,

recent studies that have introduced classifications for measuring maintenance and operation

performance have yet to provide a comprehensive framework of sustainability performance

indicators affected by maintenance and operation processes.

Maintenance and Operation Impacts of High-Rise Residential Buildings

According to Jasiulewicz-Kaczmarek and Stachowiak (2016), maintenance is a major

lever of organisational efficiency in the industrial context. Maintenance is applied to keep its

production system in an efficient state and provide products with quality requirements.

Maintenance is outlined as the technical, administrative, and management combinations of

actions during the life cycle of an item intended to preserve or restore it to a state in which it

can perform the required function. The first goal of this systematic literature review paper is

to determine the maintenance and operation of high-rise residential buildings and sustainable

issues in Malaysia. The second goal aimed to review the maintenance and operation of high-

rise residential building’s impacts on sustainability. The last goal is to identify the indicators

for assessing maintenance and operations impacts. In order to reach such goals, a systematic

literature review was conducted to analyse all the content of selected papers and come up with

a better holistic framework of maintenance impacts on three pillars of sustainability, which

are economic, environmental, and social aspects.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 124

Maintenance is the most critical issue ignored in construction industries worldwide (Chew

et al., 2019; Kampamba et al., 2020; Khalid et al., 2019). Most of the country often focuses

on construction without seeing the importance of maintenance or impacts, ignoring the

maintenance and operation of construction projects. This study significantly helps the new

researchers gain data about maintenance and operation impacts on high-rise buildings in

Malaysia. A systematic literature review appraises previous research data and selects the most

evidence-based practice to create a great summary of maintenance impacts in construction.

METHODOLOGY

During the Malaysia Movement Control Order, which effectively restricted all movement

and mass gatherings, including social and cultural activities, Malaysians were prohibited from

leaving the country, and non-Malaysians were barred from entry. This measure also led to the

closure of most local and federal industries, compelling a significant portion of the workforce

to work remotely. Consequently, obtaining primary data through on-site interviews or

participant observations became unfeasible during the Movement Control Order, creating a

substantial limitation. To address this constraint, we opted for an alternative approach, using

existing data as case study materials for this research paper. This decision was prompted by

the prevailing circumstances and the impracticality of obtaining primary data through

traditional means.

It’s worth noting that the state of maintenance management in Malaysia was atypical and

outdated compared to more developed countries like Hong Kong and Singapore (Ta, 2006).

Furthermore, the current situation, characterised by delays and challenges in scheduling

interviews, rendered the acquisition of data from management departments in Malaysia’s

industries a time-consuming process. The need to schedule appointments in advance,

combined with the ongoing Movement Control Order, made it practically impossible to

collect the necessary data before the imposed deadline.

In light of these constraints, we opted to employ qualitative research methods. Qualitative

methods hold particular value in offering rich explanations of complex research topics,

tracking unique or unexpected aspects of the research, capturing diverse interpretations and

experiences, amplifying voices rarely heard, and conducting preliminary investigations to

develop and generate theories.

For this systematic literature review, we utilised three different online databases: Scopus,

Web of Science (WoS), and ScienceDirect, accessed through UiTM EzAccess website. In the

systematic literature review, previous research papers were carefully examined, and content

analysis was conducted with the assistance of Scimago and Atlas.ti software. This process

entailed the identification and categorisation of keywords and definitions related to

maintenance and operation in high-rise residential buildings.

To ensure transparency and rigour in the systematic literature review process, we adhered

to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)

protocol. The review was conducted in three stages, involving the screening of selected

research papers, and the data analysis was facilitated by Atlas.ti software, as referenced in

Samsudin et al. (2022, 2023). This approach allowed us to generate a graphical network view,

providing a comprehensive overview of the results.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 125

Table 1. Research Database and Keywords Structured

Database

Scopus

Web of Science

ScienceDirect

Search String

TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“maintenance” OR

“maintenance impact”) AND

(“operation” OR “operation impact”)

AND (“sustainability” OR “sustainable”)

AND (“high rise residential building” OR

“residential building”))

TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“maintenance

impact”) OR (“operation impact”) AND

(“sustainability” OR “sustainable”) AND

(“high rise residential building” OR

“residential building”))

Source: Author’s Illustration (2023)

Figure 1. Search Queries Process

Figure 1 above illustrates the flowchart of the research methodology used for this paper.

The systematic literature review was conducted following a structured procedure. Three of

the largest scientific, multi-disciplinary online databases – Scopus, Web of Science, and

ScienceDirect – were utilised for this paper. These databases cover major journal publishers

such as Elsevier, Emerald, and Wiley and were accessed through UiTM EzAccess. To ensure

comprehensiveness, keywords were structured into four different sets, which were chosen in

alignment with the research objectives and three research questions. The first set included

“maintenance” OR “maintenance impact,” the second set “operation” OR “operation impact,”

the third set “sustainability” OR “sustainable,” and the fourth set involved “high-rise

residential building” OR “residential building.” Boolean operators such as OR and AND were

used to connect keywords within each set. An example of the search string used for the Scopus

database is TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“maintenance” OR “maintenance impact”) AND

(“operation” OR “operation impact”) AND (“sustainability” OR “sustainable”) AND (“high-

rise residential building” OR “residential building”)).

In terms of inclusion and exclusion criteria for selecting relevant papers, there were no

limitations imposed in terms of the year of publication. The literature search encompassed

materials available up to October 2021. Only papers in their final stages of publication, open

access, and in English were considered.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 126

For the data analysis, four steps were conducted. The first step involved a screening and

analysis process in which three steps were undertaken to select papers relevant to maintenance

and operation in high-rise residential buildings. The first step involved the reading of the title

and abstract of selected papers. Exclusion criteria during this phase included topics that

showed no relationship with the aims of this paper and its research questions. The second step

involved reading the full text of the papers, and any papers that did not meet the research

questions were excluded. Finally, the third step encompassed a screening of the references

cited in the selected papers. Any related or relevant references were included for additional

review. Results from the three steps of screening were included in the analyses, conclusions,

and recommendations for future researchers.

The next procedure involved identifying the elements that would be included in the three

dimensions often referred to as ‘cubes of knowledge’. This conceptual framework was

developed to address the research challenges and answer the research questions of this study.

As per Alhouli (2011) a conceptual framework can be theory-driven or based on common

sense, indicating what will and will not be studied by providing dimensions and explaining

the possible relationships among elements within those dimensions based on logic. The

elements are selected according to the framework’s objectives. The first dimension represents

the maintenance process, which is related to the first research question aimed at identifying

the relationship between maintenance and operation with sustainability. The second

dimension represents the type of maintenance impacts, whether direct or indirect and serves

as a reference system to address the second research question concerning the impacts of

maintenance and operation on sustainability. The third dimension represents sustainability

categories, including economic, environmental, and social aspects, to ensure a holistic

perspective in line with the sustainability concept (Eslami et al., 2019).

The third step involves identifying the sustainability indicators adopted for measuring

maintenance and operation impacts. This entails selecting sustainability indicators affected

by maintenance and operation, referring to EN 17007:2017, and classifying these indicators

as either directly or indirectly affected.

The final step involves creating and designing the conceptual framework within the

cube’s dimensions with the elements identified in the second step as outlined in the flowchart.

This conceptual framework is prepared to provide future researchers with a general overview,

enabling them to understand the selection of indicators and the identification of elements for

each dimension.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Quantitative Findings

The research string conducted were resulting to analyse 18 articles. Figure 2 displays the

quantity of documents published each year and Figure 3 displays the country that published

the articles of this study. There are two papers that been published in 2012, 2015, 2019 and

2020. On the year of 2016 and 2021 only, one papers that been published on each year and

2017 resulted in the highest published paper on from eighteen selected paper which four

papers had been publish on that year. In 2018, three selected papers had been published.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 127

Source: Author’s Illustration (2023)

Figure 2. Publication Years

Source: Author’s Illustration (2023)

Figure 3. Publication of Studies According to Countries

According to the countries publication of the selected papers shown in Figure 4, majority

of the selected paper is from Malaysia that contribute 28% followed by Poland 17%, United

Kingdom, Australia and China 11%, Russia and Latvia 6% and the remaining are from Austria

and Taiwan 5%.

Table 2 displays the quantity of publications published from 2012 to 2021. In 2012, the

selected paper was published in Int J Life Cycle Assess and the International Journal of

Sustainable Development. In 2015, the Proceedings of International Structural Engineering

& Construction and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) were the publishers that

published the selected papers. Meanwhile, papers in 2016 are from Facility Maintenance and

Management and Matec Web of Conferences 66. Papers in 2017 are from Procedia

Engineering, which produced three papers and one from the International Journal of Lean Six

Sigma. In 2018, Civil Engineering Journal, IOP Publishing and MDPI Buildings were the

publishers of the selected paper, and in 2019 from the International Journal of Recent

Technology & Engineering (IJRTE). In 2020, the selected papers are from Engineering

Modelling and the International Journal of Building Pathology & Adaptation, while in 2021,

the publishers are the Journal of Building Engineering and the Journal of Cleaner Production.

Malaysia

28%

China

11%

Poland

17%

United

Kingdom

11%

Australia

11%

Taiwan

5%

Austria

5%

Latvia

6%

Russia

6%

Publication of Studies According to Countries

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 128

Table 2. Quantity of Publications Published From 2012 To 2021

Publication

2012

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Journal of Building Engineering

1

Matec Web of Conferences 66

1

Journal of Cleaner Production

1

Procedia Engineering

3

Proceedings of International Structural Engineering &

Construction

1

MDPI Buildings

1

Facility Maintenance and Management

1

American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)

1

Civil Engineering Journal

1

IOP Publishing

1

International Journal of Lean Six Sigma

1

Engineering Modelling

1

International Journal of Building Pathology & Adaptation

1

International Journal Recent Technology & Engineering

(IJRTE)

1

Int J Life Cycle Assess

1

International Journal of Sustainable Development

1

Total

2

4

3

1

2

(Source: Authors Illustration, 2023)

Figure 4. List of Publications Based on Year

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 129

From this figure, Procedia Engineering is the highest publication in 2017, and 2017 is the

highest quantity of papers published, followed by 2018.

Figure 5. Type of Documents Selected

Figure 5 displays various types of data collection implemented in the reviewed

documents. From the selected articles, 6 are from the conference paper, and another 12 are

from the journal. While Figure 6 shows the scientific journal ranking (SJR), which is the

impact factor of each journal that was calculated through a network analysis of citations using

Scimago. SJR has been measured by quartiles where Q1 represents the top 25% of journals

while Q4 is the lowest 25%.

Figure 6. Scientific Journal Ranking (SJR)

Qualitative Analysis

The data from eighteen selected papers that passed all three screenings are being reviewed

using Atlas.ti software and has been summarised by the network view diagram in this section.

The original authors are being cited as references from the selected papers.

Sustainability Pillars

Accessing the maintenance and operation impacts towards sustainability should be

evaluated based on three pillars of sustainability, which are economic, environmental and

social (Franciosi et al., 2020) and highlighted the key findings of the three pillars of

sustainability where economic (economic performance and investment), environmental

(emission, rules and regulations, energy consumption, material resources, and sewage and

0246810 12 14

Journal

Conference paper

Document Types Journal Conference paper

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Quartiles 1 Quartiles 2 Quartiles 3 Quartiles 4 Unranked

Scientific Journal Ranking (SJR)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 130

wastes), and social (customers, employee and law and regulations). Figure 7 shows the

network view of the sustainability pillars accessed to measure the maintenance and operation

impacts on high-rise residential buildings. In fact, these three pillars of sustainability have

many direct and indirect impacts on the sustainability aspects.

Figure 7. Sustainability Pillars Pattern Network Analysis Using Atlast.Ti 8

Economic Indicator

From eighteen selected papers, only eleven papers describe the economic aspects. The

first category of sustainability that will be focused on is the economic indicator shown in the

network view in Figure 8. (Bucoń & Czarnigowska, 2021a) stated that the management of

multifamily housing stock is an art of reconciling the demand of numerous stakeholders, the

technical constraints of the building’s fabric, the growing requirements towards the building’s

environmental performance and restricted budget. This statement has been discussed by

Aldairi et al. (2017), who pointed out that the increase in budget is due to unnecessary repairs

and inspections and has been supported by Radziejowska (2020) because the quality use of

the building and the length of the building life is possibly affected with a proper care and

prevention measures without even need to carry out the costly refurbishment. Aldairi et al.

(2017) also highlighted that maintenance management faces a critical challenge in validating

asset performance and allocating the required funds for maintenance because usually, the cost

for maintenance is around 60 and 75 per cent of the life cycle cost of the large system of the

building, but it been criticised by Ping and Chen (2016) when it stated that if the building’s

owner did not adopt the green building criteria they need to foot the bill for another additional

63 per cent sum of monies. These showed that the management can tailor their maintenance

budget by implementing the green building criteria with selected key elements on the

maintenance work.

Yahya and Ibrahim (2012) identified that the maintenance cost for high-rise buildings is

higher due to the complicated maintenance and operation of the high-rise building. They also

highlighted that improvement of maintenance effectiveness related to the management

approach because the maintenance performance was effectively achieved with the

stakeholder’s aspects. Liu and Ramadhan (2017) justified that the factor of failed management

in maintenance and operation is due to a limited budget, and the budget needed to be allocated

manually.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 131

Figure 8. Network View for Economic Indicator

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 132

Even the management of the maintenance and operation of high-rise residential buildings

is responsible for the effectiveness of the maintenance and operation of the building; however,

the household’s awareness is slightly important to ensure the sustainability of the buildings

taken care (Olanrewaju et al., 2017). They also mentioned the role of government in

marketing products that use recycled materials for maintenance, which can reduce the cost of

maintenance and increase the market for green homes. Liu and Ramadhan (2017) explained

that a lack of household awareness about sustainability and poor maintenance and operation

management make inappropriate decisions for maintenance being chosen and that

maintenance requires high costs. The poor management of high-rise residential buildings

leads to bad conditions and poor services to the user. Aleksanin and Sborshikov (2018) also

mentioned maintenance and operation management should be aware of the equipment from

the old-time wear.

It can be concluded that the higher demand for green buildings in order to have sustainable

buildings will lead to cost reduction on green materials for high-rise residential buildings.

From these network views for the economic indicator, economic performance and investment

are related to the maintenance and operation impacts because a limited budget for

maintenance and operation activities will result in a limited part for the maintenance and

operations activities where the management will only be focusing on the necessary part.

Unfortunately, these will only result in increasing costs for maintenance and operations of the

buildings in the future. Proper investment in maintenance and operation activities, such as the

development of proper infrastructure and support in maintenance and operation, and

investment in equipment and materials for the building that is energy efficient, are the best

initiatives to be considered by the maintenance and operation management.

Environmental Indicator

The second category for sustainability is environmental, and Figure 9 shows the network

view of environmental indicators. Twelve out of eighteen selected papers indicated an

environmental aspect. The increasing demand from the stakeholders for the building’s

environmental performance and a limited budget for the maintenance and operation is the

skill of balancing in the management of multifamily housing buildings (Bucoń &

Czarnigowska, 2021a). One of the skills to reduce the damage to the environment are by

lowering the household energy consumption, and this has been justified by (Juan & Cheng,

2018). (Yahya & Ibrahim, 2012) mentioned that from a social and legal point of view, when

managing maintenance and operation activities, the significant value is the proper handling

of waste and pollutants. This statement has been justified by (Olanrewaju et al., 2017) because

maintenance and operation activities generate a lot of waste to the environment. Due to waste

generated during the maintenance and operation activities (Aleksanin & Sborshikov, 2018)

proposed to establish a separate collection system for household waste and implement local

environmental monitoring.

Sustainable buildings are described as buildings that have less impact on the environment,

have energy efficiency, and enhance better living for dwellers (Tushar et al., 2021).

(Olanrewaju et al., 2017) justified that household comfort and productivity can be enhanced

if energy and water consumption, carbon emission, and building performance are reduced. In

fact, it can reduce carbon dioxide pollution and waste and lower the cost of maintenance and

operation of the buildings. Lateef et al. (2015) explained that buildings can endanger the

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 133

health and welfare of the communities because most of the buildings are finite and non-

renewable, and it place a heavy burden on the earth's resources. Building unable to serve it

purposes without a proper maintenance and operations. This can trigger higher cost to own or

even operate the building and it did not offer value of money.

Aleksanin and Sborshikov (2018) discussed about using the renewable energy and

resource-saving potential on the buildings which beneficial to the environment. Open building

is one of the beneficial for environment sustainable building (Juan & Cheng, 2018). However,

Tushar et al. (2021) criticises that designer used to ignore the environmental impact during

their design stage just to optimise their design. Environmental cost was been neglect because

most of the author been narrow down the problem to ensure that they get a quick return on

the investment (Bucoń & Czarnigowska, 2021b). Moreover, Chiang et al. (2016) proposed an

environmental friendly suggestion where instead of build a new building it is even better to

retrofit the existing building.

Based on the network view in Figure 9, the environment indicator that can be listed are

the material resources of the maintenance and operation activities, sewage and wastes,

emissions emitted during maintenance and operation activities, energy consumptions on the

buildings and the laws and regulations implemented by the government where related with

maintenance and operations impacts on high-rise residential buildings. Material used for the

maintenance and operations activities usually divided into renewable materials and non-

renewable material or based on the types of the material used which recyclable materials or

reused materials. This based on the realisation of the management on the advantages of the

recyclable materials on maintenance and operation impacts on environment. GHG and air

emission such as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and Particulate Matter (PM) (usually

PM2.5 and PM10) emitted to the environment due to the maintenance and operations

activities such as electricity, heating, cooling and steam. Other than that, noise that produces

during maintenance and operation activates contribute to noise pollution in the environment.

Social Indicator

Based on the eighteen selected paper, only seven out of eighteen research paper talked

about social indicator that contribute to sustainability. Social indicator is most likely related

with community life of the buildings. Figure 10 produced a network view that highlighted the

social indicator in sustainability. Yim et al. (2018) mentioned that the rise of population in

Hong Kong escalate the demand for comfortable living and increase the energy usage and

GHG emitted from the residential buildings. These even continued by Bucoń and

Czarnigowska (2021b) which buildings are expected to offer a comfortable living by

providing sufficient protection to the user such as accessible and hygienic spaces. The

continuous behaviors of resident to reduce the energy consumption would definitely increase

the building performance and lower the maintenance and operation cost and beneficial to

increase the productivity and comfortable living to the user (Olanrewaju et al., 2017). To

ensure the safety precaution and quality improvement in population, the design and space-

planning decision need to be allocated as main focus to comply sustainability however

between designed requirements and actual performance exist a huge gap that associated by

the behaviors of the resident and operators of the buildings.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 134

Figure 9. Network View for Environmental Indicator

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 135

Tenancy management is one of the important roles in maintaining and managing high-

rise properties (Khalid et al., 2019). This has been supported by Bucoń and Czarnigowska

(2021b) where proper management is one of the basic needs related to the residential

buildings, and other basic needs are health and comfort, safety and security, and facilitating

function. Lateef et al. (2015) spotted that poor understanding of the maintenance management

towards sustainable residences is the major factor that impacts the sustainability behaviour of

tenancy. (2019) even discussed that the tenancy problem could affect the marketing of the

property due to poor management of the building. Society tends to be interested with buildings

that can deliver a proper service and provide comfortable living to the tenant. On the tenant's

behalf, the control on the energy usage of the facility, such as lighting and water consumption

is depends on their awareness on sustainability behaviour (Aleksanin & Sborshikov, 2018).

According to the network view in Figure 10, the social indicator that can measure the

maintenance and operation impacts on high-rise residential buildings are basically on

customer category, which is the buyer or tenant of the high-rise residential buildings,

employee or the management of parties involved in high-rise residential buildings and the law

and regulations on social area. In the customer category, the contribution to maintenance and

operations of high-rise residential buildings impacts are based on their satisfaction and

behaviours (awareness). Lack of awareness on the sustainability of buildings from the

customer point of view is unable the maintenance and operation management to contribute to

the sustainability goals of the buildings. Employee or the management of maintenance and

operation of high-rise residential buildings related with the maintenance and operations

impacts based on the support and management process where the education and training for

the employee to limit the risk during work and their skills and performance to decide the best

maintenance and operation activities for the buildings. While for law and regulations, the

government construct a significant fine to the resident or the owner of the buildings that didn’t

comply with the law and regulations in the social category.

Maintenance and Operation Impacts

Yahya and Ibrahim (2012) mentioned that building performance is evaluated by the

effectiveness of the facility, the standard of cleanliness, the quality of indoor air, efficiency

of the energy, thermal comfort of the tenant, and safety of the tenants, which have been

enhanced with the maintenance and operation activities. The role of the government in

spreading awareness on the usage of recyclable and reused materials for maintenance need to

be implemented in the household by creating a market for recycled products that directly or

indirectly helps to cut the cost of green materials (Olanrewaju et al., 2017). Liu and Ramadhan

(2017) explain in their studies that many buildings are unable to operate well and provide

optimum services to tenants due to a lack of maintenance and operation planning. Improper

planning leads to an increase in maintenance and operation costs due to the inappropriately

selected solution and action for maintenance and operation activities. Olanrewaju et al. (2017)

also discussed that global environmental problems can be resolved by proper maintenance

and operation activities. Chiang et al. (2016) support this by indicated that the balance of three

sustainability pillars and the resources needed for the maintenance and operation activities

could possibly achieve a vibrant economic and high-quality environment through the effort

of the community of the building and the government.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 136

Figure 10. Network View for The Social Indicator

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 137

Figure 11. Network View for The Maintenance and Operation Impacts

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 138

Ping and Chen (2016) highlighted that the maintenance and operation impact indirectly

create a long -term advantages to the tenants. This been explained by Liu and Ramadhan

(2017) where in their study stated that the building maintenance and operations is important

to ensure the sustainability of the buildings and the maintenance and operations activities

indirectly lengthen the age of the buildings to provide services to the tenant of the buildings.

Retained an item or restore to an acceptable condition is the well definition of maintenance

where that can preserve the building's condition. The government of Malaysia provide good

incentives to developer that indicated sustainable materials in their construction, and

homeowner have also not been left out with great tax incentives and tax exemptions on energy

and water consumption (Olanrewaju et al., 2017). Progress of work and budget on

maintenance and operation have been controlled by the achievement of maintenance and

operation of buildings (Yahya & Ibrahim, 2012) and been justified by Puķite and Geipele

(2017) that the achievement of the maintenance and operation activities can lengthen the age

of building performance and functions. Bucoń and Czarnigowska (2021b) stated that the

measuring of the impact of maintenance and operation of high-rise buildings are more

complex due to the large number of criteria that have been assessed on. This has been

supported by Lateef et al. (2015) where in their study mentioned that the demand on

sustainability development make the management of the maintenance and operations

becomes more sophisticated and complex.

The relationship between maintenance and operation impacts of high-rise residential

buildings with the sustainability pillars which economic, environmental, and social are well

shown in Table 3 with the sources and category listed for all three pillars of sustainability.

Table 3. The Relationship Between Maintenance and Operation Impacts of High-Rise Residential

Buildings with The Sustainability Pillars

Sustainability

Pillars

Category

Maintenance and Operation Process

(Management, Realisation, Support)

Sources

• Safety measures adopted during maintenance

and operation activities

• Revitalisation suggestion of maintenance and

operation improvement

• Guide and advise the tenant on the adoption of

sustainable practices

(Lateef et al., 2015)

• Create long-term advantages for both owner and

tenant

(Ping & Chen, 2016)

Law and

regulations

• Fines for not compliance the law and regulations

in maintenance and operation in social area

The Development of Conceptual Framework of Measuring Maintenance and

Operation Impacts of High-Rise Residential Buildings

This section represents the creation of conceptual framework that aimed to give a holistic

view in graphical form to answering all the research questions of this research. Which to

review the relationship between maintenance and operation of high-rise buildings with the

sustainability issues, to review the maintenance and operations of high-rise residential

buildings impacts on sustainability and to identify the sustainability indicators that influenced

by the maintenance and operation activities on high-rise residential building.

Figure 12 provides a 2D view of the conceptual framework which illustrated the

correlation of the sustainability pillars with the maintenance process and maintenance and

operation impacts on high-rise residential buildings that be listed on Table 3.

Figure 12. Conceptual Framework of Relationship Between the Maintenance and Operations Impacts

Towards Sustainability in 2D View

Sustainability Pillars Maintenance and

Operation Process

Management

Realisation

Support

Economic

Environmental

Social

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 141

For example, in social category will have all those three-maintenance process:

• support process: the employee gives guide and advise to tenant on the adoption of the

sustainability practices.

• realisation process: awareness on sustainability on tenant increase concern and reduce

behavior issues in sustainability maintenance and operation adoption to the

residential building.

• management process: adjustment parameter and safety measures adopted during the

maintenance and operation activities.

This framework is well defined in cube shape where the first column is the sustainability

pillars which is economic, environmental, and social. While for the second column would be

the maintenance and operations impact that might be direct or indirect on the targeted output

and the third column is the maintenance process which is the management, realisation, and

support.

Franciosi et al. (2020) indicated the selected indicators for economic category are the

economic performance and investment; environmental more effluents to energy

consumptions, wastes, emission, material resources for the maintenance and operation

activities and non-compliance with the law and regulations of green buildings; and for social

are on the customer, stakeholders, management, and non-compliance with the regulations

which answering the third research question of this research.

The example on considering all the classified indicator in Figure 13 is shown in listed at

Table 3 and well shown in Figure 14 on the sustainability pillars of environmental and

management process for maintenance and operation process on maintenance and operation

impacts towards sustainability.

Figure 13. Conceptual Framework on Measuring the Maintenance and Operation Impact of High-Rise

Residential Building Towards Sustainability

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 142

Figure 14. Example of Relationship of Environmental Pillars and Management Process on

Maintenance and Operation Impacts

This conceptual framework is beneficial to help the stakeholder to decide on which action

or indicators that they should focusing on in maintenance and operation of high-rise

residential building. For example:

• Maintenance and operation would be interested in maintenance and operation

activities that contribute impacts to environment. These can help them to monitor and

ensure a better decision and action to be taking care off.

• Marketing manager would be focusing on the economic impacts on maintenance and

operation activities to implement a better action to lower the cost and gain profit from

the investment of the building.

Other than that, this conceptual framework can be consulted by external stakeholder

which is customer/ tenant, government, and investors. This also increase the awareness of

maintenance and operation impacts towards sustainability among the stakeholders. Different

stakeholders focus on different process according to their main focus on the sustainability

category.

CONCLUSION

The development of the conceptual framework in measuring the maintenance and

operation impacts on high-rise residential buildings towards sustainability is relevant to

provide a holistic view to the future research in order to fulfil the research gap from previous

researcher. Most of the previous researcher more focusing on the one indicator of the

sustainability which limited to measure the specific aspects of the sustainability of high-rise

residential buildings. This research aimed to identify the relationship between maintenance

and operation of high-rise residential building and sustainable issues and the impacts of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 143

maintenance and operation on sustainability. Systematic literature review was conducted by

following the three steps of screening and Atlas.ti software is used to give network view to

future researchers. From 18 research papers that been selected after the third screening, there

are three sustainability indicators which are economic, environmental, and social which focus

more on the tenant and management behaviours that been used to assess the maintenance and

operations impacts of high-rise residential buildings on sustainability.

The correlation between maintenance and operations of high-rise residential building and

sustainable issues are based on the three indicators of sustainability which are economic that

focus on maintenance cost of the buildings, environmental were focusing on the

environmental impacts and the usage of recycle materials and renewable energy in

maintenance and operation activities, and social which focus more on the tenant and

management behaviours such as the awareness on sustainability behaviours where minimum

the usage of energy and implement the green criteria to provide a comfortable living in the

buildings.

Maintenance still use conventional measures to evaluate the impact of maintenance and

operation performance towards sustainability and until 2015, most of the papers does not

provide any sustainability indicators for measuring maintenance and operation impacts on

those three sustainability pillars. Recent studies that provided first classification on measuring

maintenance and operation performance somehow do not provide general classification or the

exhaustive framework of sustainability performance on sustainability indicators that affected

by maintenance and operation process. To consider the gaps studies that mentioned above, a

few recommendations need to be implemented in future research where more research is

needed in measuring maintenance and operation of high-rise residential buildings since the

demands of high-rise properties increasing followed by the increasing of populations, broaden

the scope of maintenance and operations impacts by relate with the government involvement

in sustainability management and consider the details and make comparison on challenges of

measuring maintenance and operation impacts in selected countries due to their level of

awareness on sustainability.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of this study under the Special Incentive for

Supervision in Geran Penyelidikkan Khas (GPK) by Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia

[Ref. No: 600-RMC/GPK 5/3 (261/2020)].

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AN OBSERVATION ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

BIOPHILIC DESIGN STRATEGIES IN MALAYSIAN

PLATINUM-RATED GREEN OFFICE BUILDINGS

Asniza Hamimi Abdul Tharim1*, Sitinur Kamilah Mohd Idris1, Asmalia Che Ahmad1,2, Edi

Purwanto3 and Issa Tafridj4

1Centre of Studies for Quantity Surveying, Department of Built Environment Studies & Technology,

College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar, 32610, Perak,

MALAYSIA

2Green Safe Cities Research Group, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam Campus, 40450,

MALAYSIA

3Department of Management and Jaya, Universitas Pembangunan Jaya, Indonesia, Universitas

Pembangunan Jaya, INDONESIA

4Department of Architecture and Center for Urban Studies, Universitas Pembangunan Jaya,

INDONESIA

*Corresponding Email: asniz286@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Nowadays, construction in Malaysia has been growing rapidly and continuously developing. It

promotes economic growth increasing goods prices and competition for occupation. Thus, this

requires occupants to work diligently, resulting in spending most of their time working indoors.

Due to these circumstances, occupants are required to work longer hours to fulfill the

employer’s expectations, such as meeting the deadline and doing the tasks required. Focusing

on their work nonstop can develop different health issues, such as stress, unstable emotions,

unproductive, and well-being, thus bringing the degradation of occupants’ psychology.

Maintaining personal psychology is crucial to enhancing their work performance. One of the

ways to do so is by being closer to nature. However, their work nature limits their interaction

with the natural environment. Hence, this is where biophilic design comes to the rescue. This

research aims to identify the implementation of biophilic design strategies in Malaysia’s

platinum-rated green office buildings. This objective was achieved through an observation

checklist on the biophilic design strategies of Malaysia’s two platinum-rated green office

buildings. The data gathered from observation were analysed, tabulated, and graphed using

Microsoft Excel. The result from the observation on biophilic design strategies indicates that

the offices only have a general and basic application of the biophilic design strategies.

Subsequently, there is no module to access the biophilic design strategies in Malaysia’s built

environment. Hence, it is hoped that this research can contribute to biophilic design strategies

knowledge enhancement, and professionalism.

Keywords: Biophilic, Design Strategies; Green Rating; Office Building

INTRODUCTION

The natural environment in the world is getting sickening day by day as many issues

related to the environment keep on occurring constantly such as climate change, global

warming, increasing sea water levels, and floods. Due to this, the quality of people’s lives

will be affected if these issues keep growing each day. Hence, this issue has given rise to the

concept of the green environment which has become the globe’s main agenda to make sure

that sustainability can be a standard of living while maintaining nature from further damage

caused by the economic growth of rapid developments in the city.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 148

In the present day, people are starting to be aware of the current environmental situation,

thus there is boundless apprehension about protecting the environment all across the globe.

U.S. Green Building Council conducted a survey, and the result shows that many people

believe sustainability design will become a more common practice and tradition in the world

once humans realize its benefits. Principally, the productivity gains are believed to be linked

with the arrangement of high-quality interior design which is highly related to green building

features that are likely to influence the indoor environmental quality including Natural

ventilation systems and advanced mechanical ventilating systems that can increase airflow

and reduce occupants contact with airborne microbial agents; Building material and furniture

that have low toxicity; Increased the usage of natural daylighting so that can reduce energy

demands and enhance interior lighting quality while maintaining visual comfort; and heighten

contact with the natural environment through opening window to the outdoors and inclusion

of indoor plants for a psychological reason and also for air quality enhancement.

Interior environmental quality can improve individual performance, health, comfort, and

moods and also for satisfaction. Thus, designers are starting to implement and appreciate a

sustainable approach in every design solution to create a sustainable future for the later

generations. Hence, the interior environment quality or indoor environmental quality (IEQ)

has a strong relationship with the biophilic design strategies as the term Biophilia is also

known as the love of nature derived from the environmental movement. IEQ can be defined

as building signs’ environmental quality which links to the health and well-being of the

occupants in the space. To achieve high IEQ must include good lighting, comfortable

temperature, and good space management. A fruitful biophilic design able to convey our

ethics and relationship to nature then reflects the love of living and the beauty of nature. These

components in the society in which human beings are characterized by health and

productivity. The connection between biophilic design and sustainable design is one of the

strategies for human re-linking to the natural environment as they can experience nature in

the interior space (Makram & Abou Ouf, 2019, Fadda et al., 2023). Human participation

through an interactive approach of natural elements such as plants, air, land, animals, water,

and sky, also by adding a new essence to interior design and furniture could benefit the health

of users. The approach and implementation of biophilic strategies in interior design is an

advanced framework and is intended to be practical practice for the more effective design of

the built environment. The success of the application depends on the consciousness towards

nature as much as on constructing a new design technique. In the modern context, humans

spent 90% of their life indoors like in office and school, due to the modern lifestyle.

Green Building Index (GBI) and biophilic design strategies are two different assessment

frameworks. However, there is one criterion of GBI that links to the biophilic design

strategies, which is the indoor environment quality. One of the sub-elements of indoor

environment quality is biophilia and views (Al Horr, Ariff, et al., 2016). Hence, that is the

major reason to conduct the research to identify the biophilic design strategies, occupants’

perception towards biophilic design strategies, and occupants' perceived psychological

performance in green-rated office buildings. Furthermore, international ranking systems, such

as LEEDS, have already integrated the green building criteria and biophilic elements, to

accredit the built environment as a green building. In contrast, Malaysia is still far from

adopting these biophilic strategies with the green building criteria. By that, this is one of the

main reasons for the researcher to research this topic.

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From the observation conducted and the distribution of the questionnaire during the data

collection phase, many people are not aware of the definition of biophilic design and the

importance of biophilic design to a built environment and to a worker to sustain the mental

well-being, maintaining their work performance, stable mood, and boost the cognitive

function. The questionnaire structure can aid in acknowledging the benefits of biophilic

design. Nevertheless, there is a broad study of biophilic design in the international context,

but not in the Malaysian context. Therefore, this research acts as an eye-opener to the layman

out there. It is crucial to determine the relationship between biophilic design strategies and

occupants' perceived psychological performance to sustain Malaysia's economic growth.

However, for this paper, this paper aims to identify biophilic design strategies implementation

in Malaysia's green-rated office buildings.

Green Rating System in Malaysia

As Malaysia grows toward a higher level of urbanization, it is expected to face the

increased demand for housing associated with the environmental impact. Malaysia is

experiencing an increase in construction waste materials, energy waste, deforestation,

landslides, and soil erosion. Due to these problems, Malaysia has developed its green building

rating tools. Malaysia has four (4) main green building rating tools that were developed since

2009 which were Green Building Index (GBI), Green Real Estate (GreenRE), Skim Penilaian

Penarafan Hijau Jabatan Kerja Raya (PH JKR), and Green Performance Assessment System

(Green PASS). GBI and GreenRE were established by professional associations, meanwhile,

PH JKR and Green PASS are government-driven. Currently, GBI has achieved its maturity

as it frequently releases several tools for specific building types and applications. Hence,

practically it is widely used for many buildings compared to other rating tools. Meanwhile,

the other rating tools are not well preferred and have a lower awareness among the public.

The reason for that might be because they were newly launched and still in the final stage of

refinement.

Green Building Index

Over four decades ago the birth of green building concept because of awareness on the

issue of sustainability (Yahaya, 2014). Besides that, green buildings also known as sustainable

buildings are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout the building

lifecycle. According to previous research, it states that green buildings can reduce energy by

up to 30% to 60% compared to the conventional building (Pandey, 2015). Furthermore, it is

to make efficient use of resources, have significant operational savings, and increase

workplace productivity. In 2009 Malaysian experts like Pertubuhan Arkitek Malaysia (PAM)

and the Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia (ACEM) developed local assessment

tools called Green Building Index (GBI). GBI is Malaysia's Green Rating Tool for towns and

buildings. It is a body to assesses and accredits whether the building or town can be certified

as a green building or not. GBI is one of the pioneers and well-established assessments in

Malaysia. It was created to foster sustainability in a built environment and elevate awareness

of environmental issues among the multidisciplinary practitioners in Malaysia such as

developers, architects, engineers, designers, planners, and contractors. This is to sustain a

brighter and greener future for Malaysia. There are six criteria in the GBI (2022) which is:

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 150

1. Energy Efficiency (EE)

2. Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)

3. Sustainable Site Planning and Management (SM)

4. Material and Resources (MR)

5. Water Efficiency (WE)

6. Innovation (IN)

The GBI Rating Tools are specifically developed in parallel with Malaysian tropical

climates, environmental and development context, and finally, for the cultural and social

needs. The concept of GBI is the same as international rating systems such as BREEAM

(Building Research Establishment Assessment Method), USA’s LEED (Leadership in Energy

and Environmental Design) and has been evaluated to be adapted to Malaysian climate

conditions (Samari, Godrati et al., 2013). Table 1 below shows the rating points of GBI.

Table 1. GBI Ratings

Points

GBI Rating

86+ points

Platinum

76 to 85 points

Gold

66 to 75 points

Silver

50 to 65 points

Certified

(Source: GBI, 2022)

Green-Rated Office Building

The concept of a green office building is to provide a high-quality workplace and

comfortable working environment. Kwon et al. (2019), that green-rated office buildings could

contribute to the satisfaction of the physiological and psychological of the occupants. Past

research has proved that green building office can boost productivity, lower the absence, and

improves the occupants' emotions. In Malaysia, governments, and business organizations

have started the implementation and approach of the green office concept because of the

eagerness to sustain a healthy. According to the GBI, there are around 300 buildings that have

been certified as green buildings and the majority of the buildings are from commercial

buildings. To scope down the numbers and areas, there are around 78 green-rated office

buildings in Kuala Lumpur and ten of them are from the government offices (GBI). Every

green office building has its own distinctive, innovative, and unique features that make a

difference from the normal and conventional buildings, hence, improving the building's

performance. The features can be seen on the façade of the buildings and the material used

for the building. Furthermore, green buildings must have a specialty such as green water

harvesting (Isa et al., 2013). Previously, Delmas and Pekovic (2012) surveyed green office

buildings and showed that they have 16% higher productivity compared to conventional

offices. However, there are several challenges in implementing green building such as limited

knowledge, budget allocation, high maintenance budget, mindset, high initial cost, liability

for design risk, and many others (Andreucci et al., 2021; Zhong et al., 2021; Clancy, 2014).

Biophilic Design Strategies

The practice and the application of the biophilic design are associated with various design

strategies that can refer to attributes and experiences. There are three types of biophilic design

strategies framework which are the direct experience of nature, the indirect experience of

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nature, and the experience of space and place. The direct experience is the actual connection

with the natural environmental features in the built environment while the indirect experience

refers to contact with the imitation of nature images from its original condition. Lastly, the

experience of space and place indicates spatial features characteristic of the natural

environment (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015). Table 2 shows items of attributes and experience

of biophilic design strategies.

Table 2. The Attributes and Experience of Biophilic Design Strategies

Direct Experience of Nature

Indirect Experience of Nature

Experience of Space and Place

Light

Image of nature

Prospect and refuge

Air

Natural materials

Organized complexity

Water

Natural colours

Integration of parts to wholes

Plants

Simulating natural light and air

Transitional Space

Animals

Naturalistic shapes and forms

Mobility and wayfinding

Weather

Evoking nature

Cultural and ecological attachment to place

Natural landscape and ecosystem

Information richness

Fire

Age, change, and patina of time

Natural geometries

Biomimicry

(Source: Kellert & Calabrese, 2015)

Apart from the above attributes of Biophilic Design Strategies, various design elements

can be taken as an example of biophilic when designing a space, interior, exterior, or building

for biophilic design as described in the following Table 3.

Table 3. Design Element of Biophilic

Design Elements

Description

Rooftop Garden

The benefits of a roof garden include ecological benefits, such as improved local

microclimate, regulating the temperature and humidity of the city, blocking dust, and

purifying the air. Rooftop garden helps to complement the landscape of the city by

growing trees, shrubs, and grass flowers on the roof (Jafari, Yunos, Utaberta &

Ismail, 2015).

Green Wall

Vertical greening or green walls is an effective merger of nature and structure.

Green walls can improve the occupants' well-being around the building and also

have positive influences on social and aesthetic values (Rakhshandehroo & Yusof,

2015). Nevertheless, the green wall system acts as a passive design solution that

can contribute to building sustainability (Manso & Gomes, 2015).

Green Courtyard

The characteristic of a courtyard is having an enclosed area surrounded by buildings

or walls and it has an open-air space (Almhafdy, Ahmad & Ibrahim, 2013). In the

modern era, a courtyard can function as a meeting place or area for gardening,

working, playing, sleeping, and cooking. Green courtyards increase positive impacts

on plant physiology and the psychology of occupants.

Opening Window

The opening window’s application utilizes the full capacity of daylighting. This is

crucial in a built environment. This is because daylight can improve occupants’

emotions, and performance, and avoid visual discomfort. Furthermore, daylight can

create a dynamic space while reducing a building’s energy needs (Kaya, Yucedag,

& Asikkutlu, 2018).

Indoor Potting Plants

Indoor potting plants can increase the comfort and attractiveness of a built

environment. Additionally, plants are the basic natural elements that represent the

natural world. Effects of indoor potting plants on outcomes relevant to the

effectiveness and well-being of office workers have been carried out in several

research, as stated by (Bringslimark, Hartig & Patil, 2007).

Water Features

A waterscape can be defined as a small landscape in an indoor environment that

combines small plants, rocks, water devices, and other materials to replicate the

river.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 152

METHODOLOGY

Figure 1. Observation Template

According to Ajayi (2017), observation can be defined as a technique for obtaining

information by accurate vision and experience as they occur in nature concerning cause-and-

effect relations. It can measure the variables under investigation. Observation can be attended

on any subject matter: this could include a description of the scene, behavior to observe, and

overall conclusion of the events. Thus, the setting must be expressed, and self-conscious

notations of how observing is done. Systematic observation requires deliberate planning on

what to observe (Kabir, 2016). For this research, observation just took three (3) hours during

the weekday at the selected office, due to the office standard of procedure (SOP) during the

pandemic of Covid-19. In this research, the reason for conducting observation was to identify

biophilic design strategies that have been applied to the office building. During the

observation period, many occupants were not aware of the concept of biophilic design. They

do not know what the strategies of biophilic design are, even though the strategies are there.

Biophilic designs were not well-known in Malaysia compared to Western countries,

especially in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. As for Asian countries,

Singapore is Asia's only biophilic city followed by South Korea who starting to adapt

biophilic design strategies to the interior of offices, houses, and shopping complexes. For the

observation form, there is a list of checklists and detailed score indicators based on the

observer’s point of view for the observation form. The documentation phase will be made

after the observation period. Each building will be divided into two zones of floor which are

classified as lower floor and upper floor. All the observation checklist data for this research

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 153

were analysed using Microsoft Excel. Figure 1 shows all the main strategies and sub-elements

of each strategy. Direct experience of nature is the main sub-element with a total of fifty (50)

points, followed by the indirect experience of nature with a total of thirty (30) points, and

lastly, the experience of space and place with a total of twenty (20) points. The total maximum

points for all sub-elements are 100 points. These points are adapted from GBI Assessment

Criteria for Non-Residential New Buildings (NRNB), 2011. All the elements are straight from

Kellert and Calabrese, 2015.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This observation of biophilic design strategies was conducted for direct experience of

nature, indirect experience of nature, and experience of space and place. The observation

procedure was carried out on weekdays for three (3) hours. All the checklist score was

tabulated using Microsoft Excel to compare each strategy and element for two (2) zones of

floor. Two (2) government offices that have green-rated scores by GBI were permitted for the

researcher to conduct the observation at their respective offices. For this observation method,

the score point was adapted from GBI assessment criteria for Non-Residential New

Construction (NRNC), 2011.

BUILDING A

Location: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

GBI Rating: Platinum

No of Storey: 37

Facade: Slanting Facade (Low e)

Shading: Vertical and Horizontal Fins Steel Frame

*Air Conditioning System: set at 24°C

BUILDING B

Location: Putrajaya, Malaysia

GBI Rating: Platinum

No of Storey: 7

Facade: Double Glazing/ Tilting Façade

Shading: Self-Shading (Slanting Design)

*Air Conditioning System: set at 24°C

Building A

Direct Experience of Nature

Table 4 shows the result of observation for the direct experience of nature in the lower

zone and Upper Zone which was on the eighth (8) floor and thirty-one (31) floors of Building

A.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 154

Table 4 shows a comparison of direct experience of biophilic design attributes between

the lower zone and upper zone. Both zones have the same score points for light (f=10), air

(f=8), water (f=0), animals (f=0), fire (f=3), and natural landscape and ecosystem (f=2). What

makes the difference between these two (2) zones is the implementation of plants. The

occupants in the lower zone took the initiative to make use of the plants to boost their

performance. Plants’ scores point for the lower zone was (f=10), while the upper zone was

only (f=2). Hence, the total score for direct experience of nature for the lower zone was thirty-

three (33) points Meanwhile, the score for the upper zone was twenty-five (25) points.

Table 4. Direct Experience of Nature for Building A

Direct Experience of Nature

Lower Zone

(8th Floor)

Upper Zone

(31st Floor)

Light

10

Air

8

Water

0

Plants

10

2

Animals

0

Fire

3

Natural Landscape and Ecosystem

2

Total

33/50

25/50

LOWER ZONE

UPPER ZONE

Figure 2. Direct Experience in Building A

Based on Figure 2 above, there is enough source of natural light. The office ambiance is

enhanced with the addition of mechanical lights. According to the facilities manager, the

office building is using sensory mechanical lights. The mechanical lights are automatically

switched on based on the sun’s orientation. This approach can save the energy of the whole

office building. As you can see, the comparison between Figure 2 (a) and (d), where Figure 2

(a) was on the east side, thus, the lights were switched off. Meanwhile, Figure 2 (d) was on

the west side that lacked the morning sun, hence, the mechanical lights were automatically

switched on. The office is fully using mechanical ventilation which is air-conditioned. From

the observation, the lower zone implements the application of potting plants as most of the

workstations have at least one potting plant. The application of potting plants makes the

environment look more energetic and serene. The upper zone was lacking with the

a

b

c

f

d

e

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 155

implementation of potting plants. The office layout and the furniture position for both floors

are quite the same. There is no significant difference in terms of the office design and floor

plan. With the full utilization of wide windows, occupants can enjoy the outdoor view of the

city center of Kuala Lumpur. They can reap the benefits of the natural landscapes and

ecosystem also able to receive sensory information about nature.

Indirect Experience of Nature

Table 5 shows the result of observation for the indirect experience of nature in the lower

zone and Upper Zone which was on the eighth (8) floor and thirty-one (31) floors.

Table 5. Indirect Experience of Nature for Building A

Indirect Experience of Nature

Lower Zone

(8th Floor)

Upper Zone

(31st Floor)

Image of Nature

5

0

Natural Material

3

Natural Colour

5

Simulating Light and Air

5

Naturalistic Shape and Form

2

Evoking Nature

0

Information Richness

0

Age, Change, and Patina of Time

0

Natural Geometries

2

Biomimicry

0

Total

22/30

17/30

LOWER ZONE

UPPER ZONE

Figure 3. Indirect Experience for Building A

The application of the office’s color for both zones is using a natural and monotone color

scheme such as white, gray, and black. However, most of the furniture's colors use warn-tone

colors such as red, and orange as shown in Figure 3. Both tones play an important role in

occupants’ moods and emotions. There was a hint of the image of nature for the lower zone

as shown in Figure 3 Lower Zone. The natural geometrical attributes and naturalistic shape

and form can be found in the design of the floor plan and the total building façade as the

architects and designers chose a diamond motif for the concept. Thus, the triangular footprint

tapers for the lower zone and then sifts to the leaf shape for the upper floor. Besides, there

was also a triangular geometrical shape and motif for the glass wall or window inside the

office building. As the office building was completed in 2014, there is no sign of age, change,

or patina of time. Furthermore, the materials of the office building are mostly using natural

materials. For instance, they use fabric and leather for the chairs, glasses, and partitions or

space dividers, wood for the tables, and service door and file cabinets.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 156

Experience of Space and Place

Table 6 shows the result of observation for the experience of space and place in the lower

zone and Upper Zone which was on the eighth (8) floor and thirty-one (31) floors.

Table 6. Experience of Space and Nature Building A

Experience of Space and Place

Lower Zone

(8th Floor)

Upper Zone

(31st Floor)

Prospect and Refuge

4

Organized Complexity

1

Integrating Part to Whole

4

Transitional Space

3

Mobility and Wayfinding

3

Cultural and Ecological Attachment to Place

4

Total

19/20

19//20

Table 6 shows the comparison of the experience of space and place for the lower and

upper zones at Building A. Each attribute got the same score for the lower and upper zones.

Prospect and refuge (f=4), organized complexity (f=1), integrating part to whole (f=4),

transitional space (f=3), mobility and wayfinding (f=3), and lastly, cultural, and ecological

attachment to place (f=4). By all right, both zones got nineteen (19) points for the experience

of space and place strategies.

LOWER ZONE

UPPER ZONE

Figure 4. Experience of Space and Nature for Building A

For the experience of space and place strategy, all attributes managed to score perfect

points except for organized complexity attributes. As shown in Figure 4 Lower Zone,

occupants have their cubicles with the clear glass partition. This ability for occupants to

perceive and oversee their surrounding situation whether to detect opportunities or even

danger. Moreover, the office building provides high security for each floor. Only assigned

occupants can enter the respective floor and department. The integration of parts to wholes

are properly designed as there were clear linking space for each section. It was easy to access

from one space to another space. Followed by the transitional space and mobility and

wayfinding, occupants can overlook the whole space while standing. They can move freely,

talking and discussing with their colleagues easily. There is a clear direction of the pathways

and points of ingress and egress. Hence, the following Table 7 concludes the summary of

observation analysis in Building A.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 157

Table 7 shows the total percentage of biophilic design strategies at Building A, Lower

Zone managed to get 74%. On the other side, the Upper Zone managed to get 61%. The

difference between these two zones is only 13%.

Table 7. Summary of Biophilic Design Strategies Implementation in Building A

Biophilic Design Strategies

Lower Zone

(8th Floor)

Upper Zone

(31st Floor)

Direct Experience of Nature

33

25

Indirect Experience of Nature

22

17

Experience of Space and Place

19

Total

74%

61%

Building B

Direct Experience of Nature

Table 8 shows the result of observation for the direct experience of nature in the lower

zone and Upper Zone which was on the ground floor and fifth (5) floor.

Table 8. Direct Experience of Nature for Building B

Direct Experience of Nature

Lower Zone

(Ground Floor)

Upper Zone

(5th Floor)

Light

10

7

Air

15

Water

5

0

Plants

10

Animals

0

Fire

3

Natural Landscape and Ecosystem

4

5

Total

47/50

40/50

Table 8 shows the comparison of direct experience of biophilic design attributes between

the lower zone and upper zone. For the light attribute, the upper zone managed to score (f=10),

and the lower zone only got (f=7). Both zones got the same score for air and fire attributes

respectively (f=15), and (f=3). However, in the lower zone, water attributes were able to score

perfect points (f=5), but for the upper zone none (f=0). Plants score points for lower and upper

zones be head of the same score (f=10). Fire attribute score (f=3) for both zones. Lastly,

natural landscape and ecosystem, lower zone (f=4), and upper zone (f=5). Thus, the total score

for the lower zone is forty-seven (47) points, and the upper zone is forty (40) points. There is

only a slight difference for both which is only by seven (7) points).

LOWER ZONE

UPPER ZONE

Figure 5. Direct Experience of Nature for Building B

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 158

Based on Figure 5, both zones have sufficient sources of natural lighting. For the upper

zone, the designer(s) fully utilize and integrate the glass dome area by putting the glass panels.

The spaces have a bright and warm environment because of the natural light in the large open

space. The glass window can allow occupants to receive and observe the changes in the

natural ecosystem. Furthermore, occupants can enjoy the outdoor views to release the stress

from work by resting their eyes on the outside view and experiencing the diverse and healthy

changes of nature by adapting the landscape character in their own space. Because of the

slanted glass window, they are not exposed to direct sunlight which can make occupants’ eyes

hurt. There is the application of indoor potting plants for both zones. Plants can release extra

supporting oxygen in the built environment which is good for occupants’ health. Plants give

comfort and serene visuals for the occupants as they can bring life to the office environment.

Indirect Experience of Nature

Table 9 shows the result of observation for the indirect experience of nature in the lower

zone and Upper Zone which was on the ground floor and fifth (5) floor.

Table 9. Indirect Experience of Nature for Building B

Indirect Experience of Nature

Lower Zone

(Ground Floor)

Upper Zone

(5th Floor)

Image of Nature

0

Natural Material

5

Natural Colour

5

Simulating Light and Air

5

Naturalistic Shape and Form

2

Evoking Nature

0

Information Richness

0

Age, Change, and Patina of Time

0

Natural Geometries

2

Biomimicry

0

Total

19/30

Table 9 shows a comparison of the indirect experience of biophilic design attributes

between the lower zone and upper zone. The lower and upper zones have the same score for

each design attribute. Image of nature (f=0), natural materials (f=5), natural color (f=5),

simulating light and air (f=5), naturalistic shape and form (f=2), evoking nature (f=0),

information richness (f=0, age, change and patina of time (f=0), natural geometries (f=2), and

lastly biomimicry (f=0). Hence both zones managed to score only nineteen (19) points.

LOWER ZONE

UPPER ZONE

Figure 6. Indirect Experience of Nature for Building B

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 159

The natural geometrical attributes and naturalistic shape and form can be found in the

design of the floor plan and the total building façade. Same as the Building A architects’ team

and designers chose a diamond motif for the concept of the building. The diamond shape

shows durability to ensure that the building is environmentally friendly, responsible for

Putrajaya's landscaping, and resource efficient. Besides, as seen in the picture, the office

building uses monotone colors such as white and gray to naturalize the working environment.

For the lower zone, there is an organic shape of the sculpture. Furthermore, the office uses

natural materials like fabrics, glass, and leather.

Experience of Space and Place

Table 10 shows the result of observation for the experience of space and place in the lower

zone and Upper Zone which was on the ground floor and fifth (5) floor.

Table 10. Experience of Space and Place for Building B

Experience of Space and Place

Lower Zone

(Ground Floor)

Upper Zone

(5th Floor)

Prospect and Refuge

2

Organized Complexity

1

Integrating Part to Whole

4

Transitional Space

3

Mobility and Wayfinding

3

Cultural and Ecological Attachment to Place

0

Total

13/20

13//20

For the experience of space and place strategies, all attributes for the lower and upper

floor got the same score point, in which prospect and refuge (f=2), organized complexity

(f=1), integrating part to whole (f=4), transitional space (f=3), mobility and wayfinding (f=3),

and cultural and ecological attachment to place (f=0).

LOWER ZONE

UPPER ZONE

Figure 7. Experience of Space and Place for Building B

Each occupant has a partition in their workstation. This can make occupants feel secure

and have their privacy when doing their work, but still able to move around freely from one

space to another space as it has an open interior concept. Hence, there are clear prospect and

refuge design attributes in the office building. There was a clear linking space that could easily

be accessed from their workstation to the meeting room and toilets. Hence, Table 11

concludes the summary of the observation analysis in Building B.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 160

Table 11. Summary of Biophilic Design Strategies Implementation in Building B

Biophilic Design Strategies

Lower Zone

(Ground Floor)

Upper Zone

(5th Floor)

Direct Experience of Nature

47

40

Indirect Experience of Nature

19

Experience of Space and Place

13

Total

79%

72%

Table 11 shows the total percentage of biophilic design strategies at Building B, Lower

Zone managed to get 79%. On the other side, the Upper Zone managed to get 72%. The

difference between these two zones is only 7%.

Discussion: To Identify the Biophilic Design Strategies in Malaysia’s Platinum-

Rated Office Building

Table 11 summarizes the biophilic design strategies: direct experience of nature, indirect

experience of nature, and experience of space and place of the selected case study in Malaysia

green-rated office building. Before anything else and to highlight in this section, the

researcher was using GBI index classification: platinum, gold, silver, and certified for the

findings as the researcher was adopting the assessment criteria to measure the index or score

point of biophilic design in Malaysia green rated office building. This is because Malaysia

does not have the proper tools and modules to measure or assess biophilic design strategies.

Table 12. Biophilic Design Strategies in Malaysia’s Platinum-Rated Office Building

Strategies

Building A

Building B

GBI Rating: Platinum

Lower Zone

(points)

Upper Zone

(points)

Lower Zone

(points)

Upper Zone

(points)

Direct Experience of Nature

33

25

47

40

Indirect Experience of Nature

22

17

19

Experience of Space and Place

19

13

Total Score

74%

61%

79%

72%

Findings

Silver

Certified

Gold

Silver

Based on the table above, Building B has the highest score points of biophilic design

strategies for both zones compared to Building A. For the direct experience of nature Building

B managed to achieve 47 points for the lower zone and 40 points for the upper zone. Building

A only managed to get 33 points for the lower zone and 25 points for the upper zone. For the

indirect experience of nature, Building B Putrajaya achieved 19 points for both zones.

Meanwhile, Building A achieved 22 points for the lower zone and 17 points for the upper

zone. Next, for the experience of space and place, Building B was able to score 13 points for

both zones, and Building A able to score 19 points for both zones.

It was clear from this observation method that both buildings do not achieve the same as

per their GBI ranking, which is platinum. This might be due to the lack of knowledge and

awareness among the designers, architects, contractors, or users towards the biophilic design

strategies. Lack of awareness from the architects, consultants, and clients is the key issue to

the slow progress in implementing biophilic design (Esa, Hassan & Marhani, 2011).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 161

CONCLUSION

The first research objective is achieved by observing biophilic design strategies for the

direct experience of nature, the indirect experience of nature, and the experience of space and

place. The observation has been conducted in two (2) selected case studies of Malaysian

platinum-rated green office buildings. The office buildings have the same GBI score which is

Platinum. The observation was conducted in a short period, and it was only given three (3)

hours. For Case Study 1 at Building A, the total biophilic percentage for the lower zone is

74% which equals the silver score of the GBI rating, On the Other size, the upper zone

managed to score only 61% which is equivalent to certified for the GBI Rating. For Case

Study 2 in Building B, the total biophilic design strategies for the lower zone are 79%

indicated as gold in the GBI rating. Meanwhile, the upper zone managed to score 72%, which

is as far as silver certification for the GBI rating. From the finding, both office building for

the lower zone has the highest score compared to the upper zone. However, the application of

biophilic design strategies is more dominant in the Building B office building.

The research findings are mostly gained from the collective data of the observation phase

and distribution of the questionnaire survey. This study is conducted over a short period.

There is some point that can be highlighted to improve the research’s outcome in the future.

Previously, the observation data and score points were solely adopted from the GBI

Assessment Criteria. Hence, future research can be conducted through an interview with the

expert to come out with the module of assessment of the biophilic design strategies that

specifically comply with Malaysian climates. Furthermore, future research can also consider

the effect of the application of biophilic design strategies on the indoor environment quality

whether for housing, schools universities, and hospitals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this research by the International

Exchange Grant (IEG) of Universitas Pembangunan Jaya (UPJ) Indonesia.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 163

SPATIAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF SICK BUILDING

SYNDROME IN A UNIVERSITY SPACE: A GIS-BASED

PHYSICAL CONTEXT MAPPING APPROACH

Syed Mohammad Asyraf Syed Mohammad Anuar1, Abdul Rauf Abdul Rasam1*, Nawfal Kamarul

Bahrain1, Mawar Masri2, Jamalunlaili Abdullah3 and Colonius Atang4

1School of Geomatics Science and Natural Resources, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia

2School of Architecture and Interior Architecture, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi

MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia

3School of Town Planning and Landscape Architecture, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam Selangor, Malaysia

4Geography Programme, Faculty of Social Science and Humanities, University Malaysia Sabah,

Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: rauf@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is common in poorly maintained buildings due to poor air

conditioning, ventilation, lighting, and others. Due to the building's construction and age, this

study investigates the spatial risk level of SBS at the administration building of the College of

Built Environment (CBE) at UiTM Shah Alam using the Geographical Information System-Multi

Criteria Decision-Making (GIS-MCDM) method and the JKR’s SBS criteria in a physical

context. The study interviewed staff and the original owners of the space to obtain the estimated

risk level of the SBS, while ArcGIS Pro visualised a 2D risk map based on the floor plan and

the risk level. Based on the survey questionnaire, the respondents agreed that ventilation and

air conditioning systems are the dominant criteria or factors for SBS. The finding revealed that

before the 2020 renovation, there were many issues with ventilation and air conditioning, but

after the renovation, the issues decreased. Although the CBE space is still relevant as a secure

workplace, SBS still had an impact on some of the CBE spaces. Therefore, regular

maintenance activities should be conducted with sustainable solutions towards a healthier

campus and a safe space for building construction. The proposed map is also valuable for

guidelines in CBE's occupational safety and health administration building.

Keywords: Sick building syndrome (SBS); Spatial risk assessment and map; Physical context;

Geographical Information System (GIS); multi criteria decision-making (MCDM)

INTRODUCTION

The sick building syndrome (SBS) is an environmental illness affecting people in

particular buildings more frequently and with a broader range of non-specific symptoms,

normally without obvious clinical indicators or quantifiable symptoms (Gomzi & Bobi,

2008). It results from environmental, occupational, and psychological factors, with poor

indoor air quality likely not the only factor contributing to complaints. SBS typically affects

individuals working in offices or structures with proximity to workers.

SBS was first proposed in the mid-1970s to describe a building in which complaints of ill

health are more common than expected. The WHO defined it in 1983 as a collection of non-

specific symptoms, including eye, nose, and throat irritation, mental fatigue, headaches,

nausea, dizziness, and skin irritations, which appear to be linked with the occupancy of

specific workplaces (Palacios et al., 2020). These are typical symptoms among the general

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population, and they are classified as SBS because they have a temporal relationship with

work in, or occupation of, a specific building (Crook & Burton, 2010).

Most people are also more likely to spend more than 80% of their time indoors, including

at school and work (Norimichi et al., 2021). Besides, SBS is one of the health issues induced

by poor indoor air quality (IAQ). IAQ difficulties in tropical regions such as Singapore,

Thailand, and Malaysia are complicated to address in building design, engineering, and

facility management. A previous study by the United States Environmental Protection Agency

(US EPA) states that indoor air pollution is among the top five environmental health risks.

The WHO report on global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to

selected major risks (Norhidayah et al., 2013) explained that indoor air pollutants are made

by both building materials and people doing things inside. One of the main effects of these is

the spread of SBS. SBS has been observed to occur at a rate of 57% in offices, 31% in

university laboratories, and 23–41% in university administration buildings, and it has become

a primary environmental health concern (Wang et al., 2022).

Every factor for disease spreading to an individual in a space needs to be proven with

multi-analysis such as spatial analysis, spatial risk assessment, shape analysis, and others. By

looking at the data collection and analysis process, it is demonstrable. In addition, it needs to

think about how to balance conservation, transformation, and development, and we need to

use complementary approaches and combinatorial assessment methodologies. It is possible

to think of these methodologies as flexible tools. They can be used to get around each method's

limitations and ensure that the evaluation process is credible and consistent (Cerreta et al.,

2010).

Previous research has mostly looked at how SBS is connected to the amount of pollution

in the air inside using a population-based sample and specific environmental instruments in

cross-sectional or descriptive-analytical studies (Lu et al., 2017; Fard et al., 2018; Reuben et

al., 2019; Hoang Quoc et al., 2020). Lu et al. (2017) discovered that various SBS symptoms

are linked with various personal, psychosocial, and environmental factors. Relationships

between psychosocial factors and lower respiratory symptoms were more substantial than

those with other SBS symptoms. Decent ventilation can lower risk factors and alleviate the

symptoms of SBS.

Similarly, several studies have also been conducted in Malaysia related to the association

between SBS and personal factors, psychosocial factors, and environmental factors in

academic offices using questionnaires and environmental instruments (Zarith et al., 2019;

Nurfarina et al., 2022). A worker's demographics, the indoor office environment, and indoor

air pollutants were all found to be major risk factors for SBS (Zarith et al., 2019). Nurfarina

et al. (2022) found that indoor air quality and psychosocial factors affected the prevalence of

SBS among office workers. The studies have suggested implementing additional assessment

and preventative measures to reduce workplace risk factors, especially a spatial approach.

To date, there is no practical study report linking physical environment factors with SBS

risk assessment using GIS-MCDM approaches in the country. Although a GIS is commonly

associated with outdoor building spatial analysis, combining traditional GIS methods and

indoor positioning technologies can also be effectively used for indoor environments, while

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MCDM is used as a set of systematic techniques to support decision-making processes and

identify the most suitable option. For example, GIS can be used to create 3D detailed indoor

maps that depict the layout, structure, and features of a building, as studies by local

researchers (Hairuddin et al., 2022; Sha'aban, 2021; Othman et al., 2020; Mohd Hasmizi et

al., 2020; Abdul Basir, 2019; Rasam et al., 2013; Bazlan, 2012). Having an accurate indoor

map makes it easier to analyze potential risks and plan for emergencies. For instance, the

ArcGIS Indoor tool offers a comprehensive indoor mapping solution for intelligent building

management, including health risk mapping. It creates and shares maps, monitors facility

operations, facilitates workplace safety, and views building space and floor plans

(GISGeography, 2022).

This study uses GIS and spatial risk analysis techniques to identify SBS's risk level and

map in the CBE’s administration building at UiTM Shah Alam. Potential SBS in the CBE

may influence SBS at a high rate due to some physical building effects with the leaky roof,

poor air conditioning, and poor ventilation. Based on the experience of several CBE lecturers,

it was also stated that the situation of SBS in the building is risky, especially since the

renovation activities were not completed yet in 2020. The study also utilizes the checklist

criteria form applied by the Public Works Department (JKR) for assessing the physical context

of SBS. From the checklist, it can be analysed by using the GIS-MCDM approach to evaluate

the SBS that can be potentially dangerous among the staff and students. The proposed 2D risk

map of SBS can also create awareness among the community about the campus health

building and environment.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Study Area

This study was conducted in a selected building of the main administration office in CBE,

UiTM Shah Alam (Block A, floor 3), as shown in Figure 1. This building was selected because

of its age, which was developed 57 years ago. This condition is a suitable criterion for

identifying the SBS potential and the risk level of the measured risk factors. The experienced

technical staff also agreed with the selection of the building as a case study due to the physical

condition of the building and data availability.

Figure 1. Study Area is Located at Block A (Floor 3) of CBE, UiTM Shah Alam Selangor

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Research Methodology

A research workflow was systematically created to achieve the aim and objectives of the

study, namely to evaluate and map the spatial risk level of SBS at the administration building

of CBE. The workflow was divided into five (5) phases of research, including a preliminary

study, data collection, data processing, data analysis, mapping, and results, as illustrated in

Figure 2.

Figure 2. Research Methodology

Preliminary Study

The preliminary study is the first step of the research that helps better understand the

many sources accessible about the study. Although preliminary studies are not performed in

all systems, they can highlight critical issues that must be addressed in the quality process,

including site selection, software selection, site preparation, and equipment availability for

surveying and tools. This study adopted GIS-MCDM techniques and JKR’s SBS criteria to

investigate the spatial risk assessment and map of SBS in the CBE.

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Data Collection and Risk Calculation

The data collected is a crucial part of the study. This phase was conducted with several

appropriate approaches and instruments, comprising survey questionnaires and interviews.

The criteria based on the JKR, as shown in Table 1, and MCDM (sum rank) techniques were

also applied to estimate the risk level of SBS:

Survey Questionnaire and Interview

All participants in this questionnaire were academic, technical, and administrative staff

in the CBE. This exploratory study used non-probability sampling due to the researcher

selecting samples based on subjective judgment, relying heavily on the staff experience and

expertise of the building (purposive sampling for simulating a risk map) and ease of

availability of the respondents (convenience sampling for finalizing or verifying a risk map).

Selected staff gave feedback on SBS due to their technical and working experiences at the

college. The questionnaire was distributed manually to the respondent. The survey comprises

four (4) main sections: A to D. Section A asks the respondent about their profile. Section B

seeks to describe the experiences related to SBS in the building. Meanwhile, Section C

requires the criteria of SBS that respondents feel by using a linear scale from very safe (risk

score 1) to high-risk (risk score 5), and lastly, Section D requires the conceivable solution to

SBS in the CBE.

Floor Plan

The floor plan was used to visualise the final output of the study. The floor plan of CBE

was obtained from the facility technician at the college. From the floor plan, it was easier to

remark on and identify the cases and issues in the selected space of the building.

Criteria of SBS

The criteria of SBS are shown in Table 1, which consists of five (5) specific criteria

according to those suggested by the JKR in 2021 (JKR Standard JKR/SIRIM X:2021 Indoor

Environmental Quality (IEQ) for office buildings) and based on previous studies (Abdulaali

et al., 2020). The criteria include ventilation, air conditioning systems, air conditioning, the

brightness of the lights, cleanliness, and other related factors.

Table 1. The Suggested Criteria of SBS Based on The Physical Building Context

No.

Criteria

1.

Ventilation and air-conditioning system (e.g., maintenance and others.)

2.

Condition of dust, smoke, fumes or fabric fibres in the air

3.

Bright or flickering lights

4.

Room’s cleanness and furniture layout (e.g., Crowded desks)

5.

Other (depends on the knowledge/experience respondent)

(Source: Adapted from the Public Works Department [JKR] Malaysia)

Risk Level Calculation

A five-point colour-coded risk level has been developed based on the sum rank techniques

of the MCDM approach, as shown in Table 2. This is a standard and easy method of spatial

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risk assessment that the staff or inspector also uses in identifying the risk level in the CBE,

making reports more user-friendly and easier to interpret, saving time, being comprehensive,

and making the information accessible to non-technical users. The risk level is rated on a 5-

point scale: Score 1 to 5 with a very safe condition (green), and the action matrix to be taken

is preventive maintenance, 6 to 10, safe condition with condition-based maintenance (blue),

and normal condition with a score from 11 to 15 required for repair work (grey). Meanwhile,

rehabilitation work is needed for risky conditions with range scores from 16 to 20 (yellow).

A score from 21 to 25 is high-risk and needs replacement work (red).

Table 2. The Risk Level of SBS Based on The Sum Rank Technique

Rating

Physical Condition

Action Matrix

Score

1

Very Safe

Preventive Maintenance

1 to 5

2

Safe

Condition Based Maintenance

6 to 10

3

Normal

Repairs

11 to 15

4

Risk

Rehabilitation

16 to 20

5

High-Risk

Replacement

21 to 25

(Source: Adapted from the Public Works Department [JKR] Malaysia)

Data Processing and Analysis

The acquired information is considered raw data and processed using specific methods

and software. The main datasets were collected from a survey questionnaire and then used to

analyse the current scenario of SBS and create a risk map with ArcGIS Pro. The risk level and

the current scenario were identified using the sum rank and the MCDM, as explained in Table

1 and Table 2. MCDM is the relevant method for making the criteria decision since the opinion

of every respondent has a different perspective on SBS. The risk map of SBS was processed

using ArcGIS Pro, while the risk level from JKR’s criteria was implemented to estimate the

spatial risk assessment of SBS. The risk level was located in the space/zoning in the

administration building of the CBE, based on the estimated risk level of SBS in Table 2.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The Profile of Respondent

Table 3. Respondent Profile of The Study

Variables

Item

Frequency

Percentages

Position

Academic staff (final risk map)

4

28.57

Technical Staff (Simulation risk map)

4

28.57

Admin Staff (final risk map)

6

42.86

Years of Working Experience

Below three years

2

14.29

3 – 7 years

3

21.43

Seven years and above

9

64.29

Table 3 illustrates the respondent profile of the survey questionnaire using non-probability

sampling as an exploratory study. There are 14 respondents involved in this survey, and the

respondents also agreed with the selected study area and techniques applied in the study for

identifying the risk factor of SBS at CBE. Most of the respondents have worked for 7 years

and above. The respondents mostly have experience with before and after scenarios of SBS

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at CBE's space. The selection and number of respondents are sufficient to assess the risk level

of SBS in the building in an exploratory study.

The Spatial Risk Level of SBS: A Comparative Analysis Before and After the

Renovation

Based on the result obtained as displayed in Figure 4, all respondents agreed on the first

and third criterion, which are ventilation and flickering lights, as leading factors that cause

SBS in the CBE's space, but after the renovation completed in 2020, they are considered safe

on scale 2. For the second criterion of SBS, the respondents agreed that dust, smoke, or fabric

fibres are the factors of SBS in the CBE and, after 2020, are considered safe on scale 2, but

respondent number 3 answered that it is still at a risk level, which is on scale 4.

Figure 4. The CBE Respondent for Estimating the Risk Level of SBS

In the 4th criterion or factor, the cleanliness of the rooms shows respondent numbers 1

and 3 answers for safe, which is a scale of 2; it may be that the surrounding workplace is still

crowded with stuff and other things, but respondent number 2 and 4 agree with the answer

very safe on a scale of 1, meaning that respondents can see the difference in the year 2020

after the cleaning and renovation in CBE are completed. Last but not least, the fifth criterion

of SBS is open to the respondents to answer if other (specific) factors of SBS happen to

themselves or the individuals around them. However, only respondent number 4 answered

this question, in which the setting of the temperature of the air conditioning affects the

individual in CBE. However, the graph shows that SBS is affected differently by every

individual based on the questionnaire result.

The respondents agreed to select criterions 1 and 3 as the dominant factors of SBS in

CBE's space before the 2020 renovation, in which criterion 1 mentions the ventilation and air

conditioning system. With these criteria, it can be concluded that there were many issues with

ventilation and air conditioning before the renovation happened in CBE. However, after the

renovation was completed in 2020, the issue of this factor was resolved when the maintenance

team took drastic action. Maintenance is about 3 to 6 months every year, but it depends on the

daily usage in the administration building of CBE. However, another criterion of SBS in

CBE's space is the brightness of the flickering lights. Based on this criterion, the previous

study already mentioned that lighting is critical in the workplace, where a lack of natural

daylight or mechanical lighting can cause employees to feel discomfort. Lighting should be

evenly distributed, not flicker or be too bright, and emit the appropriate lighting for employee

comfort.

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This SBS risk level decision refers to the opinion of selected staff with extensive

experience with CBE buildings' technical conditions. However, other opinions should be

considered for the subsequent study to get diverse views and issues for a more holistic solution

for SBS at the CBE. Besides this, other key criteria or indexes such as energy efficiency (EE),

indoor environmental quality (EQ), and sustainable site planning and management (SM) in

the Malaysian Green Building Index (GBI) could be included in the subsequent study

(Abdulaali et al., 2020).

The Current Scenario of SBS after the Renovation Activities

The SBS in CBE's space is getting worse before the year 2020, namely when the

renovation activities were not completed yet. It happens when 10% of the staff in the

administration building get affected, and several of them are admitted to the hospital. This

statement is based on the interview session with four (4) CBE staff. All respondents agree that

CBE's space before 2020 was at a high-risk level for SBS and, worst of all, affected individual

health and physical building. This scenario of SBS happened in or before the year 2020, but

after the year 2020, the issue of SBS in CBE, Shah Alam, decreased due to renovations

completed. It was an excellent action to prevent many factors, such as the physical or

structural structure of the building, human health, and others. It can be recapped during the

interview session. Not all the space in CBE is at a high-risk level; mainly, the affected area is

in lecturer rooms, meeting rooms, and others.

The risk level still needs to be at a perfect level, which is very safe because the

respondents agree that the temperature level of the air conditioning still cannot be

appropriately controlled. Even if the air conditioning can be controlled, as shown in Figure 5,

Besides, the effects of air conditioning actually relate to moisture disease. Air conditioning

started being repaired and replaced with a new one in September 2019, with this process

completed by December 2021. After the action was taken seriously, the moisture disease

decreased among staff in the administration building in the CBE. This is one of the good

alternatives to preventing harm to human health.

Figure 5. The Physical Effects of SBS at The CBE Spaces

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The Simulation Risk Map of SBS (Feedback from the Technical Staff)

Figure 6 indicates the qualitative risk maps of SBS, showing that every colour is selected

based on the JKR’s standard. This simulation map was produced based on early feedback

from the selected technical staff to gain an overall view of the SBS condition in the building.

In CBE's risk space, there are no high-risk spaces with the red colour level of SBS. The main

reason is that the SBS condition improved after the renovation (e.g., air-conditioned

ventilation) activities in 2020. However, there is a specific space that is still at-risk with a

yellow colour; it is because the factor of SBS still affects the individual there, such as cough,

runny nose, tiredness, and others. CBE's space is also still relevant as a safe place to work;

the risk maps above show that this particular space is still very safe with a dark green colour,

safe with a blue colour and normal with a grey colour. Effective maintenance will keep the

space safe.

Figure 6. Simulation Risk Map of SBS in The CBE

Based on a previous study conducted by GISGeography, (2022), indoor mapping is

beneficial with GIS for customers' usage. In shopping malls in Tokyo, for example, indoor

mapping is implemented to display the inside of buildings and make it easier for customers

to find shops or departments they want to visit. This statement is similar to the implementation

of risk mapping of SBS in CBE's space, in which every individual will use the map to know

the space that has a high risk of SBS and act as a guide or manual for others about SBS.

The Validation Process of the Final Risk Map of SBS (Feedback from The

Original Occupant)

Table 4 shows the sum rank for every SBS criteria those respondents answered using a

questionnaire form provided during the interview session. In this validation process, ten

respondent participants (original occupants or owners of the rooms) ethically participated in

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the session to evaluate the simulation risk map before using it in the administration building.

The feedback of these original owners of the space or room is vital to creating the SBS's

finalised risk map. In the respondent's opinion, they thought criterion number 2, with 3.6%,

which conditions include dust, smoke, fumes, or fabric fibres in the air in CBE's space, is still

a risk level on the Likert scale on scale 4. In the respondent's opinion, the cleaning workers

in CBE are understaffed to cover the whole space.

Table 4. Rank for Criteria SBS by The Owner of The Room

Respondent

Criteria

1

2

3

4

5

1

4

3

4

0

2

3

4

2

0

3

1

2

0

4

3

0

5

3

4

3

0

6

4

3

0

7

3

4

2

0

8

3

4

3

0

9

4

3

0

10

5

3

0

Sum

34

36

32

28

0

Mean

3.4

3.6

3.2

2.8

0

For criterion 1, with 3.4%, ventilation and air-conditioning systems in CBE's space are in

the average range of risk based on the result obtained. Ventilation in specific spaces on floor

3 needs better functioning due to the old infrastructure. For air-conditioning, based on the

opinions of respondents who said that the air-conditioning system is not stable when wing A

drops the temperature of the air conditioner, wing B will be affected by the opposite

temperature. Besides, in criterion number 3, with 3.2% brightness or flickering lights,

respondents think that the lighting in specific spaces in CBE is still within the normal range

because even if the building is not exposed to enough sunlight, the lighting provided or the

type of lamp used helps them when they are inside the building. For criterion number 4, with

2.8%, which is room cleanliness and furniture layout, average respondents think that

cleanliness depends on the individual for their area.

Figure 7 indicates a statistical movement trend of SBS criteria in the CBE’s space during

the validation process among the original occupants. These criteria were evaluated by the

occupant of the risk zone. Criteria 1, 2, and 3 are dominant factors of SBS at CBE, which

mentioned air conditioning and ventilation, dust, smoke, fumes, fabric fibres and brightness,

and flickering lights. Three (3) dominant factors affected them. The dominant factor of SBS

will affect human health, especially technical, academic, and administrative staff since the

study area is in the administration building at the CBE, Shah Alam, and SBS may affect in

the long-term or short-term. It has been proven in previous studies that indoor air quality and

psychological variables have an impact on the incidence of SBS among office employees

(Zarith et al., 2019; Nurfarina et al., 2022). It needs to maintain infrastructure and facilities

frequently to maintain a clean environment.

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Figure 7. Overall Risk Level of SBS from The Selected Original Occupants of The Rooms in The CBE

The Applications of Final Risk Map of SBS in the CBE Building Construction

The final risk map of SBS has been verified according to the original owner of the space.

Figure 8 shows that this approved risk map of SBS is now being used for Sub-Occupational

Safety and Health Committee (SOSCHo) applications at CBE, Shah Alam. It would be used

as guidelines and an awareness tool among the staff and students for the alert warning system

of SBS. The colour of the risk level in the risk map is already updated for specific spaces in

CBE, which are A1, A6, A7, A8, and A14. The changes (from the simulation risk map) happen

because the individual's opinion of zoning differs from the previous interview session with

the expert in the early data collection stage. Identifying accurate information based on the

individual representing the area or zoning is a crucial process.

Figure 8. The Finalised Risk Map of SBS at The CBE

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This indoor risk map, sometimes called an indoor risk assessment or a floor plan analysis,

is a vital tool for guaranteeing the safety and security of occupants within a CBE structure. It

offers insightful information and assistance regarding possible dangers, emergency

evacuation zones, and crucial regions that could need particular attention. It is also an

excellent investment that enhances the confidence and well-being of everyone who uses the

space. Implementing this assessment and preventative measures could reduce workplace risk

factors, as suggested by local researchers (Zarith et al., 2019; Nurfarina et al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

Sick building syndrome (SBS) will affect the individual's long-term or short-term health.

Failure to take fast and effective action to address the issue of inadequate indoor air quality

might have devastating effects on human health. This GIS-based physical context study has

assessed the spatial SBS condition in the CBE based on the college's experienced respondents

perceptions of the building's physical environment factors. The finding has shown that some

of the CBE's spaces were affected by SBS, especially in the central region of the

administration building of block A, due to some physical effects with the leaky roof, poor air

conditioning, and poor ventilation. The CBE's space is still within range, but not very safe.

Thus, ideal green-based solutions need to be introduced in the college to prevent human health

and the physical effects of the building. It also needs to sustain the maintenance of the

building's construction by monitoring the CBE's Sub-Occupational Safety and Health

Committee (SOSCHo). Having an accurate GIS-based risk map of SBS makes it easier to

analyze potential risks and plan for emergencies in the building. Socio-physiology:

environmental and biomedical approaches are also recommended for the following study to

measure and verify indoor air quality and building conditions, and scientifically 3D GIS

indoor risk analysis and mapping.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank UiTM Shah Alam for financially sponsoring this research through

Geran Kolaborasi Entiti Penyelidikan (KEPU - 600-RMC/KEPU 5/3 (015/2021). The College

of Built Environment (CBE) is also acknowledged for allowing the authors to ethically

conduct the research in the college. Besides, thanks to the SOSCHo team of the CBE for

constructive feedback in the study. Lastly, many thanks to all the people and organisations

(RISM and JKR) who helped in completing this exploratory research.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 177

EXPLORING THE BARRIERS TO ECO-INNOVATION

IMPLEMENTATION IN CONTRACTOR FIRMS

Siti Sarah Mat Isa1*, Nazirah Zainul Abidin2, Wan Norizan Wan Ismail1, Norhafizah Yusop1 and

Norsyazwana Jenuwa1

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment Studies,

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

2School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, USM Penang, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: sitis366@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Increased urbanisation has generated serious environmental pollution and ecological

destruction, resulting in the global deterioration of the ecosystem. The construction industry

needs to be eco-innovative to mitigate the negative environmental effects of construction

development. In the construction industry of developing countries, the term eco-innovation (EI)

is not adequately perceived. Recent literature has explored the determinants of EI but has

rarely addressed the barriers to its implementation. The lack of previous studies accounts for

the various perceived barriers. Thus, this paper aims to explore the barriers to EI

implementation faced by large contractor firms in the Malaysian construction industry. A

qualitative approach is adopted in this research using semi-structured interviews with 14

respondents, consisting of Grade G7 contractor firms. The results reveal that the barriers to EI

come from internal and external sources. Four main barriers that hinder the implementation of

EI by contractor firms are: i) firm-specific barriers; ii) cost difficulties; iii) people-related barriers,

and iv) external pressures. The results obtained from this study on the barriers to EI may guide

contractor firms to pursue sustainable competitive advantage effectively and explore a value-

creation strategy to enhance EI implementation at the firm level. This study is practical and

relevant for contractor firms undertaking both green and large-scale construction projects.

Keywords: Eco-innovation; Barriers; Contractor firms; Construction industry; Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

Malaysia is well known as a developing Asian country that has experienced rapid social

and economic growth. The Malaysian construction industry has contributed wealth with

constant progress of 3%–7% to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over the past 20 years and

has played a vital role in the country’s development by assisting other sectors to grow

(Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2021). Unfortunately, increased urbanisation has

generated severe environmental pollution and ecological destruction, resulting in the global

deterioration of the ecosystem (Goi, 2017; Song & Yu, 2017). Furthermore, despite rapid

advancements in the construction industry, most construction projects in Malaysia continue

to use outdated methods that are no longer viable. Environmental degradation is inseparable

from the development of new buildings and infrastructures. Construction activities produce

construction waste, high pollution and carbon emissions and consume substantial amounts of

energy and resources that contribute to the most significant share of the total negative impact

on the environment (Bamgbade, Kamaruddeen & Nawi, 2017; Isa & Abidin, 2021).

Continuing to deliver this development with a conventional approach and unsustainable

construction practices will not solve the environmental concerns.

Malaysia is shifting towards sustainable development objectives, and national

construction development is expected to change significantly. The construction industry

embraces the Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR 4.0) in ways that would transform its

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 178

productivity and competitiveness towards smart construction and advanced technologies

(Yousif et al., 2022). Therefore, dealing with such complexity is not possible with the

traditional view of construction practices. Dynamic changes are necessary for the 4.0

industrial era to align with the technological evolution that will eventually face shortly. This

situation calls for efficient governance and excellent cooperation amongst various parties in

ensuring continuous efforts are made to transform the construction industry to achieve more

sustainable approaches. Thus, innovation is a key to improving productivity and

environmental performance within the construction industry (Kamal, Yusof & Iranmanesh

2016; Davis, Gajendran, Vaughan & Owi, 2016). Innovation is creating value by using

relevant knowledge and resources to convert an idea into a new product, process, or practice

or improve an existing product, process, or practices (Varadarajan, 2018).

The increasing negative impact of construction activities on the environment has triggered

greater environmental consciousness among construction firms, and innovation has become

one of the most essential means for firms to achieve sustainable business growth. During the

construction phase, the contractor firm’s activities can negatively impact the natural

environment are mainly determined by the types of materials or energy used during

construction process, methods of construction, plants and machinery, and their firm’s

environmental strategies (Bamgbade et al., 2017; Waris, Liew, Kamidi & Idrus, 2014).

Increasing environmental pressure and support for modernisation mean that innovation has

become a primary means for firms to achieve sustainable development (Cai & Li, 2018).

However, innovation is insignificant because it may put pressure on the environment. To

mitigate any unfavourable environmental effects of the construction process, contracting

firms must adopt new approaches. Innovations that can positively impact the environment are

one way for firms to incorporate environmental concerns into their business strategies while

enhancing their competitive advantage. An eco-friendly construction process and

improvements in construction and management practices are required to attain higher regard

for the environment.

Hence, eco-innovation (EI) has emerged as an imperative paradigm propelling the

contractor firms towards the green growth to shift traditional construction practices that are

inefficient, labour-intensive, slow, high in construction waste and carbon emissions (Hazarika

& Zhang, 2019). In addition, the government had pledged to protect the natural environment

and provide a better quality of life for future generations. The increasing awareness of

sustainability in the construction industry has influenced business firms to improve their

environmental performance and efficiency. Environmental sustainability must be

incorporated into the firm’s objectives, policies, and standards, and effectively communicated

to all levels of management. Firms adopt EI in the form of new or enhanced versions of

products and services, processes, and organisational management that result in better or more

efficient practices and positively impact environmental development. EI can increase the

competitiveness of construction firms while preserving the environment and its valuable

resources for future generations. EI is valuable for reconfiguring the existing innovation

system within the business growth model for an economy to embrace green growth

characteristics (Singh & Chandran, 2017). Firms are capitalising on this transition by adding

value to their businesses and carving out their niche to remain competitive and obtain a

sustainable business orientation.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 179

The literature on EI has been examined and explored from various perspectives

throughout the last decade. Numerous studies have discussed the drivers of EI (Hazarika &

Zhang, 2019; Bossle, Barcellos, Vieira & Sauvee, 2016), the dimensions of EI (Carrillo-

Hermosilla, Del Río and Konnola, 2010; Kiefer, Carrillo-Hermosilla, Del Río and Barroso,

2017), the measurement of EI (Arundel & Kemp, 2009; Cheng & Shiu, 2012; García-Granero,

Piedra-Munoz & Galdeano-Gomez, 2018). Studies on EI strategies conducted by Garcés-

Ayerbe, Scarpellini, Valero-Gil & Rivera-Torres (2016), Tsai & Liao (2017), Jové‐Llopis &

Segarra‐Blasco (2018) and Ge et al. (2018) enable firms to integrate environmental matters

into their business operations. Unfortunately, the factors that hinder the EI implementation

have been disregarded (Souto & Rodriguez, 2015; Szilagyi, Mocan, Verniquet, Churican &

Rochat, 2018). In other words, firms in the construction industry that are suffering difficulties

in EI implementation at the firm level have not yet received the necessary attention.

Furthermore, the construction industry frequently faces numerous problems when

bringing new ideas and technology and understanding the innovation implementation process

(Suprun & Stewart, 2015). Despite this, there is a knowledge deficit in studies that notably

advocate for impediments to innovation adoption faced by contractor firms (Ozorhon, Oral &

Demirkesen, 2016). Still, suppose these barriers are a chance to gain competitive advantages.

In that case, they require changes in the services offered, construction methods, technology,

and firm strategies (Ghisetti, Mazzanti, Mancinelli & Zoli et al., 2015). Thus, this paper aims

to address the barriers to EI from a qualitative perspective to better understand the obstacles

Malaysian contractor firms encounter. Understanding the barriers to EI may provide

significant value to contractor firms in achieving competitive advantages and environmental

sustainability in delivering their services.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Understanding the Eco-Innovation (EI) Concepts

Innovation is an important contributor to economic growth and is widely considered to

improve the competitive advantage of a firm (Chen, Yin & Mei, 2018). Merging the concept

of innovation to support environmental sustainability is directing the innovation to include

environmental concerns to benefit both economic and environmental outcomes (Souto &

Rodriguez, 2015). This objective can be reached by encouraging firms to implement eco-

innovation (EI), especially in sectors with considerable environmental impacts in terms of

pollution and water and energy consumption, such as construction (Hazarika & Zhang, 2019).

New environmentally friendly production methods and improvements in business practices,

product characteristics, and organisational capabilities are required to achieve tremendous

respect for the environment.

The term ‘eco-innovation’ was first coined by Fussler and James (1996, cited in He, Miao,

Wong & Lee, 2018), referring to new products and processes that provide customer and

business value while significantly decreasing environmental impacts. Since then, many

definitions of EI have emerged. Kemp and Pearson (2007) definition of EI is the most

favourable by other researchers in this field. According to their words, EI is defined as “the

production, assimilation or exploitation of a product, production process, service or

management or business method that is novel to the organization (developing or adopting it)

and which results, throughout its life cycle, in a reduction of environmental risk, pollution

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 180

and other negative impacts of re- sources use (including energy use) compared to relevant

alternatives”. This study defines EI as innovation introduced to firms or projects through new

or improved versions of products, services, processes, or organisational management

practices that produce better or more efficient services and contributes to environmental

improvement. The essential part of this definition is the positive environmental impact of

innovation, as EI has both economic and environmental benefits.

The Components of Eco-Innovation (EI) in Contractor Firms

EI practices are critical to embedding within the contractor firm as they are accountable

for delivering the construction project within the specified contract. This study highlighted

three EI components (process, products, and organisational EI) relevant to the contractor

firms. Many previous researchers have highlighted these three types of EIs, process, product

and organisational innovation, which are essential in EI implementation (Cheng, Yang &

Shue, 2014; Peng & Liu, 2016; Singh, 2017; García-Granero et al., 2017). According to

Cheng et al. (2014) and Cheng and Shiu (2012), process EI refers to improving existing

production processes or adding new processes introduced to a firm to reduce its environmental

impact. In the construction industry, Suprun and Stewart (2015) and Horbach et al. (2012)

observe that process EI are the improvements in construction methods and technologies that

are designed or developed for the accomplishment of general construction operations or the

enhancement in the efficiency of the construction process to increase the resources utilisation.

EI also aims to reduce the overall impact on the natural environment. Their decision to use

advanced technology to improve the efficiency of construction processes, such as conserving

energy, water, and other resources during construction, effective waste, and pollution

management, and how they perform their work on-site in ways that do not jeopardise the

project budget or schedule, and significantly reduce cost and improve productivity (Hazarika

& Zhang, 2019; Yusof, Awang & Iranmanesh, 2017).

Meanwhile, product EI is the introduction of new or significantly improved products

(regarding their characteristics), such as advancements in technical components and materials

(Carrillo-Hermosilla et al., 2010). In the construction industry context, product EI refers to

adopting eco-innovative products or services with considerably improved environmental and

performance qualities in delivering sustainable building and infrastructure. Product EI’s

environmental impact stems from their usage throughout the building life cycle and disposal

rather than their production (Cheng et al., 2014; Yusuf et al., 2018). Thus, the contractors are

liable to recommend to clients and consultants eco-innovative products and materials that will

increase the durability and quality, energy efficiency, reduce the pace of replacement and

lower carbon emission during the operation of the building (Hazarika & Zhang, 2019; Bohari

et al., 2015). This will protect the environment and provide end-users with a better quality of

life.

Organisational EI refers to new or significantly improved routines, business models,

methods and actions that change firms’ practices, relations, and decisions (Marcon et al.,

2017). Organisational EI facilitates and aligns technical knowledge to eco-innovate and

transform the entire infrastructure's organisational structure and coordination to promote

green practices. Several researchers (Triguero et al., 2013; Kesidou & Demirel, 2012) have

identified organisational EI as the driving force of product and process EI. The fundamentals

of organisational EI in the contractor firm focus on the motivating aspects such as adherence

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 181

to environmental regulations and standards or complying with green rating tools, developing

a good relationship and collaboration in the supply chain, and improving the firm human

resources to enhance EI adoption (Triguero et al., 2013; Cheng et al., 2014; Kesidou &

Demirel, 2012).

As a result, EI presents an opportunity for contractor firms to innovate in a more

environmentally friendly manner. The primary focus of EI is on increasing resource efficiency

and productivity while also safeguarding the environment. Even though increasing focus and

attention have been placed on EI adoption in developing countries, including Malaysia.

However, compared to other Asian countries, EI research in Malaysia has received little

attention. Numerous studies have been conducted to understand EI practices better; however,

most of these works have primarily focused on the manufacturing industry (Singh, 2017;

Salim et al., 2018; Dahan & Yusof, 2019), the automotive industry (Rashid et al., 2015;

Zailani et al., 2015), and green technology sector (Ch’ng et al., 2021; Fernando et al., 2019).

In the local context, the construction industry has received little attention in EI research

compared to other industries, even though the construction industry is responsible for shaping

the built environment that underpins all social and economic activities (Rashid et al., 2015).

Even though the contractor firms, relatively, have increasingly engaged, but rather slowly, in

new practices or green-related innovation activities. They have focused more on primary and

low-cost activities such as conserving energy and complying with the minimum

environmental concerns requirements, mainly focusing on what had been stated in the

contract. Hence, this study has gained insights into how the management of contractor firms

can be improved by exploring the barriers that hinder EI implementation within their

organisations.

Barriers to Eco-Innovation (EI) Implementation

The path forward for eco-innovative firms is full of barriers to overcome, preventing their

creation and subsequent development and consolidation. These barriers include problems and

challenges in the innovation process that may stop firms from investing in innovation if not

properly addressed (Marin, Marzucchi, & Zoboli, 2015; Ozorhon et al., 2016). Contractor

firms encountered pressing challenges in constructing buildings and infrastructure with fewer

resources while generating less pollution and waste (Carrillo-Hermosilla, Del Río & Könnölä,

2010). They also have confronted pressures such as government green requirements and

project stakeholders’ needs to improve their environmental performance (Bamgbade et al.,

2017; Bohari et al., 2015). They need to respond and take the necessary actions to improve

the firm’s competitiveness and environmental performance. The literature on eco-innovation

distinguishes between internal and external determinants and barriers to its performance

(Horbach, 2008).

Meanwhile, an empirical study by Pinget, Bocquet, and Mothe (2015) examines three

significant perceived barriers to EI: cost, knowledge, and the market. First, cost barriers

indicate a firm’s inability to finance innovative endeavours. During the innovation process,

the available financial resources may not cover the necessary investments; therefore,

excessive costs and a lack of financial resources (internal and external sources) are significant

obstacles to EI. Souto and Rodriguez (2015) mentioned that the high cost of innovation, a

lack of external funding, and restricted internal financial resources pose a significant

challenge to developing innovative businesses. In the meantime, Hanelt et al. (2017) also

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 182

stated that a lack of a firm’s internal and external funding would hamper the adoption of green

technology, R&D activities, investments in advanced software, or any EI practices. Hanelt et

al. (2017) revealed that the most widely perceived difficulty is the potentially high initial cost

of switching from current technologies to new eco-technologies.

Second, knowledge barriers pertain to limited access to information on technology and

skilled staff. As supported by Souto and Rodriguez (2015) and Marin et al. (2015) that lack

of experienced, competent, and qualified staff, and limited knowledge and information on

green technology and green products due to inadequate information on green markets and

customer demand. In other words, EIs involve specific information and knowledge, so

qualified personnel and associated skills are essential for exploring new environmental

technologies. Ozorhon et al. (2016) emphasised that lack of knowledge, experience, and

qualified technical staff are technological barriers to conducting technical tasks when

adopting innovations. Thus, knowledgeable managers and employees who can incorporate

and support EI as a business strategy attain a competitive advantage.

Third, the ability to connect a technical opportunity to a market opportunity encourages

successful innovations; however, the inability to do so may inhibit innovative activity. Hanelt

et al. (2017), Martin et al. (2015), Pinget et al. (2015), and Souto and Rodriguez (2015)

highlighted that difficulty in finding collaboration partners for EI, a market dominated by

well-established eco-innovative firms, market uncertainty for eco-innovative goods and

services. The technology and markets associated with EI tend to be complex and rapidly

evolving; therefore, firms pursuing EI must address these two issues even more intensively.

Furthermore, Triguero et al. (2013) believe collaboration with external partners positively

promotes EI practices. However, finding external partners that collaborate in developing

business innovation activities can also be a significant obstacle to innovation, as innovative

companies in constant contact with their environment need to cooperate and update available

knowledge and technology (Souto, 2012). Additionally, existing regulations and structures

not providing incentives to eco-innovate and insufficient access to subsidies and fiscal

incentives contribute to impeding EI practices (Marin et al., 2015; Ozorhon et al., 2016; Souto

& Rodriguez, 2015). The lack of need for eco-innovations in the construction industry and

the deficiency of clear benefits of EI continue to interpret EI to be an added burden to the

firms. Table 1 presents the summary of barriers to EI based on previous studies.

Table 1. Summary of Barriers to Eco-Innovation (EI)

Authors (Year)

Barriers to

Eco-Innovation (EI)

Hanelt

et al.

(2017)

Triguero

et al.

(2013)

Marin

et al.

(2015)

Ozorhon

et al.

(2016)

Souto &

Rodriguez

(2015)

Souto

(2012)

Pinget

et al.

(2015)

Unsupportive organisational culture

/

Lack of knowledge and awareness of EI

/

Financial difficulties

/

Lack of skills and competence staff

/

Difficulties in collaboration

/

Market uncertainty of EI

/

Insufficient access to incentives and

subsidies

/

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 183

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

An interview with grade G7 contractor firms was conducted to investigate the barriers

encountered by the firms in implementing EI in their construction services. The semi-

structured interview gave a frame of specified topics to be covered while offering the

interviewees some leeway in their responses (Bryman & Bell, 2015). Purposive sampling was

used to ensure that the participants chosen for the study had a wide range of relevant

experience and knowledge (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013). Previous researchers had

recommended that qualitative studies require a minimum sample size of at least 12

respondents to achieve data saturation (Braun & Clarke, 2013). Therefore, 14 contractor firms

(labelled R1 to R14) were interviewed and deemed sufficient to satisfy the saturation process

in this study's qualitative analysis and scale. Apart from sharing their thoughts and

experiences, the participants also served as key informants to provide rich information about

the barriers to eco-innovative practices within the firms to achieve environmental

sustainability and competitive advantages.

This study employed an interview approach based on the preference of the potential

respondents. The researcher made an effort to contact and ask the respondents about the

approach of interviews they would prefer. In this study, telephone and online interviews were

the most preferred approaches especially when it involves hard-to-reach and busy

respondents. A set of interview questions, a written list of questions that need to be covered

in a particular order, was prepared. It is essential to identify the optimal interview length,

especially when dealing with respondents with busy schedules. According to Achtenhagen et

al. (2013), most qualitative interviews are between one and two hours long. Therefore, one-

hour interview questions were designed to fully satisfy the needed information. To help

increase the likelihood of cooperation, a letter was sent through email to each potential

respondent requesting their consent to be interviewed. A follow-up call was made to each

respondent a week later to confirm the interview arrangement and their preferred interview

approach. The time for the interview was decided to ensure respondents were ready by the

time the interview took place. The interview forms were emailed earlier to have ample time

to review the interview questions. After every session of an interview, the audio recording

was transcribed to ensure a comprehensive analysis of the information could be done while

the discussion was fresh.

Data gathered from the interviews was analysed qualitatively as the information was in

the form of opinions, comments, and statements with exceptions. The qualitative data analysis

was conducted using Atlas.ti Version 22, which handles rich text-based information, were

deep levels of analysis on small and large volumes of data. Atlas.ti provides a perfect solution

to the tedious processes of data analysis such that it removes many of the manual tasks

associated with the analysis, such as classifying, sorting, and arranging information (Creswell,

2014). The inductive approach was adopted in analysing the data, in which the data drove the

themes and patterns of analysis (Yahaya, 2017). The respondents were coded in the data

analysis process to ensure their anonymity in the study. To ensure the reliability of the

participants, the interview was conducted with firm representatives holding positions ranging

from top management to middle management (Hojnik & Ruzzier, 2016). They were selected

as firm representatives because they were directly involved in the process, making them

knowledgeable, experienced in all operations, and engaged in firm management issues and

decision-making (Bamgbade et al., 2017). As shown in Table 2, all firms have more than 15

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 184

years of experience in the construction industry. Meanwhile, respondents had more than five

years of working experience with their respective firms.

Table 2. Detail of the Contractor Firm’s Representative

Respondent’s Designation

in The Current Firm

Years of The Firms Operating

in The Construction Industry

Years Of Respondents

Working with The Current Firm

Respondents

Label

Director

16 years

7 years

R1

General Manager

29 years

14 years

R2

Senior Manager

38 years

21 years

R3

Senior Project Manager

47 years

8 years

R4

Senior Project Manager

30 years

10 years

R5

Senior Project Manager

39 years

6 years

R6

Project Engineer

45 years

5 years

R7

Project Manager

45 years

14 years

R8

Project Manager

40 years

6 years

R9

Project Manager

28 years

5 years

R10

Senior Quantity Surveyor

50 years

5 years

R11

Senior Quantity Surveyor

35 years

7 years

R12

Senior Quantity Surveyor

29 years

8 years

R13

Environmental Officer

19 years

5 years

R14

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the interview with 14 contractor firms G7, the main barriers that hinder the EI

implementation are i) firm-specific barriers, ii) cost difficulties, iii) people-related barriers

and iv) external pressures. All these four main barriers will be elaborated on accordingly.

Firm-Specific Barriers

The finding shows that a lack of support from the firm’s top management, whether in

guidance or other supporting resources, can inhibit EI implementation. The contractors’ lack

of responsibility in adopting eco-practices in delivering their services was explained by the

absence of green resources regarding green technology, eco-friendly plants, and machinery,

including environmental knowledge provided by their firm management in facilitating them

in EI practices. This challenge has been highlighted by most of the respondents. Respondent

R1 mentioned, “A lack of support from the top management to implement these practices

because of the lack of awareness on the benefits it can bring to the environment and the firm’s

productivity”. Most top management are unaware of the long-term benefits and are unwilling

to change because eco-practices incur high initial costs. Half of the respondents conclude that

most top management only sees the short-term consequences rather than long-term benefits,

which leads them to be uninterested in implementing eco-practices due to the high initial cost.

This finding is consistent with Jones, Jackson, Bates, and Tudor (2016), who identify these

constraints as related to a lack of top management support and guidance. In addition, it is well

appreciated that the commitment of top-level management is the pillar behind the

environmental strategy formulation, execution, and success within firms (Singh, 2017) and is

a crucial factor affecting the adoption of EI practices toward minimising environmental

impacts (Hazarika & Zhang, 2019).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 185

Furthermore, whenever the top management has implemented environmental policies and

guidelines within their firm, they must be communicated to all departments or management

levels to ensure effective implementation. For example, when a firm implements EMS,

inadequate specialist staff, a lack of training, insufficient technical knowledge, and a

competent team lead to failure in complying with the EMS requirement (Mazzi, Toniolo,

Mason, Aguiari & Scipioni, 2016). In such cases, contractor firms fail to develop robust

environmental capabilities despite implementing EMS. Similarly, shallow, unauthentic EMS

implementations solely for tendering requirements fail to establish a strong firm’s

sustainability-oriented capabilities. Demirel and Kesidou (2019) find that various studies have

also argued that EMS needs time to mature to provide firms with green-oriented capabilities.

Also supported by Thu, Paillé & and Halilem (2019), EI is a state-of-the-art problem solution

representing the organisation’s efforts to execute eco-initiatives and create competitive

advantages, engaging top management and staff at all levels. Thus, the top management of

the contractor firm needs to commit effectively to these matters. Other challenges defined in

the interview are managing multiple parties within the firms. Considering that a contractor

firm target integrating EI into their business operations, they require the engagement of top

management and contributions from all staff within different departments.

Cost Difficulties

Most profit-driven firms’ mindset and actions have influenced their interest in green-

related practices. This study reveals that the majority of respondents agreed that the major

constraint is cost. Respondent R4 highlighted, “The contractors to spend more money to

outsource specialist or lease eco-friendly technology, plant and machinery to implement

green practices and to make the work done with minimum adverse impact to the environment.

As a result, these incurred additional costs”. This was echoed in an interview with a few

respondents of this study, who opined that their firm does not seek to use green technologies

because the firm expects higher costs and the difficulty of finding suppliers for eco-products

and green materials. Respondents R3, R4, R7 and R8 also indicated that “Malaysian suppliers

still lack in providing eco-product and green materials for green building projects. Most of

these eco-products with green criteria are obtained from an international supplier, and cost

becomes more expensive, leading to difficulties the main contractors face”. Therefore, all

these matters led the contractors to other problems such as project delays, high costs because

they cannot meet the client requirements, etc., and in the end, they are demotivated to adopt

green practices.

The result from the interview indicates that all respondents confirmed that inadequate cost

allocation for EI practices had hindered EI adoption at the firm and project levels. Cost

constraint is noted as one of the critical reasons why top management is reluctant to eco-

innovate. Furthermore, the top management is unwillingly spending high costs on green

technology or eco-friendly plants and machinery due to the high price. To a great extent, the

nature of most profit-driven organisations’ thinking, and behaviour has influenced their

interest in green-related activities or practices. These results are in line with those of previous

studies. They tend to view a firm’s spending in providing sufficient resources and capabilities

toward eco-practices as burdensome because it incurs high initial costs (Yusof et al., 2016;

Hashim, 2018). Furthermore, when dealing with large, complex, or green building projects,

the contractors must comply with the environmental requirements stated in the contract. The

crucial involvement of the client in incorporating the environmental values from the

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 186

beginning of the project is also mentioned in Son, Kim, Chong, and Chou (2011). High costs

are incurred when the need to outsource most environmental provisions, such as appointing

environmental specialists, cleaner technology, or eco-friendly machinery and equipment,

especially when the project location is in a prime area.

Apart from that, based on the local context, the cost of eco-products and green materials

is still higher than non-green products. This result is consistent with Bohari, Skitmore, Xia

and Teo (2017), which reveal that clients must spend more on eco-products, green materials,

and green technology in their projects. Moreover, the high price is also incurred whenever

clients demand eco-product use from overseas. An inexperienced contractor typically needs

help identifying the cost to be allocated for providing all the environmental provisions in a

project, finding relevant suppliers for eco-products, or outsourcing environmental specialists

or eco-friendly machinery. Therefore, they tend to take this matter lightly during the tendering

process, especially when the contractors allocate lower costs for environmental requirements.

In pricing the environmental provisions for the project, the contractors must consider not only

the initial cost but also the maintenance cost throughout the project duration. Cost constraints

due to low budget allocation at the tendering stage. Non-compliance with environmental

requirements will impose penalty charges on the contractor.

People Related Barriers

The finding shows that a poor level of awareness of the importance of environmental

knowledge among the employees has led to inconsistent practices of EI as the contractors tend

to treat the environment as less of a priority. The need for knowledge about environmental

practices among Malaysian contractors was also mentioned in Yahaya (2017), making them

more reluctant to implement any form of waste management plan effort. A lack of

understanding of EI adoptions can cause the firm’s management trouble. EI adoptions need

cooperation from all the staff from different departments to ensure the environment is

protected in delivering construction services.

EI practices are a new practice by most contractor firms more prominent with

conventional construction practices. The lack of skill and competent managers to undertake

the EI practices had become a challenge to contractors, as highlighted by Respondent R14,

“When they want to implement environmental practices, many things that need to be

considered that affected by the requirement of other departments. Lack of cooperation among

the multiple parties led to the dispute, leading to delay in work progress and high cost

incurred”. Thus, the adoption of EI practices at the level of the contractor firm required the

participation of all groups of management and all departments. Environmental concerns must

be included at every level of corporate governance. The interview finding also shows that

their poor environmental attitude leads to lower EI implementation among the staff.

Respondent R3 states, “The main challenges are always people. We can develop a system or

standard. Challenges are always in the sense of getting that level of commitment or awareness

from the people”. Several respondents argued that due to a lack of competence and

knowledgeable managers to influence employees’ behaviours and attitudes toward

environmental concerns and motivate them to adopt EI within the firm and project level [R3,

R4, R5, R12 and R13].

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 187

This result reveals that top managers’ attitudes and behaviours toward environmental

management are critical to the firm’s effectiveness in adopting EI practices, which promote

their human capital to resolve environmental issues and contribute to green innovation (Song,

Yang, Zeng & Feng, 2020). In addition, although investments are made in training,

particularly for the management team, the strategic impact of such instruction is not

considered when planning it (Pellicer, Yepes & Rojas, 2010). Participating in training

programmes connected to the latest market trends may be prudent. Consequently, the firm has

limited or no expertise in up-and-coming fields such as smart home systems, green buildings,

low-carbon buildings, etc. In turn, the lack of experience in these areas restricts the firm’s

ability to participate in large-scale projects offered mostly through public projects.

External Pressures

The external challenges relate to finding external partners to collaborate in EI initiatives.

In the scope of contractor firms, the demand for green practices is very much influenced by

the clients and the consultants for the proposed project. If they deal with green-oriented

clients, the way the contractor firm delivers their services is also more towards embracing the

environment. Like Hwang and Ng (2013), the findings have also shown that a lack of

participation from the consultant team has impeded the implementation of green practices. As

the contractors perceive that the consultant does not care for the environment, this will

influence the contractors themselves not to bother about the environment.

However, the need for local green suppliers also hindered the EI implementation. More

supplies will lead to the cost of eco-products to be much higher than conventional products.

Moreover, the eco-products proposed in the contract were not available locally. As a result,

high costs are incurred for acquiring the products. Mainly when they deal with international

clients, Respondent R7 mentioned, “Typically, the contractor will adhere to the client’s

requirements and the specifications outlined in the contract. The difficulties encountered

while dealing with international clients who insist on using most products and materials from

other countries”.

Furthermore, the government must play a crucial role in promoting these green practices

since many public projects have been awarded, as well as private projects. The products and

materials used for the project should have quality standards and green certification. Thus,

before the construction begins, the designers should have already implemented the green

design and eco-products at the design stage. Then, the authorities should enforce the green

practices effectively to ensure that all parties involved in the project will take considerable

action, especially the contractor firms, because they are liable for constructing the buildings.

They should not be tainted with unsustainable construction practices in delivering the

services. As a result, the EI adoption could have been improved by the absence of

enforcement, as most contracting firms found it more convenient to deliver their services

conventionally. An empirical study by Fernando and Wah (2017) reveals that each type of

innovation responded to a different factor related to environmental compliance and the

penalties imposed for non-compliance. Regulations are present, but more effort needs to be

made to ensure compliance with these regulations. This is because there is no regulation

related to green technology, EMS, green rating, etc., which is still based on a voluntary

approach. There needs to be more enforcement; thus, more effort is needed to encourage firms

to comply with environmental standards and regulations.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 188

CONCLUSION

This study contributed to the literature on EI by focusing on barriers to EI implementation

at contractor firms in the Malaysian construction industry. Highlighting all these barriers to

EI implementation is crucial and can facilitate the contractor firm’s adoption of green-related

practices in their rendered services. It provides a panoramic understanding of the main barriers

as local conditions to enhance EI practices. This study enriches the literature on EI within the

construction industry, which is currently dominated by the manufacturing industry. It can be

concluded that significant and mature contractor firms (G7) engaged proactively in protecting

the environment have unavoidably experienced barriers and difficulties. According to the

interview findings, four major impediments to EI implementation among contractor firms

have been identified: firm-specific, cost difficulties, people-related, and external pressure.

Based on the discussion, the result indicates that contractor firms’ main barriers were firm-

related and cost difficulties. The decision to eco-innovate mostly relies on the executives and

top management of the contractor firms. They make critical decisions in determining the

firm’s target to remain relevant and competitive. Environmental degradation is inseparable

from the development of new buildings and infrastructure.

Continuing to deliver this development with a conventional approach and unsustainable

construction practices will not solve the environmental concerns. Recognising the barriers to

EI from contractor perspectives will help other stakeholders, policymakers, and the

government develop economic instruments that encourage the development and

implementation of EI practices in the construction industry. In addition, the government had

pledged to protect the natural environment and provide a better quality of life for future

generations. Therefore, the top management of the contractor firms needs to contribute to this

sustainability agenda. They must include environmental sustainability as part of the firm’s

goal, policy, and standard and communicate it effectively to all management levels. However,

in doing so, the cost constraint is another challenge for contractor firms to successfully

implement EI practices. Firms embrace EI through new or improved versions of products and

services, processes, and organisational management that produce better or more efficient

practices and positively impact environmental improvement. However, this transaction

involved high costs. To address these issues, contractor firms should improve their existing

capabilities and resources to embrace EI practices. In addition, the contractor firms must seize

any opportunity for collaboration with external actors and maximise available grants and

government incentives to advance their EI efforts. Thus, understanding the barriers hindering

EI implementation in contractor firms opens an avenue for effective strategies to be outlined

and recommended to enhance EI implementation.

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UNVEILING THE PATH TO SUSTAINABILITY:

EXPLORING THE CURRENT PRACTICES OF

CORPORATE REAL ESTATE SUSTAINABLE

MANAGEMENT FOR GREEN OFFICE BUILDINGS

Nurul Sahida Fauzi1*, Timothy Tunde Oladokun2, Siti Nadiah Mohd Ali1, Huraizah Arshad1, Nor

Nazihah Chuweni1, and Nor Aini Salleh1

1Programme of Real Estate Management, Department of Built Environment Studies & Technology,

College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak,

MALAYSIA

2Department of Estate Management, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, NIGERIA

*Corresponding Email: nurul839@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Studies related to green office buildings have gained significant attention in recent years due

to the growing emphasis on sustainability and environmental concerns. This is driven by the

increasing awareness of corporate companies on the importance of integrating sustainability

into their business objectives and operational premises. This intensified awareness is also

influenced by the preference of international companies to engage in businesses that prioritize

sustainability in their operations. As the number of green office buildings continues to grow, the

implementation of Corporate Real Estate Sustainable Management (CRESM) practices

becomes crucial. However, the current practices of CRESM are less discussed. Therefore, it

is imperative to conduct an in-depth exploration of the current practices of CRESM to enhance

the awareness of corporate real estate managers regarding the existing approaches that are

currently being adopted. This study aims to investigate the current practices of CRESM for

green office buildings. The current research employs a qualitative approach involving semi-

structured interviews with 13 participants who are experts in CRESM. The selected participants

include real estate experts, sustainable corporate real estate (CRE) managers, and Green

Building Index (GBI) facilitators. Thematic content analysis is used to analyse data. The

findings reveal that a significant proportion of corporate companies outsource their CRESM

practices with direct reporting to top management. Conversely, some organizations adopt in-

house management approaches, while others implement a combination of in-house and

outsourced CRESM practices. The study also identifies seven management approaches used

in CRESM practice, including the Green Building Index (GBI) (as guiding element), Building

Management Systems (BMS), Building Information Modelling (BIM), Performance

Measurement Systems (PMS), and Sustainable Performance Measurement Systems (SPMS).

The analysis demonstrates the widespread implementation of GBI, PMS, and SPMS, while

BIM adoption remains relatively low due to its recent introduction. Ultimately, the findings

contribute to the body of knowledge in CRESM and provide practical recommendations in

enhancing the sustainability performance of green office buildings.

Keywords: Corporate real estate sustainable management (CRESM); Current practice; Green office

building

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of sustainable

practices in corporate real estate management, particularly in the context of green office

buildings. As organizations strive to reduce their environmental impact and align their

operations with sustainable principles, the implementation of effective CRESM practices

becomes paramount. However, the current landscape of CRESM practices remains relatively

under-explored and less discussed. With the various sustainable approaches available today,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 194

it is crucial for managers to stay informed. This is in line with the findings of Kaur and

Solomon (2022) who discovered that the adoption of a green automated approach yields

positive results. Nevertheless, not all CRE managers are aware of these approaches. This is

evident from the study conducted by Abdullah et al. (2011), which highlighted that the lack

of expertise, proper strategies, management procedures, and utilization of information

technology in real estate management can contribute to poor management practices.

Furthermore, many real estate managers get involved only in managing the building after it

is completed, rather than from the blueprint stage. This often creates complications as they

must determine the appropriate approach for an already completed building. Ideally,

managers should be involved from the blueprint stage to allow for early planning and adoption

of suitable approaches. As stated by Arditi and Nawakorawit (1999), the performance of

buildings is likely to be enhanced if designers and property managers are given the authority

to act starting from the design and operation phases. While the potential benefits of

incorporating sustainability in corporate real estate practice are acknowledged in developed

countries such as the United States of America (USA) and the United Kingdom (UK), the

practice in many of the developing countries seems to focus on traditional practices.

Nonetheless, sustainable management of CRE is essential to reduce its negative impact on the

environment, particularly in view of global concerns about global warming and climate

change. The current research aims to explore the sustainable approaches that are necessary

for effective practice by CRESM practitioners. By understanding these sustainable

approaches, it will help managers to deploy them in practice. In addition, it will also ensure

the CREM managers’ impact to be noticeable in the global context, potentially reducing the

impact of buildings on the environment. Therefore, the findings of this study will provide

valuable insights to CRE managers in selecting and identifying the most suitable approaches

for managing their green office buildings, ensuring their long-term sustainability and

performance.

CORPORATE REAL ESTATE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT (CRESM)

UNEP FI (Lowe & Ponce, 2014) defines CRESM as the integrated management of

economic, environmental, and social aspects in an organisation’s property activities and

investment decision-making. It is also sometimes referred to as CRE sustainability

management (Lützkendorf & Lorenz, 2014), sustainable corporate real estate management

(Ziemba et al., 2015) or sustainable CREM (Ziemba et al., 2015). Indubitably, CRESM

bridges the gap between sustainable corporate real estate management and corporate

sustainability, incorporating the triple bottom line principles of environmental, social, and

economic sustainability (Fauzi et al., 2016).

THE DIFFERENCE IN CRESM

Before exploring the various management methods and approaches, it is important to

establish a clear understanding and distinction between corporate real estate management

(CREM) and corporate real estate sustainable management (CRESM). Since these terms may

not be widely understood, they can also be confused with related terms such as property

management (PM) and facilities management (FM) if there is no proper distinction.

CRESM, unlike other concepts such as property management, facilities management and

CREM. CRESM is a new concept with a focus on sustainable use of real estate assets of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 195

organisations. While property management focuses on obtaining maximum return from real

estate assets, facilities management integrates the people, place and process of an

organisations for effective operational delivery.

With CRE being the property held as an operational asset to support the activities of the

business occupying the property (Edwards and Ellison, 2004), While CREM is the

management of real estate assets owned and/or used by corporations (Izyumov, 2023). In

addition to site selection, other activities include facility design and space utilisation

decisions, which inevitably impact a company’s business operations and future cash flow in

numerous ways beyond any investment return received from the ownership of real property

(to include leasehold rights). Whereas, property management involves day-to-day property

maintenance and management requiring personnel with more technical skills, CREM

comprises the strategic use of real estate to support the business operation and requires

personnel with more managerial skills (Ali et al., 2008, Oladokun and Aluko, 2015). It

involves various complex and interrelated activities, such as property acquisition and

disposal, lease management, space utilization, portfolio optimization, and strategic planning

(Fauzi, 2021).

As the practice of CREM evolves, global challenges require the incorporation of

sustainability, if the practice will continue to be relevant. Achieving this, Aliagha et al. (2013)

emphasize that the design of sustainable buildings is a key criterion that sets CRESM apart

from traditional CREM. Hence, managing these sustainable buildings require advanced

knowledge and skills, as they involve unique and advanced technological systems (Lu et al.

2020). At the same time, while, managing sustainable buildings could be very challenging,

particularly due to issues related to infrastructure compatibility and the need for non-chemical

alternatives compared to CREM (McNeill, 2020) PM may or may not have access to

information regarding long-term policy and strategic decisions before they are made (Pitt &

Hinks, 2001). PM may not be directly involved in the development of long-term policies and

strategies and may only receive instructions or decisions from higher-level management

without being privy to the underlying information or rationale. However, FM is encompasses

multiple disciplines to ensure functionality, comfort, safety, and efficiency of the built

environment by integrating people, place, process, and technology (Xu & Li, 2019). The

traditional approach to FM has focused on ensuring that facilities are well-maintained, operate

smoothly, and meet the basic needs of an organization. This cost-centered perspective places

a strong emphasis on controlling expenses, optimizing resource allocation, and minimizing

operational risks. By recognizing and acknowledging these differences, CRE managers can

better understand the specific requirements and complexities associated with CRESM. This

understanding sets the foundation for designing appropriate methods and strategies tailored

to the needs of CRESM.

CRESM APPROACHES

Considering the limited availability of studies specifically addressing CRESM practices,

the current research incorporates the examination of related practices such as property

management (PM), green property management (Green PM), and corporate real estate

management (CREM). The examination of these related practices allows for an initial

understanding of the research area and also provides a foundation for the current research

before proceeding with further data collection and analysis. These related practices are found

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 196

to be closely interconnected with CRESM and can provide valuable insights and a broader

perspective on sustainable management practices, particularly in the corporate real estate

domain. Several studies, such as Razali et al. (2015), Adnan et al. (2017), and Collins et al.

(2019), have discussed several approaches used in managing green office buildings that can

be adopted in CRESM practices. These approaches include green property management

(GPM), green lease practice (GLP), building management systems (BMS), building

management modelling (BIM), and performance measurement systems (PMS) and

sustainable performance measurement systems (SPMS).

Razali et al. (2015) introduced the concept of Green Property Management (GPM) which

involves the implementation of sustainable measures in the management of urban buildings.

GPM incorporates the criteria set by the Green Building Index (GBI) for an effective

management. However, sustainable site planning and management are excluded from GPM

as they primarily pertain to pre-occupancy matters. Meanwhile, Adnan et al. (2017) discussed

Green Lease Practice (GLP), which aligns with GPM and focuses on incorporating tenants’

green management preferences in sustainable buildings.

In a different study, Collins et al. (2019) shed light on the technological aspect of

sustainable building management and emphasize the importance of adopting a Building

Management System (BMS) or building automation system. In the research, they highlight

that BMS plays a critical role for facilities managers in monitoring building performance,

controlling energy consumption, optimizing environmental conditions, and enhancing user

satisfaction. Despite its numerous benefits, wider acceptance and implementation of BMS in

building management are still a work in progress.

Building Information Modelling (BIM) has been the subject of investigation by several

scholars, including Demirdoven (2015), Ohueri et al. (2018), and Olawumi and Chan (2019).

The digital representation of building characteristics has proven to be a valuable asset for

decision-making processes throughout the entire life cycle of a building. The aforementioned

studies underscore the manifold advantages associated with BIM implementation, including

improved indoor air quality, heightened energy efficiency, cost reduction, and the ability to

predict and simulate energy performance. Importantly, there is a notable emphasis on the

integration of BIM and sustainability, as this synergy holds the potential to facilitate energy-

sufficiency and optimize the overall energy performance of sustainable buildings.

The present review underscores the significance of performance measurement systems

(PMS) and sustainable performance measurement systems (SPMS) in assessing the enduring

value generated by CRESM practices. Medel-gonzález et al. (2016) and Kumar (2013)

emphasize the imperative of PMS. The integration of both financial and non-financial

measures within the PMS framework is advocated, with particular attention to be given to

internal process measures as a means to effectively overcome internal challenges. By adopting

such approach, organizations can better gauge their progress towards sustainable goals and

make informed decisions to enhance their overall performance in a holistic manner.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study employed a qualitative method involving semi-structured interviews. Semi-

structured interviews were selected because interviews are deemed as a primary data source

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 197

in qualitative research (Zilber & Meyer, 2022). For the interviews’, purposive sampling

technique was used to select 13 participants who are the experts in CRESM and come from

diverse backgrounds (see Table 1). The selected participants were contacted via email and

phone calls based on recommendations from the Board of Valuers, Appraisers, Estate Agents,

and Property Managers (BOVEAP). Initially, five participants were proposed, however, data

saturation was achieved after conducting interviews with 13 participants, ensuring that further

data collection was unnecessary. It is important to note that all participants had extensive

experience in real estate management, with more than 10 years of overall experience and more

than five years of experience specifically in CRESM. Given that Malaysia is still in the early

stages of green building development, it is understandable that the participants’ experience in

CRESM is relatively limited, with none of them have the experience exceeding 10 years. To

ensure the confidentiality of the participants, they were coded as P1-P13 as follows.

Table 1. List of The Participants

Participants

Profession

Experience

(Years)

Experience in CRESM

(Years)

P1

Real Estate Experts I

28

7

P2

Real Estate Experts II

34

6

P3

Real Estate Experts III

28

5

P4

Real Estate Experts IV

31

5

P5

Real Estate Experts V

31

5

P6

Real Estate Experts VI

23

5

P7

Sustainable CRE Manager I

22

6

P8

Sustainable CRE Manager II

16

6

P9

Sustainable CRE Manager III

11

6

P10

Sustainable CRE Manager IV

11

7

P11

Sustainable CRE Manager V

10

5

P12

GBI Facilitator I

23

9

P13

GBI Facilitator II

20

8

(Source: Researchers’ Own, 2021)

DATA ANALYSIS

Before the data were analysed, the recordings of the interview sessions were initially

transcribed. Then, the transcribed data were analysed using thematic content analysis. This

analysis involved identifying key themes within the data to gain insights into the approaches

employed by CRE managers related to CRESM practice. ATLAS.ti, i.e., a software that

allows coding, annotating, and analysis of qualitative data, was utilized to facilitate the

analysis process.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Drawing from the evidence, corporations and their management have a range of available

approaches that can be employed to effectively manage sustainable office buildings.

Nevertheless, these approaches may vary as some management teams chose to adopt a single

approach of either in-house management or outsource management, while others opted for

combined strategies of both in-house and outsource management. The findings from the

interviews shed light on the different approaches that corporations have implemented in the

management of their sustainable office buildings. These findings are depicted in Figure 1.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 198

The finding can be divided into two which is type of management approach and the

approach’s indicators. Two distinct categories emerged which is outsourced CRESM, and a

combination of both in-house CRESM and outsource CRESM.

(Source: Researchers’ Own, 2021)

Figure 1. CRESM Approach and Their Indicators

CRESM Approach

Based on the analysis, it was found that one of the participants, i.e., P10, highlighted the

adoption of a combination approach in CRESM. This indicates that very few corporations

opted for in-house management approach. This notion is supported by P4, who mentioned

that in-house management primarily monitors the outsourced CRESM activities, suppliers,

and sub-contractors. This finding aligns with the findings made by Manning and Roulac

(1997) who suggested that the management functions of “entrepreneur” and “business

strategist” are more likely to be carried out more effectively by internal managers.

On the other hand, participants P1, P2, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, P12, and P13 stated that they

adopted a fully outsourced CRESM practice. This feedback indicates that they rely entirely

on outsourced companies for managing their sustainable real estate. For example, P4:Q1

explained that corporations often opt for outsourced management, particularly for properties

owned by Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), as this is a requirement for REITs. P4:Q3

added that corporations rarely manage their own buildings as their primary focus is on

managing their core business activities. This view was supported by Gim and Jang (2020)

who reiterated that outsourcing property operations to third-party operators is a crucial

business aspect in the lodging REITs industry due to the regulation outlined in the Internal

Revenue Code. According to this regulation, REITs are not allowed to operate their own

properties. Therefore, REITs rely on external property operators to manage and oversee the

day-to-day operations of their properties. This sentiment was echoed by P13:Q2 and P7:Q1

who stated that all management functions are outsourced to PM companies and FM

companies. Furthermore, P6:Q1 mentioned that the management of buildings is outsourced

to an FM company. This is in line with the finding made by Fauzi et al. (2015) that outsourcing

real estate management is the most popular property management practice, especially when

the management demanded a portion of skilled labor.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 199

Meanwhile, P7:Q7 shared that both FM and PM currently utilize systems for managing

sustainable buildings. This observation was supported by P8:Q1, who mentioned that

management teams typically employ updated and advanced computerized systems. These

systems are specifically designed to assist in the efficient management, monitoring, and

control of various aspects of sustainable buildings, including energy and water consumption

(P8:Q2). P2:Q1 added that these systems align with the global management revolution.

Additionally, P12:Q1 highlighted the importance of computerized systems in the management

of sustainable buildings. These systems provide comprehensive functionality and are tailored

to meet specific management needs (P12:Q1). The adoption of digital computerized systems

was also emphasized by P14:Q, indicating that it is a prevalent practice among management

teams. Importantly, these systems are designed to ensure governance and transparency (P2:Q4

and P2:Q5). Besides, they are also replaceable, meaning that they can be easily transferred or

utilized by other personnel in the event of a change in management (P2:Q2). This ensures

continuity and minimizes disruptions in the management process. This notion was supported

by Støre-Valen (2019) who found that the integration of digital technology, such as BIM in

FM, can greatly enhance the understanding of the possibilities and utilization of facilities. The

author added that by embracing BIM, municipalities and public owners can optimize their

FM practices, leading to improved operational efficiency, cost savings, and enhanced user

experiences. In addition, the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) can

play a significant role in supporting and justifying essential building renovation aimed at

improving a building’s performance and reducing annual energy costs (Yin, 2010).

Conclusively, ICT solutions offer various tools and technologies that can assist in the

planning, implementation, and monitoring of energy-efficient building upgrades.

CRESM Approach’s Indicators

Another category of practices identified from the participants’ responses is the inclusion

of various indicators in CRESM approaches. These indicators serve as guidelines and

measures to ensure effective and sustainable building management. One indicator mentioned

by P5:Q1 and P9:Q1 is the implementation of preventive management schedules (PPM).

These schedules involve planning and carrying out preventive maintenance activities to

proactively address potential issues and maintain the building's sustainability. Implementing

a Preventive Property Maintenance (PPM) program offers benefits beyond cost savings for

property managers (Sidney, 1992). Additionally, house rules are commonly incorporated

under green lease practices for incoming and new tenants (P5:Q1). These rules outline specific

guidelines and regulations that promote environmentally-friendly practices within the

building. However, Adnan et al. (2017) found that many managers have expressed a lack of

complete understanding when it comes to the concept of a green lease.

Standard operating procedures (SOP) also play a significant role in CRESM, as

highlighted by P8:Q3. These procedures provide a set of guidelines for all building occupants

to follow in handling equipment and conducting sustainable maintenance activities.

Compliance with these procedures ensures that the building operates in accordance with green

certification requirements (P13:Q1). Furthermore, post-evaluation of management and

maintenance practices is conducted to identify potential problems and propose solutions for

improvement (P9:Q2:Q3). This evaluation process is often part of a performance

measurement system, particularly for green buildings, known as sustainable performance

measurement systems. These systems allow management to assess the effectiveness of their

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 200

practices and identify best practices for future implementation. It is important to note that

each building may yield different results based on various factors specific to the building.

System Use in CRESM

Referring to Figure 2, the findings highlight the various systems employed by

corporations to efficiently manage and control the physical operations and administration of

sustainable buildings. The results indicate the presence of multiple systems that facilitate

efficient and controlled building operations. These systems include the Building Management

System (BMS), Building Information Modelling (BIM), Water Management Systems

(WMS), Energy Management Systems (EMS), and Green Property Management System

(GPMS).

(Source: Researchers’ own, 2021) Figure 1. System Use in CRESM

One of the prominent systems mentioned by multiple participants is the BMS. P2:Q7,

P13:Q3, P8:Q6, P7:Q8, P9:Q4, P4:Q5, and P12:Q3 all referred to the utilization of BMS in

their respective organizations. BMS is a comprehensive system designed to control various

aspects of building operations, such as fire systems, lifts, air conditioning, air handling units,

and water management. This system is particularly valued for its ability to monitor and control

mechanical areas, air conditioning, and electrical components, as highlighted by P4. It plays

a crucial role in optimizing the operation and performance of building systems, resulting in

improved efficiency, reduced energy consumption, and lower operating costs (Yin, 2010).

Another system that emerged from the study is BIM, which was mentioned by P6:Q2. BIM

serves as a digital representation of a facility, providing valuable information for managing

and assessing sustainable buildings. It integrates indicators related to energy management,

indoor quality, and other elements of sustainability performance measurement. BIM will not

only support the BMS but also can be used to analyse building performance (Yin, 2010).

WMS and EMS were also identified as integral components of sustainable building

operation. P2:Q10 emphasized the importance of WMS in daily water measurement, while

P2:Q9 highlighted the role of EMS in daily energy measurement. These systems play a crucial

role in identifying abnormal activities and deviations from expected consumption levels,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 201

allowing for prompt action to be taken. Energy management during building operation could

improve green building performance (Aghili & Amirkhani, 2021). Further, water

management and energy management have been found by Fauzi et al. (2023) as key elements

in CRESM.

Furthermore, in alignment with the GBI criteria, participants acknowledged the

significance of incorporating systems that comply with sustainable practices. P13:Q4

specifically mentioned the alignment of energy management systems with GBI criteria as

similar as found by Adnan et al (2017) GBI criteria are the main indicator to incorporate when

managing green building. Then, the GPMS was mentioned by P2:Q8. GPMS is a relatively

new system adopted by property management companies to integrate various aspects of

building maintenance, administration, management, and financial processes. It facilitates

efficient communication and streamlines operations within the management team (Razali et

al. (2015).

Other system adopted is work management system (P8:Q8) which is utilized to assign

work tasks to responsible individuals, including third parties such as clients, contractors,

suppliers, and tenants. This system promotes efficient work practices as it is closely monitored

by top management, enabling them to determine the person in charge and responsible for any

issue related to the assigned tasks. Another system in place is the parking booking system

(P8:Q7), which facilitates the reservation of parking spaces by visitors prior to their arrival at

the building. This system provides the location details of the designated parking spaces,

ensuring convenience and efficient parking arrangements.

Table 2. Summary of CRESM Approach and Their Indicators

Theme

Approach

Example

Type of

Management

In-house management

Fully in-house

Outsourced management

Fully outsourced

Combination

Combination of in-house and outsourced management

In-house - monitor, outsourced - managed

Indicator

Green Property Management (GPM)

Included of:

Work management System

Parking booking system

Rental collection system

Message delivery system

Green Lease Practice (GLP)

Provide house rules

Provide tenant guide

Building Management System (BMS)

Water management system

Energy management system

Building Information Modelling (BIM)

Integrates energy management, indoor quality, and

other green elements

Sustainable Performance

Measurement System (SPMS)

Post evaluation

Provide SOP to all equipment

PPM schedule

Performance Measurement System

(PMS)

Green Building Index Criteria (GBI)

Used criteria as guide

(Source: Researchers’ Own, 2021)

Last but not least, a rental collection system (P6:D8:Q9) is implemented to monitor rental

payments. Tenants receive notifications regarding payment deadlines, and upon completing

the payment, they receive a digital receipt that can be saved and printed. In case of delayed

payments, automated reminders can be sent to tenants. This system streamlines the rental

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 202

payment process and ensures prompt and accurate payment management. Corporations,

companies, and organizations have the flexibility to adopt various approaches and systems to

effectively manage sustainable office buildings. These approaches can be categorized based

on the type of management and the indicators and systems used. For a summary of the

CRESM practices identified in this study, please refer to Table 2.

CONCLUSION

The diverse approaches adopted by the participants draw attention to the varying

preferences and strategies employed by corporations in managing their sustainable real estate.

While some corporations opt for a combination of in-house and outsourced CRESM, others

prefer a fully outsourced approach. The decision for a corporation to choose a particular

approach likely depends on several factors, such as resource availability, expertise, and the

specific goals and requirements of the corporation. Furthermore, most corporations prefer to

outsource their real estate management functions rather than handling them internally. This

outsourcing trend may be driven by factors such as specialized expertise, cost efficiency, and

the desire to focus on core business operations. Finally, the presence of external management

entities, such as PM companies and FM companies, allows corporations to leverage the

knowledge and resources of industry professionals in effectively managing their properties.

Incorporating indicators such as preventive management schedules, house rules, standard

operating procedures, and post-evaluation in CRESM enables effective management,

maintenance, and continuous improvement of sustainable buildings. These indicators serve

as valuable tools for ensuring adherence to sustainability standards and achieving optimal

building performance. This study also revealed multiple systems employed by corporations

to ensure the efficient and controlled operation of sustainable buildings. These include the

Building Management System (BMS), Building Information Modelling (BIM), Water

Management Systems (WMS), Energy Management Systems (EMS), and Green Property

Management System (GPMS). The adoption of these systems reflects the commitment of

organizations to adhere to sustainable practices and optimize building.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special appreciation to Real Estate Management Program, Department of Built

Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi

MARA Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus, 32610, Seri Iskandar Perak, Malaysia,

Pembiayaan Yuran Prosiding Berindeks (PYPB), Tabung Dana Kecemerlangan Pendidikan

(DKP), Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia for funding this article.

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EXPLORING CONCEPTUAL MODEL ON THE KEY

CRITERIA AND COMPONENTS OF GREEN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS FOR HOTEL

OPERATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY

Nur Adlina Ismail1, Natasha Khalil1*, Suwaibatul Islamiah Abdullah Sani1, Noor Akmar Shah

Nordin2 and Husrul Nizam Husin1

1College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus,

32610 Perak Malaysia

2Deutsche Gesellschaft Fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Block B5, Precinct 162502

Putrajaya, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: natas582@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

The core business of hotels lies on the efficient services and operations, therefore, the

principles of green and sustainability must be prioritized. The viability of the hotel sector is

crucial for upholding the sustainability principles; thus, a careful selection of green building

materials is urgently needed for upscaling the consumption of hotel construction and

sustainable hotel operations. However, the list of green materials for hotel buildings are still

lacking and not widely recognized by manufacturers. Even though materials and resources are

one of the green rating tools criteria, however it is not prioritised as the major contribution on

the rating score and have the lowest credited points. This study is aimed to establish a

conceptual model of key criteria of green building materials that relates to the hotel’s

operational sustainability. A qualitative approach utilised integrative review technique and 31

articles from January 2012 to December 2023 has been considered for literature synthesis.

The findings finalised that there are 11 criteria of green building materials consists of

Manufacturers’ Identification, Materials Declaration, Life Cycle Assessment, Indoor Air Quality

Performance, Toxic Disposable, Design Adaptability, Regional Materials, Durability, Reusable

Design, Renewable Resources and Water Efficiency. It was deductively clustered into five key

criteria; Manufacturers Criteria, Health Criteria, Consumption Criteria, Design Components

Criteria and Resource Management Criteria. This finding explores the entailing review on the

criteria for choosing building materials and justify how it impacted the hotel’s operational

sustainability.

Keywords: Green Building Materials; Materials Criteria: Sustainable Operations; Hotels Operational

Sustainability; Conceptual Model

INTRODUCTION

Green strategies on the buildings are extremely needed to minimize environmental impact

such as greenhouse gas reduction (Sicignano et al., 2019). To implement green strategies for

buildings, green building rating tools were established to achieve the aims towards

minimizing environmental harm from building design and operations. As described by

Haddad (2019), green building rating tools are designed to promote sustainable and

environmentally responsible practices in the construction and operation of buildings. The

rating tools provide a framework and guidelines for reducing resource consumption,

minimizing waste generation, and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Among crucial aspect

addressed by green building rating tools is the use of sustainable materials and resources

which encourage the selection of environmentally friendly materials, such as recycled

content, rapidly renewable resources, and low volatile organic compound (VOC) products.

By prioritizing sustainable sourcing and reducing waste, these tools support the transition

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 206

towards a circular economy and minimize the environmental impact of construction activities.

In local green building rating systems, such as Green Building Index (GBI), Malaysian

Carbon Reduction and Environmental Sustainability Tools (MyCREST), GreenRE, Melaka

Green Seal, and Penarafan Hijau JKR (PhJKR), also includes the use of sustainable materials.

(Source: Foo & Fuad, 2018)

Figure 1. The Relevant Aspects of Sustainability are Covered by Malaysian Green Building Rating

Tools

Figure 1 depicts the relative importance of various sustainability themes among

Malaysians for these green building assessment systems (Foo & Fuad, 2018). Materials and

Resources is one of the specified criteria that focuses on sustainable materials. These green

rating schemes applied to various project type and building’s category, including non-

residential projects, new residential, township projects, and highway projects. However, it can

be seen that much of green strategies are majorly applied to offices and residential properties,

but green initiatives in hotel industry in still in infancy stage (Ad, 2017). A summary of

project’s applicability in green building ratings by Foo & Fuad (2018) showed that majority

of the schemes are more focusing to the commercial buildings rather than the hotel’s category

building.

Hotels are significant for tourism industry, and it constitute one of pillars in the tourism

sector. The hotel industry is highly unique among other commercial buildings (Bohdanowicz,

2006). Like other structures, hotels are constructed and operated in a way that has an adverse

effect on the environment. For example, hotels use a lot of energy, water, cleaning products,

and wastewater generators. The core business of hotels lies on the efficient services and

operations, therefore, the principles of green and sustainability must be prioritized. The

viability of the hotel sector, one of the largest components of the tourism sector, is crucial for

upholding the sustainability principles (Khalil et al., 2022). It incorporates elements of

environmental, economic, and social sustainability (see Figure 2). Tourism Malaysia statistics

in 2020 shows that hotel guests climbed by less than 35% during the same period to 82.44

million in 2018, while the number of hotel rooms expanded by almost 80% from 168,840 in

2009 to 308, 210 in 2018. These numbers show that the hotel sector, which has for a long

time ignored a number of issues of environmental compatibility in design, as well as

responsible resource management and business operations, has an urgent need for more

environmentally sound practices and products. The demand for clean areas, nature and intact

areas for tourism sector is growing, hence the hotel industry is showing increasing interest in

sustainable development (Jovanovic, 2019).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 207

Figure 2. Sustainability Principles Consists of Environment, Economic and Social

It is imperative that suitability of materials for hotel industry will help to reduce the

environmental impact that has indicated as one of the criteria to be awarded as green hotels

in green rating schemes. Hence, one of the strategies that can help to foster the applicability

of sustainability materials for hotels is through green procurement adoption. The National

Sustainable Consumption and Production Blueprint (SCP-GGP), which is a government

policy, and the Economic Planning Unit's adoption of green procurement execution are both

in sync with one other. Additionally, the established guideline of Government Green

Procurement (GGP) published by Ministry of Environment and Water (KASA) make this

point very clear. The GGP guideline outlines 40 sustainable products and services, including

for hotels services and maintenance management (Malaysian Green Technology and Climate

Change Centre, 2020). However, the specific criteria for hotel services in the GGP guideline

only focuses to the waste management criteria such as zero of single-use plastics. There are

no specific criteria focusing on the usage of green and sustainable materials for hotels.

Another e-market promotion of sustainable materials introduced to the Malaysian context is

through MyHIJAU Mark directory (MGTC, 2020). The Government of Malaysia has

authorised MyHIJAU Mark, Malaysia's official green recognition programme, which aims to

promote certified goods and services that adhere to national and international environmental

criteria under a single mark. The MyHIJAU directory lists the eco-label products according

to the various categories. However, the list of materials for hotel buildings are still lacking

and not widely recognized by manufacturers.

According to Ministry of Tourism, Art and Culture (MOTAC), there are 4788 registered

hotels in Malaysia ranging from 1 to 5 stars rating. Despite the numbers, only one hotel is

recognized as green hotel by MOTAC and as to date, there are only 17 green rated hotels

awarded by ASEAN Green Hotel. This illustrates that despite its benefits, the hotel industry

is still slow to implement green solutions, highlighting the pressing need for more

environmentally friendly practises in this industry. According to Yee et al. (2020), one of the

issues discourage the stakeholders to step into green is the financial aspect. Implementing

sustainable materials as green strategies in a construction project requires high initial costs.

Stakeholders are worried about profitability more than environment (Ametepey et al., 2015).

One of the issues stated by (Kamaruzzaman et al., 2016) is buildings materials that produce

air pollutants such as paint that contain volatile organic compounds (VOC) and materials that

contain formaldehyde can cause indoor air dwellings to occupants. These harmful compounds

that could have both short- and long-term effects on one's health. Sneezing, eye discomfort,

throat irritation, and skin allergies are examples of short-term effects. Long-term effects

include asthma, cancer, infertility, and a host of other conditions. As results, it gives impact

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 208

to hotel’s customer as most of them spend their time indoor. In addition, although customers

are the focus of the hotel industry, employees who operate the hotels spend the majority of

their working hours in the hotel's building (Bangwal et al., 2022). All of these negative

impacts from harmful pollutants may have a long-term effect on them. (Andersen et al., 2009)

also shows that the building with poor indoor air quality consumes more energy results giving

high operating cost.

OVERVIEW OF BUILDING MATERIALS IMPACT TO THE HOTEL SUSTAINABLE

OPERATIONS AND PERFORMANCE IMPACT

The core business of hotels lies on the hotel buildings design and its service operation.

As the hotels are more concentrating on aesthetics values as one aspect of perceived

experiential value, hence, a careful selection of materials is urgently needed for hotel sectors.

Choosing building materials is crucial to sustain the business and operational management of

hotels. Thus, the growth of the green hotel industry has increased demand for

sustainable building materials usage. Performance impact of sustainable hotels operations is

therefore aligned to environmental performance, economic performance and social

performance (Sonmez & Tavsan, 2018; Khalil et al., 2022; Artuger, 2020).

Environmental Performance

When evaluating products and materials, it is crucial to check for third-party confirmation

of sustainability, safety, and quality claims in addition to the manufacturer's own claims.

When it comes to sustainable materials, improving indoor environmental quality, human

health, and wellness, as well as preserving energy, water, raw materials, biodiversity, and

land, are all essential components of environmental sustainability (Jadallah, 2018). Opting for

eco-friendly and sustainable building materials, such as recycled content materials or

renewable materials, aligns with the hotel's commitment to green practices and environmental

responsibility. Khalil et al. (2022) added that sustainable practices in hotels can enhance the

hotel's reputation, attract environmentally conscious guests, and contribute to the overall

sustainability goals of the hotel industry. Choosing sustainable materials for hotels helps boost

their environmental performance by reducing resource consumption, lowering carbon

emissions, minimizing waste, improving indoor air quality, conserving natural resources,

enhancing brand image, and ensuring compliance with green building certifications (Lee &

Zainordin, 2019). As stressed by Artuger (2020), it is an essential step in aligning hotel

operations with sustainable practices and mitigating the environmental impact of the

hospitality industry.

Economic Performance

Economic elements of sustainability related to economic benefits such as cost reduction,

increased revenue, and economic growth. Selecting durable building materials, such as high-

quality flooring, finishes, and fixtures, can minimize the need for frequent repairs and

replacements. This reduces maintenance costs and downtime, ensuring smooth hotel

operations and minimizing disruptions for guests. Given enough information about the

advantages of sustainable design, consumers are more likely to pay more when doing so will

ultimately result in them saving money by using less energy, such as electricity and water

(Chan et al., 2017). However, people continue to be unaware of the advantages of choosing

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 209

sustainable materials, and they hesitate to spend more on them. Using hotel owners as an

example, Legrand et al. (2013) assert that when they are operating on a tight budget, they

prioritise energy conservation. This fulfills their needs while saving money by utilising

technology like solar-powered space water heating and wind-powered energy production.

According to Mate (2009), cost is not a deterrent for designers who actively practise

sustainable design, but it is viewed as a substantial deterrent by designers who do not practise

sustainable design or who only do so when necessary. Bergman (2011) stated that keeping a

building healthier can have advantages including minimising medical expenditures and staff

attrition, which will boost productivity. Samari et al. (2013) claim that the only factor

contributing to clients' and designers' perceptions of sustainable shows how designing

sustainably would improve the user's health and productivity materials as expensive is a lack

of knowledge in these fields. Sichali & Banda (2017) highlighted that it can lower the

building's operating and maintenance costs. If sustainable materials prevent harm to the

environment and inhabitants, the additional cost is insignificant.

Social Performance

An approach to social sustainability emphasizes the relationship between people, the

environment, and strategies. If the goal is to encourage sustainable growth in a society, social

norms, interactions, and limits must be taken into consideration (Ayalp, 2013). Building

materials play a crucial role in defining the hotel's overall ambiance and aesthetic appeal.

Selecting visually appealing and high-quality materials can enhance the guest experience,

create a memorable atmosphere, and positively impact guest satisfaction and loyalty. Social

sustainability concepts include equitable opportunity, community, and standard of living.

However, money, people, and the environment are what Manchanda & Steemers (2009)

characterize as the three perspectives of sustainability. People, they assert, comprise the social

component, which also includes the users' comfort, happiness, and well-being. Sustainability

is hindered by fundamental design principles, which forbid the indiscriminate use of natural

resources. Designers must consider the societal norm when determining how to evaluate both

need and wealth. Setting a reasonable and credible definition of need is the responsibility as

a designer (Ayalp, 2013). The majority of study on how workplaces affect health and welfare

has focused on elements like thermal comfort, lighting, acoustics, and indoor air quality, with

far less attention paid to the actual materials utilised. By choosing materials with no or low

VOCs, the indoor environment air quality may be enhanced and made healthier for occupants

(Speigel & Meadows, 2012).

Based on the above elements of sustainability in the hotel operations, it is clearly unveiled

that operation management for hotels is crucial to achieve the sustainable performance of

hotels. Careful consideration of these factors during material selection can optimize hotel

operations, enhance guest satisfaction, and contribute to the hotel's long-term success. It is

vital to explore an extensive review in determining the criteria of green building materials for

the sustainable hotels’ operation. Criteria refers to a set of specific requirements or standards

that guide the selection and evaluation of materials used in design and construction projects.

According to Achintha (2016), the criteria serve as benchmarks or guidelines to assess the

suitability and performance of building materials based on various factors, such as

sustainability, quality, safety, and functionality. Building materials criteria encompass a wide

range of considerations and can vary depending on the context, project goals, and applicable

regulations or certification programs (Asdrubali et al., 2012).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 210

METHODOLOGY

This study primarily aims to identify the criteria of green building materials that can have

impact towards the hotel’s operation. From the necessity of materials criteria, it helps to

further develop conceptual of green building materials criteria to the sustainable hotel

operations and performance impact. Within this purpose, a review of relevant literature was

performed using integrative review technique, adapted from Oermann and Knafl (2021). The

search strings of literature are extracted from reputable databases; Scopus, Web of Science

and Emerald which limits publications from January 2012 to December 2023. From the

databases, the initial search string was done using the keywords such as “sustainable

materials”, “green building materials” and “green materials criteria”. A total of 88 articles

were attained as an initial retrieved articles from the searching databases. Next, a detailed

screening using inclusion criteria is used to ﬁnalize the relevant articles for review analysis

and synthesis. The literature content is deductively screened and categorized into these three

themes of practices; i) environmental performance, ii) economic performance and iii) social

performance. A ﬁnal of 31 articles is included for the data analysis and synthesis after

excluding the irrelevant criteria on the scope of study. Bibliographic analysis is used to

present the literature findings and supported with an establishment of initial conceptual model

by the end of the finding discussion.

ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

In this study, the devotion of material’s criteria towards the hotel’s operational

sustainability are different from the materials’ criteria in the established in green rating

certification. Even though in the green rating certification has mentioned the detail criteria for

materials (in example: reused materials, sustainable resources, waste management and green

products), however those criteria are setting up for the hotels to achieve green rating during

design and construction. It is not clearly seen whether the criteria have any effect to the hotel

operations. Building materials can be used strategically to reflect the hotel's brand image and

differentiate it from competitors. Unique or innovative materials can contribute to a distinct

architectural style or design theme, making the hotel stand out in a crowded market and

attracting guests seeking a specific experience (Artuger, 2020). Based on the integrative

review on the criteria of green building materials, it was found that there are 11 criteria of

green building materials consists of Manufacturers’ Identification, Materials Declaration,

Life Cycle Assessment, Indoor Air Quality Performance, Toxic Disposable, Design

Adaptability, Regional Materials, Durability, Reusable Design, Renewable Resources and

Water Efficiency. These criteria were compiled from 31 sources and research, as per summary

shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Summary of Bibliographic Analysis of Components in Green Building Materials

Source(s)

Components of Green Building Materials

Manufacturer's

Identification

Materials

Declaration

Life Cycle

Assessment

IAQ Performance

Toxic Disposable

Design

Adaptability

Regional

Materials

Durability

Reusable Design

Renewable

Resources

Water Efficiency

Abdul Rahman (2016)

/

Asdrubali et al. (2012)

/

Aslani et al. (2019)

/

Atan (2015)

/

Ceshin & Gaziulusoy (2016)

/

Cuviella-Suarez et al. (2019)

/

Defterios & Toh (2019)

/

Dong & Hua (2018)

/

Gabarda-Mallorqui (2017)

/

Garetti & Taisch (2012)

/

Godavitarne (2017)

/

Hanafi et al. (2015)

/

Jadallah (2018)

/

Koshnava et al. (2020)

/

Kono et al. (2018)

/

Llop & Ponce (2014)

/

Machado et al. (2020)

/

Mohamed (2018)

/

Nehr et al. (2017)

/

Rashdan & Ashour (2017)

/

Rosen & Kishawy (2012)

/

Ruuskan &Hakinen (2014)

/

Sabnis & Pranesh (2017)

/

Samari et al. (2013)

/

Sameh (2014)

/

Stafford (2015)

/

Stelmack et al. (2015)

/

Syed et al. (2014)

/

Van Tran et al. (2020)

/

Zega et al. (2020)

/

Zhu et al. (2016)

/

Based on these eleven criteria, it was deductively clustered into five (5) key criteria;

namely, Manufacturers Criteria, Health Criteria, Consumption Criteria, Design Components

Criteria and Resource Management Criteria. If green building materials are adopted in green

hotels that focuses to the operational sustainability, these are the criteria that needs to be

considered for the materials selection. The entails description of these five key criteria is

shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Key Criteria of Green Building Materials and Its Description

Key Criteria of

Green Building

Materials

Description

The Components

of Criteria

Source(s)

1.

Manufacturers

Criteria

Refers to a person or business

that transforms raw materials

into finished items using various

tools, equipment, and

techniques before selling the

products to consumers

Manufacturers’

Identification

Abdul Rahman (2016); Asdrubali et

al. (2012); Atan (2015); Ceshin &

Gaziulusoy (2016); Garetti & Taisch

(2012); Hanafi et al. (2015); Llop &

Ponce (2014); Machado et al.

(2020); Rashdan & Ashour (2017);

Rosen & Kishawy (2012), Ruuskan

&Hakinen (2014); Sabnis &

Pranesh (2017); Stelmack et al.

(2015)

Materials

Declaration

Life Cycle

Assessment

2.

Health Criteria

Refers to level of pollution

which, in the case of

noncarcinogens, prevents

adverse health effects in

humans

Indoor Air Quality

(IAQ) Performance

Cuviella-Suarez et al. (2019);

Defterios & Toh (2019); Gabarda-

Mallorqui (2017); Godavitarne

(2017); Koshnava et al. (2020);

Nehr et al. (2017); Rashdan &

Ashour (2017); Stafford (2015)

Toxic

Disposable

3.

Consumption

Criteria

Refers to responsible

consumption that buyers or as

citizen consumers must make

their choice taking into account

environmental impacts at all

stages of the product life cycle

Design

Adaptability

Abdul Rahman (2016); Hanafi et al.

(2015); Kono et al. (2018); Rashdan

& Ashour (2017); Sabnis & Pranesh

(2017); Sameh (2014); Zhu et al.

(2016)

Regional

Materials

4.

Design

Components

Criteria

Refers to the process of creating

or developing a product or

material

Durability

Aslani et al. (2019); Dong & Hua

(2018); Hanafi et al. (2015);

Jadallah (2018); Llop & Ponce

(2014); Mohamed (2018); Samari et

al. (2013); Zega et al. (2020)

Reusable

Design

5.

Resource

Management

Criteria

Refers to process of allocating

resources to achieve the

greatest organizational value

Renewable

Resources

Aslani et al. (2019); Cuviella-Suarez

et al. (2019); Gabarda-Mallorqui

(2017); Hanafi et al. (2015);

Rashdan & Ashour (2017); Syed et

al. (2014); Zhu et al. (2016)

Water

Efficiency

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Manufacturers Criteria

A manufacturer is a person or business that transforms raw materials into finished items

using various tools, equipment, and techniques before selling the products to consumers,

wholesalers, distributors, retailers, or other manufacturers for the production of more complex

goods (Corporate Finance Institution, 2020). Garetti & Taisch (2012) stated that creating a

new material will consume a great number of resources and waste. This demonstrates the

importance of manufacturers in selecting resources for product manufacturing. In a nutshell,

manufacturers' criteria could be employed to select a sustainable building material for green

hotel projects. The discussion of its components in this criterion are as follows:

Sustainable Manufacturer’s Identification

Manufacturing industries which are a largely based industry already started to contribute

towards environment by implementing sustainable manufacturing (Garetti & Taisch, 2012).

Sustainable manufacturing (SM), often known as green manufacturing, is a production

strategy that minimises waste and has little impact on the environment (Rosen & Kishawy,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 213

2012). These goals will mostly be achieved by putting strategies into practise that have an

impact on operational principles, product design, and process design. Machado et al. (2020)'s

define sustainable manufacturing as a system that integrates product and process design issues

with manufacturing, planning, and control issues in order to identify, quantify, assess, and

manage the flow of environmental waste with the ultimate goal of reducing the environmental

impact to that of the Earth's self-recovery capability while also attempting to maximise

resource efficiency supports this. Thus, selecting manufacturers and suppliers that prioritize

sustainability and environmental principle is a necessity for this criterion. (Rashdan &

Ashour, 2017) stated that for this purpose, designers such as architects and interior designers

are the responsible parties to review the manufacturers company policies and operations that

declare their products and materials as environmentally friendly. Their effort on health and

environment consciousness should be evaluated too.

Materials Declarations

Declarations and certifications are certified statement that one has fulfilled the

requirements of and may practice in a field. Thus, to assess the sustainability credentials of

materials as sustainable materials, materials declarations and certifications are important. This

is to make sure they are within either international or national standards and met benchmarks

for criteria of sustainable materials. Bacon (2011) added that by using a set of criteria to assess

a material’s quality, safety, value, and impact on one's health, benchmarks for sustainable

standards may be established. These standards are used to evaluate the environmental and

health claims made by sustainable materials based on how they affect people and the

environment (Rashdan & Ashour, 2017). Stelmack et al. (2014) stated that a sustainable

materials certification verifies that a material complies with specific sustainability

requirements. Designers should evaluate materials certifications issued by regulatory bodies

(Boks & Mcaloone, 2009). Numerous certification bodies, such as Eco Labelling Scheme,

Carbon Footprint Labelling Scheme, Energy Efficiency Rating & Labelling Scheme, Water

Efficient Product Labelling Scheme, and Malaysian Timber Certification Scheme, are

working to promote and put sustainable precautionary principles into practise through

extensive product databases (Malaysian Green Technology Corporation & Kementerian

Tenaga, 2018). According to Atan (2015), the Government of Malaysia's official green

recognition programme in Malaysia is called MyHIJAU. MyHIJAU brings concept in uniting

all green certifications under a single mark that cover all types of products, materials and

services A good or service will be provided that complies with regional and global

environmental standards will be given the MyHIJAU mark (Abdul Rahman, 2016). The

prerequisite for MyHIJAU's certification of green materials is that they must already be in

compliance with performance standards or have green label certification that meets the

minimum requirements recognised by GreenTech Malaysia, such as the SIRIM Eco Labeling

Scheme and SIRIM Carbon Footprint Labeling.

Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) assesses every aspect of a product's life cycle, including the

gathering and extraction of raw materials, the production process, installation, transit, use,

and post-use or end-of-life (Mah & Al-Hussein, 2008). Kang & Guerin, (2009) claims that

designers should take into account this standard, which choose materials that have a minimum

impact on the environment over their whole life cycle. To fully grasp a material's impacts

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 214

from cradle to grave, manufacturers must evaluate its impacts and components (Bakker et al.,

2010). Thus, LCA aims to assess a wide range of effects, such as environmental toxins that

threaten ecosystems, resource depletion, freshwater stewardship, ecosystem degradation,

habitat loss, social responsibility, and toxic compounds that are harmful to human health

(Ceschin & Gaziulusoy, 2016). Manufacturers must be transparent of their products on people

and planet. Designers should use materials that have been compared and certified by a

certification body according to comparable criteria in order to achieve this criterion. Decisions

on choosing materials into green hotels can be supported by third-part certifications.

Additionally, LCA is the most effective method for determining a product's actual

environmental effects (Asdrubali et al., 2012). Consideration must be given to material

extraction, production, transport, building, operation, and administration, as well as

deconstruction and disposal, recycling and reuse.

Health Criteria

Green products can be defined as those that have a lower negative environmental and

health impact than their substitutes (Khoshnava et al., 2020). Thus, type of materials to be

used in green hotels should be selected based on the health criteria. Occupants’ health or more

specifically clients are one of priority for hotels management to be taken care. As described

in the analysis of findings, the components under these criteria are IAQ performance and toxic

disposable. The followings provide the discussion on its justification:

Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Performance

IAQ can be produced by emission from building materials inside of houses or structures

(Van Tran et al., 2020). Additionally, the U.S. EPA estimates that some pollutants, such as

volatile organic compounds (VOCs), have concentrations that are frequently two to five times

higher indoors than outdoors and may even be as much as 100 times greater. These pollutants

can be caused by building materials and furnishings, such as worn-out asbestos-containing

insulation, newly installed flooring, upholstery or carpet, and cabinetry or furniture made of

certain pressed wood products. Therefore, indoor air quality performance must be considered

as a criterion in selecting materials for green hotel projects. Nehr et al. (2017) state that the

IAQ evaluation with the building materials, which considers microbiological pollutants,

chemicals, allergens, fibres, and any mass or energy stressor that may have an impact on

occupant health, should be taken into consideration by designer. Assessment tools for IAQ

can be employed by designers in design and construction phase. To encourage compliance in

designated workplaces, the Department of Occupational, Safety and Health developed the

Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality 2010 in 2010.

Toxic Disposable

Hotels should ensure the building’s interior promote health and safety for building

occupants. In addition, the hotel core business is solely concerned with the provision of guest

accommodation and related services. Mate (2006) supported by stating the materials and

products that designers specify must thus be properly investigated, and they must inform their

clients of any possible long-term health hazards. Designers can also analyse materials in

feasibility study to substitute the materials with safer alternative. They can reduce the danger

of ECCs by scrutinising health claims made in marketing materials. They should carefully

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review the information on materials like paints, adhesives and sealants, waterproofing,

fabrics, furnishings, insulation, drywall, and substrates to ensure that everything has been

taken into account to provide the best interior environment (Marchand & Walker, 2008).

Furthermore, toxic gas emissions released during production and usage should be considered

too (Kanth et al., 2011). Production of building materials involved raw materials extraction

which can give impact to the environment. Utilizing raw materials from natural sources that

are less likely to produce chemicals or volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during

manufacture or disposal can help to lessen the impact (Alfsen & Greaker, 2007). Thus,

criteria of chemical emissions and toxic disposable of a materials should be taken into account

to select material used in green hotel projects.

Consumption Criteria

Consumption criteria is known as the factors and considerations related to the

consumption or use of materials during the construction, operation, and maintenance of a

building or structure (Kono et al., 2018). These criteria focus on optimizing material usage,

reducing waste, and promoting efficiency in the overall consumption of building materials.

As described in the analysis of findings, the components under these criteria are Design

Adaptability and Regional Materials. The followings provide the discussion on its

justification:

Design Adaptability

A design's adaptability is an indicator of how well it manages change. While a completely

dynamic design seamlessly manages any change, a static design is incapable of handling

change (Gu et al., 2004). Thus, design adaptability could be one of the criteria of sustainable

materials for green hotel projects. In order to meet this criterion, Kang & Guerin (2009)

recommended that designers investigate their capacity to design places that satisfy clients'

needs while requiring the least amount of space and resources. Utilizing multipurpose

furniture and depending on smart technologies that offer flexibility through smart materials

like lighting that can be utilised for various purposes are two ways to achieve design

adaptability for green hotels (Winchip, 2011). By using a material's advantages for many

purposes, interior designers can use fewer materials overall. Hardwood, for instance, can be

used in a variety of construction-related components, including decks, flooring, panelling,

and luxury furniture. In addition, hardwood is used to create wooden window fixture, panels,

cupboards, and doorframes.

Regional Materials

Consumption of materials from regional materials can be considered as one of criteria for

materials and resources in green building index assessment tools. The building materials are

regarded as regional materials if they are produced and extracted locally, promoting the use

of local resources and minimising the environmental effects of transportation. For more than

20% of the total material value, the building materials must be collected, harvested, and

manufactured within 500 kilometres of the project location. Thus, Kono et al. (2018)

suggested design approaches that enable the use of local goods and materials should be

advocated by the green hotel designers. This method will decrease the significant

environmental impact of the energy required to transport commodities across long distances.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 216

(Sabnis & Pranesh, 2017). This is supported by Sameh (2014) stating that this approach can

be alternative to support local economy.

Design Components Criteria

The criteria of design components refer to the specific factors or requirements that are

considered during the design phase of a building or structure (Samari et al., 2013; ASlani et

al., 2019). These criteria help guide the selection and specification of building materials based

on their performance and suitability for the intended application. As described in the analysis

of findings, the components under this criteria are Durability and Reusable Design

components. The followings provide the discussion on its justification:

Durability

Durability can be defined as ability to exist for a long time without significant

deterioration in quality or value. It should be one of criteria for sustainable materials which is

friendly for environment. Materials that durable will have longer life cycles and need to be

cared and replaced less frequently. Designers should therefore advocate for long-lasting, low-

maintenance materials in their green hotel projects. Materials that meet this criterion may be

more expensive, (Samari et al., 2013) refutes that upfront cost for these materials is high but

they can be a saving in overall cost. For example, concrete. Concrete is an extremely

durable building material that, in some situations, can last for hundreds of years (Zega et al.,

2020).

Reusable Design Components

Reusing construction materials can lower waste production and demand for new

materials. By doing this, the environmental harm caused by the extraction and exploitation of

virgin resources is lessened. Thus, Gabarda-Mallorqui (2017) recommend that once a material

served its purpose, designers should clarify whether it can be recycled or reused. Designers

should encourage the usage of reused or refurbished furniture whenever possible to extend

the life of the item (Aslani et al., 2019). Construction methods that minimize waste materials

should be introduced. Similarly, designers can incorporate a reuse and recycling system to

optimise the effectiveness of water management in buildings by minimizing water use and

recycling wastewater (Llop & Ponce, 2014).

Resource Management Criteria

Lastly, the fifth criteria of green building materials that relates to the sustainable

operations is resource management criteria. In the context of building materials, resource

management criteria refer to the factors and considerations related to the efficient and

responsible use of resources throughout the lifecycle of a building or structure (Syeda et al.,

2014; Gabarda-Mallorquí et al., 2017). These criteria focus on conserving resources and

promoting sustainability in the selection, use, and disposal of building materials. As revealed

in the analysis of findings, the components under this criteria are Renewable Resources and

Water Efficiency. The followings provide the discussion on its justification:

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 217

Renewable Resources

A resource that can be replenished is referred to as being renewable and having an

unending supply (Zhu et al., 2016). The renewable resources usage for raw materials usually

from biomass. It needs less energy to produce and are less harmful to the environment. They

should be biodegradable, cultivated without pesticides, not degrade soils or taint streams, and

harvested with the least amount of machinery possible. Their harvest rotations typically less

than 10 years. For instance, (Syeda et al., 2014) suggested that bamboo can be used raw

materials for flooring. Therefore, usage of renewable resources must be considered as one of

criteria of sustainable materials for green hotel projects which can positively reduce the

environmental impacts.

Water Efficiency

Other than electricity, hotel industry need water to function. It is necessary for both

fundamental human requirements and leisure activities like golf and skiing, as well as a social

asset that might attract tourists (Gabarda-Mallorquí et al., 2017). Hall & Murphy (2010) added

water availability is an important factor to ensure the profitability of the tourism industry in

the Mediterranean basin which is the top tourist destination in the world. Therefore,

availability of water resources should be used efficiently by hotel management. Water

efficiency could be achieved by usage of low flow sanitary equipment such as smart faucets

and water-efficient sinks (Cuviella-Suárez et al., 2019). (Rashdan & Ashour, 2017) suggested

that plumbing systems that facilitate the use of graywater for irrigation and toilet flushing can

be recommended by designers of green hotel projects. Thus, this criterion is important in

considering sustainable materials to be used in the projects to ensure the conservation of

resources.

Figure 3. Conceptual Framework of Green Building Materials Criteria to the Hotel’s Operational

Sustainability

Based on the literature synthesis and discussion, the initial criteria of building materials

for hotel’s operational sustainability are further developed into a conceptual framework for

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 218

this research. Figure 3 shows the conceptual framework that consists of criteria of building

materials and its relation to the sustainable performance in hotel operations.

As highlighted by Khalil et al. (2022), effective hotel operations will ensure long-term

sustainability in business and earn proﬁts and development over a period. This will reﬂect the

performance measurement and performance impact of the hotel industry. By considering

these aspects and incorporating sustainable building materials into their design and

construction processes, hotels can achieve higher levels of sustainability, reduce operational

costs, enhance guest experience, and demonstrate their commitment to environmental

responsibility. Ultimately, the careful selection of building materials is a key component of

successful hotel sustainable operations. The conceptual framework in Figure 3 is drawn to the

direction of current needs and selection of green building materials, particularly for hotel

operational sustainability. Further studies into have yet to address the untested hypothesis

between the both variables, building materials criteria and hotel operational sustainability, as

confirmative relations.

CONCLUSION

In summary, this study addresses the imperative need for a systematic approach to

selecting green building materials in the realm of hotel operational sustainability. Given the

central role of the hospitality industry in delivering efficient services and operations,

prioritizing green and sustainable practices is paramount. Our examination of key criteria and

components of green building materials has unveiled an inclusive set of 11 criteria:

Manufacturers’ Identification, Materials Declaration, Life Cycle Assessment, Indoor Air

Quality Performance, Toxic Disposable, Design Adaptability, Regional Materials, Durability,

Reusable Design, Renewable Resources, and Water Efficiency. The literature synthesis and

establishment of a conceptual model underscore the intricate considerations involved in green

building material choices. This model, categorized into Manufacturers Criteria, Health

Criteria, Consumption Criteria, Design Components Criteria, and Resource Management

Criteria, provides a structured framework for decision-making in material selection for hotel

construction and operation. As hotels aim to bolster their commitment to sustainable

operations, the proposed conceptual model stands as a valuable guide for decision-makers,

architects, and stakeholders engaged in hotel construction and management. Integrating these

key criteria into decision-making processes will significantly contribute to the broader goal

of scaling up sustainable practices in the hotel industry. To conclude, this study's findings

enrich the ongoing discourse on sustainable practices in the hotel sector, laying the

groundwork for future research and practical implementation. The integration of green

building materials is not merely an option but a strategic imperative for the endurance and

adaptability of hotels in an evolving landscape of environmental awareness and operational

sustainability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research is partly sponsored under the consultation project funded Malaysian Green

Technology and Climate Change Corporation (MGTC) and GIZ. The authors would like to

express gratitude appreciation to Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) for providing access

to the subscribed online library databases, which were instrumental in accessing the literature

for this study.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 219

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ANALYSIS OF MERCURY (Hg) HEAVY METAL IN

RIVERS ARTISANAL GOLD MINING KALIREJO AREA,

KOKAP DISTRICT, KULON PROGO REGENCY

SPECIAL REGION OF YOGYAKARTA

Shilvyanora Aprilia Rande*, A. A Inung Arie Adnyano and Hendro Purnomo

Master of Mining Engineering (MME) program, Yogyakarta National Institute of Technology (ITNY),

Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: shylvyanora@itny.ac.id

Abstract

Gold mining projects contribute to the demand for construction materials as mines are

developed, and associated infrastructure is built. Apart from that, gold mining activities able to

increase income and improve the community's welfare. However, Mercury (Hg) in processing

gold (pyrometallurgy) can pollute the environment and is dangerous if dissolved. This study is

intended to determine the condition of surface water against the content of dissolved Hg in the

Plampang River flow. Three river water and three river sediment samples were used in the

study, which was carried out using the purposive sampling approach. The water quality

standard is based on Government Regulation 82 of 2001 for Hg: 1 ug/l or 0.001 ppm. Sample

1 (Hg = 0.01817 ppm), Sample 2 (Hg = 0.00092 ppm), and Sample 3 (Hg = 0.00113 ppm) were

the absorbed Hg samples in water. The quality standard for mercury (Hg) in river sediments is

0.2 ppm (mg/kg), according to US EPA (1997). In river sediments, samples of mercury (Hg)

had 1 Hg = 0.07971 ppm, 2 Hg = 0.04569 ppm, and 3 Hg = 0.11641 ppm. The mercury levels

of three sediment samples satisfy the US EPA's 1997 threshold. Only one of the three

locations, point 1, with a value of 0.018 ppm, has a mercury level in the water that exceeds the

criterion. According to the findings of the analysis of the mercury content in sediment and water

samples, water sample 1, which is close to community gold mining, has a high concentration

of mercury. This indicates that the mercury content in people's gold mining is eroded and

revealed into river bodies, not because the mercury is contaminated during the gold processing

process through pyrometallurgy or amalgamation.

Keywords: Gold Mining; Mercury (Hg) Heavy Metal; Environmental pollution; Infrastructure; River

INTRODUCTION AND ISSUES TOWARDS THE RESEARCH

The relation between construction and gold mining activities lies in the demand for

construction materials, infrastructure development, and the economic impact of gold mining

in regions where it occurs (Aksa et al., 2022). Gold mining operations often require significant

infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and power supply, to access remote areas where

deposits are located. Construction activities are essential for building and maintaining the

necessary infrastructure to support mining operations. Hence, particularly for this research, it

addresses the gold mining activities in the dome of the Kulon Progo Mountains. The dome's

short axis (± 20 km) points in the direction of West-West-East Southeast, while the long axis

(± 32 km) points in the direction of South-West-North Northeast. The Jonggrangan plateau,

with an elevation of 859 meters above sea level, is the highest point on the dome (Purworejo

et al., 2013). Following Gunung Kidul Regency, Kulon Progo has significant reserves of

mining resources. The extraction of minerals, such as gold, has boosted local GDP and created

jobs in the area. How mining materials are managed, particularly in community mining, is

still highly worrying. Most community mining operations neglect environmental management

during their active and idle periods. This can lead to altered landforms and possibly

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 224

detrimental effects on the environment, including the mass movement of rocks and soil,

pollution of the surrounding water and soil, and changes in the surrounding environment

surrounding the mining area. The study is being conducted in Kalirejo Village, Kokap

District, Kulon Progo Regency. The research area spans around 100 hectares, and inside that

area is a gold mining site that is part of the People's Mining Area. Following Gunungkidul

Regency, Kulon Progo has significant reserves of mining resources. The mining and

processing minerals, such as gold, has boosted local GDP and created jobs in the area. How

mining materials are managed, particularly in community mining, is still highly worrying. As

supported by Darris Alwan (2021), when it comes to landform changes and potential adverse

environmental effects like mass movements of soil and rocks and soil and water pollution,

especially in the surrounding area, most community mining businesses pay little attention to

environmental management throughout their active years and after they close.

Mercury contamination is mainly caused by traditional gold mining. It was found that

there are sixty thousand small-scale miners work at Indonesia's 713 gold mines, dispersed

throughout Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi. The community's mining operations

are typified by straightforward, reasonably priced exploration and exploitation methods. The

locals typically employ basic conventional instruments like hammers, crowbars, and hoes for

mining and excavating operations. Additionally, leftover tailings from a fully-fledged pond

and spills during transit lead to mercury pollution from gold mining.

According to Kitong et al. (2013), rocks can naturally contain heavy metals such as

mercury sulfide (HgS) or mercury (cinnabar). As mercury is often found together with other

metal sulfide deposits, such as Au, Ag, Sb, As, Cu, Pb, and Zn, mercury and some other heavy

metals are usually found in relatively high concentrations at vein-type gold mineralisation

sites (Sismanto et al., 2007). The amalgamation procedure is used at gold extraction sites to

process gold directly using mercury. Because mercury is readily available and has not

received much attention from the authorities, miners have long used it (Kitong et al., 2013).

The mercury-containing tailings resulting from the treatment of mercury using the

amalgamation method are put into holding ponds around the treatment site after the

amalgamation process is complete, left untreated. The tailings contain between 800 to 6900

parts per million of mercury. The tailings ponds are full, but the gold mining process continues

(Aksa et al., 2022). As a result, some of the tailings eventually spilt into the Plampang River

and contaminated the water with mercury. The amalgamation method is no longer used but

has been replaced by the pyrometallurgical process in the current gold treatment process.

Therefore, it is necessary to re-evaluate the mercury content in the river flow to determine

whether it exceeds the permissible limit.

Humans risk becoming infected with mercury when they consume contaminated food,

such as fish, shells, and shrimp from a polluted river. As mentioned by Aksa et al. (2022),

Aquatic biota tissues contain highly concentrated Me-Hg, a mercury compound produced via

biomagnification caused by interactions between trophic levels in the food chain. The

geochemical cycle that exists determines the amount of mercury that has accumulated in the

aquatic fauna. The community that uses the river waters may have health issues due to the

trash produced by mining operations polluting the rivers. Once a heavy metal enters the water,

it will contaminate it if its concentration exceeds the quality limit. Furthermore, it will settle

in sediments with a thousand-year residence period. This study aimed to analyse the content

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 225

of heavy metal mercury (Hg) in water and riverbed sediments around artisanal gold mining

in the study area.

Based on the background above, the problem is that gold processing uses amalgamation

methods that can cause environmental pollution. Currently, gold processing has switched to

using pyrometallurgical methods in Sangon Village, so research is needed to check whether

pyrometallurgical processes have the potential to have an impact on the environment around

the mine or not, especially on the river around the mine.

LITERATURE REVIEW: OVERVIEW OF GOLD MINING ACTIVITIES

Traditional gold mining contributes significantly to mercury contamination (Dian

Wahyuningtyas Puspitaningrum, 2013). The amalgamation of mercury has been employed in

numerous conventional gold mines throughout Indonesia. Gold is a chemical element in the

periodic table with the symbol Au (Latin: 'aurum') and atomic number 79. A transition metal

(trivalent and univalent) that is mushy, shiny, yellow and heavy. It melts in liquid form at a

temperature of about 1000 degrees centigrade. It is soft and malleable, its hardness ranges

from 2.5–3 (Mohs scale), and its specific gravity depends on the type and content of other

metals that combine (Dian et al., 2013). Gold minerals are also associated with oxidised

sulfide deposits. Gold-bearing minerals consist of native gold, electrum, gold telluride, and

some gold alloys and compounds with sulfur, antimony and selenium (Kitong et al., 2013).

Electrum is another type of real gold; only its silver content is >20%.

Mercury is a metal element that is liquid at the temperature of money. It is rarely found

without being bound to other elements. Hefty metal, silvery-white, poor heat introduction

compared to other metals, and ordinary electrical introduction. This element easily forms

alloys with other metals such as gold, silver, and tin (also called amalgams). Its ease of mixing

with gold is used to extract gold from its ores (Mohsin, 2006). Mercury, written with the

chemical symbol (Hg) or hydrargyrum, which means "liquid silver" (liquid silver), is a hefty

metal that is liquid at room temperature, silvery-white, and has the following properties

(Pallar, 1994 in Sismanto et al., 2007):

1. Liquid at room temperature. It is not highly volatile (gas/vapour pressure is 0.0018

mm Hg at 25°C).

2. There is a complete expansion at a temperature of 396°C.

3. It is the most volatile metal.

4. An excellent metal for conducting electricity.

5. It can dissolve various metals to form alloys, also called amalgams.

6. A highly toxic element for animals and humans.

Another essential property of mercury is its ability to dissolve other metals and form

alloys known as amalgams. Gold and silver are metals that can be dissolved with mercury, so

mercury is used to bind gold in the process of processing sulfide ores containing gold through

amalgamation. Mercury–gold amalgamation is done by heating it so that the mercury

evaporates, leaving behind the gold metal and its mixture. Mercury is rarely found as a pure

metal (native mercury) in nature (Sismanto et al., 2007).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 226

In artisanal gold mining activities, one of the processes to obtain gold is the amalgamation

process, a mixture process between gold and mercury (Hg). The amalgamation technique

involves mixing rocks containing gold and mercury metals using logs. In this activity, water

flow is needed to separate fine rock and amalgam (a mixture of mercury and gold), which is

flowed into tailings ponds. Generally, mercury enters river waters as elemental Hg (HgO)

with high density. This mercury will sink to the bottom of the water or accumulate in the

sediment at a depth of 5-15 cm below the surface of the sediment. The elemental mercury can

be turned into organic mercury by bacterial activity, namely into methyl mercury (CH3Hg),

which has toxic properties, extreme binding power and high solubility, especially in the body

of aquatic animals such as fish (Kusuma, R.C. et al., 2017).

Gold Processing by Amalgamation Method

Handcuffing precious metals on the inside of added ore to allocate mercury (Hg) in the

kobokan is called the benchmark of amalgamation. Amalgam is the most inexpensive and

straightforward technique of stirring precious metals.

The drum is used where smelting occurs, and the ore particle size is reduced from coarse

(1 cm) to fine (80-200 mesh) by crushing. Rails/rails. With the help of windmills or

generators, the drums are rotated following the flow of river water. Miners remove and grind

soil and rocks containing gold into finer/smaller sizes (Sosial, Dampak et al., 2023). Put clean

dirt in a bucket and add water (1:1) and mercury. The amount of mercury-added depends on

the gold content of the ore (Sosial, Dampak et al., 2023). Miners add mercury to bind more

gold. Also, the barrel is sealed and runs for less than 6 hours. After iteration, filtration

separates the gold mixture from rock, water, and residual mercury. Large amounts of mercury

are released into the environment during filtration, thus polluting the environment. The

resulting gold amalgam is heated/burned to separate mercury from gold (Aksa et al., 2022).

Pyrometallurgy is a branch of extractive metallurgy that involves thermal methods of

extracting metals from their ores. Pyrometallurgy can also be referred to as carbon technology

because of the extensive use of carbon as a fuel and reducing agent. Pyrometallurgy is the

most crucial division of extractive metallurgy, as it is involved in the refining of most metals

(Purworejo, 2013). The stages of the metal extraction process by pyrometallurgical method

are as follows:

1. Drying eliminates most of the free water contained in the ore.

2. Calcination-reduction, i.e. elimination of remaining free water and elimination of

crystalline water, preheating of ores and reduction of most metallic elements and

control of iron reduction.

3. Electric furnace smelting reduces the remaining metal and separates the main product

from its by-product.

4. Refining eliminates unwanted minor elements from the main product to meet market

needs.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 227

IMPACT TOWARDS ENVIRONMENTAL

Gold ore mining located in Sangon Kulon Progo Hamlet, Yogyakarta, is carried out by

small-scale gold miners or traditional gold miners by residents. Gold ore processing in Sangon

Hamlet still uses amalgamation technology, where mercury (Hg) is used as a medium to bind

gold. Processing with mercury has been carried out since 1990 until now; in Sangon Hamlet,

two mining pits are still active. After the amalgamation process, the waste (tailings)

containing mercury is discharged into a holding pond near the mining site without further

treatment; even If the waste storage pond is complete, the gold mining process continues. This

causes some waste to flow into the Cedar River, which results in mercury pollution in these

waters (Daris Alwan, 2021).

Based on Kitong et al. (2012), although gold mining activities positively impact the

economy, such as increasing employment and community income, they are also followed by

negative impacts. These negative impacts include (a) a decrease in farmers' income around

the mining site due to a decrease in soil quality, (b) an increase in the price of essential

commodities due to an increase in demand and a decrease in land productivity, and (c) the

presence of mercury content in vegetables and rice grown around the mining site. In addition,

the river water began to be polluted. River sediments in Sangon, Kulon Progo, contain

mercury (Sosial et al., 2023).

Heavy metal pollution in the environment is a common problem in different regions. Most

heavy metals will accumulate in soil and aquatic environments, and the side effects will last

long. These heavy metals, such as mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn), and Lead (Pb),

have highly toxic properties and are harmful to the environment (Li et al., 2017). Many

contaminants are often observed in the environment, including metal contaminants such as

copper, cadmium, zinc, and mercury; this study will discuss heavy metal concentrations of

mercury present in river sediments. Mercury contamination in sediment rivers occurs due to

natural processes (weathering of mineralised rocks), gold processing processes

(amalgamation), and Industrial processes that use mercury-containing raw materials. To find

the source, mercury contamination must be considered carefully because river sediments have

no standard mercury levels of quality. Mercury (Hg) is a chemical element classified as a

dangerous and toxic heavy metal that benefits humans and other living things (Sosial et al.,

2023).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The method used in this study is the survey method as adopted from (Khozin, 2013).

Determining sampling points is done using the purposive sampling method, which looks at

specific considerations (sampling points are selected from upstream, middle and downstream

locations). Sampling of river water itself using the random sampling method. River water

sampling 3 points and three river sediment samples (point 1 after artisanal gold mining, point

2 after pyrometallurgical gold processing and point 3 near the former gold processing site by

amalgamation). After the sample is taken, it is taken to the laboratory for analysis. This study's

samples were water and river sediments around the PETI activity. They continued with

analysis in the laboratory to measure the levels of accumulated heavy metal content (Hg) and

analyse pH with AAS (Atomic et al.).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 228

Figure 1. Research Framework

Sampling Location

Water and sediment sampling locations are located at 3 points on the Plampang River,

Sangon Hamlet. Here are the coordinates of the sampling location.

Table 1. Coordinate Sampling Location

NO

X

Y

Z

Information

1

0398251

0397470

0397184

Near the gold mining site

2

9136206

9134573

9134275

Near pyrometallurgical gold processing sites

3

347

121

110

Near the former processing of amalgamated gold

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 229

Figure 2. Map of Water and Sediment Sampling Locations

Figure 3. Sediment Samples Figure 4. Water Samples

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 230

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

pH Test Results on Water Samples

From the results of testing water samples, it was found that the pH of the water at the

sampling location was classified as safe for the environment, namely water pH > 8.

Table 2. Water pH Test Results

NO

SAMPLE

pH

1

Water sample 1

8,4

2

Water sample 2

8,56

3

Water sample 3

8,34

Hg Content Test Results on Water Samples

Based on PP No. 82 of 2001 Water Quality Standard standards based on PP No. 82 of

2001 for Hg; 1 ug/l or 0.001 ppm. The following are the results of the Hg content test on water

samples in the Plampang River;

Table 3. Hg Content Test Results on Water Samples

NO

Air

Unit

Quality Standards

Conversion

1

18,17

ug/l

1 ug/l

0,01817

ppm

2

0,92

ug/l

1 ug/l

0,00092

ppm

3

1,13

ug/l

1 ug/l

0,00113

ppm

The results of laboratory tests and analysis with AAS (Atomic Absortion

Spectrophotometry) obtained samples 1; 0.01817 ppm, sample 2; 0.00092 ppm and sample 3;

1.13 ppm. From these results, sample 1 is above the threshold of water quality standards,

while sample 2 is below the water quality standard and sample 3 is in accordance with the

threshold.

Hg Content Test Results in Sediment Samples

Based on mercury (Hg) quality standards in river sediments of 0.2 ppm (mg / kg) referring

to US-EPA (1997), the test results of Sangon River sediment samples are below the quality

standard limit. The following are the results of the Hg content test on sediment samples in the

Plampang River;

Table 4. Hg Content Test Results on Sediment Samples

NO

Soil

Unit

Conversion

1

79,71

ug/kg

0,07971

ppm

2

45,69

ug/kg

0,04569

ppm

3

116,41

ug/kg

0,11641

ppm

3 river sediment collection sites are not polluted because the Hg content in the river is

below the < quality standard of 0.2 ppm. Associated with the geological conditions of the

research area, where in the study area there is an alteration zone (Nugraha, 2015), and in

general the constituent rocks are diorite intrusion, andesite lava and volcanic breccia. In

altered volcanic rocks, heavy metals can be present naturally, such as sulfide metal deposits,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 231

so that in gold mineralization areas there is an increase in heavy metal content (Herman,

2006).

Based on the theory of magma differentiation process, the element Mercury can be formed

at the epithermal stage. Epithermal stages are formed near the earth's surface to a depth of

1500 m, temperatures 5000C–2000C, associated with shallow intrusive rocks, precious metals

that can precipitate at this stage Pb, Zn, Au, Ag, Hg, Sb, Cu, Se, Bi and U, minerals that

precipitate are Au-native, Ag, Cu, Bi, Pyrite, Marcassite, Sphalerite, Galena, Chalcopyrite,

Sinabar, Stibnit, Realgar, Orpiment and Argentite, the impurity minerals are Chert,

Chalcedony, Chlorite, Epidote, Carbonate, Flourite, Barite, Adularia, Serisite, Dickite,

Rodocrosite and Zeolite (Sumarjono, 2020). From the results of the analysis of Hg content in

water samples and sediment samples, water sample 1 which is located near community gold

mining has a high Hg content, meaning that the Hg content in community gold mining is

revealed and eroded into the river body not because it is polluted from the gold processing

process either by amalgamation or pyrometallurgy.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of research on heavy metal content in rivers caused by gold

processing using pyrometallurgical methods has no impact on the environment. It is known

from laboratory tests at 3 sampling locations obtained; For water pH at 3 locations, the test

value > pH 7 meets the quality standard pp no 82 of 2001and for Hg levels in sediment 3

sediment samples have met US-EPA 1997 standards. For Hg levels in water in 3 locations,

only 1 location has a value more than the parameter, namely the location of point 1 whose

value is 0.018 ppm. This is because the location of the first point is located near the traditional

gold mining site not near the gold processing site. From the results of the analysis of Hg

content in water samples and sediment samples, water sample 1 which is located near

community gold mining has a high Hg content, meaning that the Hg content in community

gold mining is revealed and eroded into the river body not because it is polluted from the gold

processing process either by amalgamation or pyrometallurgy.

REFERENCES

Aksa, Mardiyanti A. et al. (2022). Hazards of Mercury Pollution at Traditional Gold Mining

Locations in Kalirejo Village-Yogyakarta Special Region. 1(1): 69–73.

https://ftuncen.com/index.php/JWIKAL69.

Daris Alwan, Muhammad (2021). Analysis Of Hg Concentration In River Sediments At A

Traditional Gold Mine Site, Kulon Progo, Yogyakarta submitted to the Islamic University

of Indonesia to meet the requirements for obtaining a Bachelor (S1) degree in

Environmental Engineering." : 1–66.

Dian Wahyuningtyas Puspitaningrum (2013). Extraction Of Gold From Rocks Using

Cyanidation And Amalgamation Methods With The Addition Of Cassava Trees.

Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 6(11), 951–952. (Mi): 5–24.

Faithful (2005).Mercury Spread Due To Gold Mining Business In Sangon Area, Kulon Progo

Regency, D.I. Yogyakarta." Colloquium of Field Results.: 1–17.

Khozin, Abror. (2013). User Perceptions of Librarians' Performance in Circulation Services

in the Regional Library of Sragen Regency. Management: 30–39.

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Kitong, Melin T., Jemmy Abidjulu, and Harry S. Koleangan. (2012). "Analysis of mercury

(Hg) and arsenic (As) in Ranoyapo River sediments, Amurang District, North Sulawesi."

Colloquium of Field Results.1 (1): 16.

Kusuma, R.C., Wawan Budianta, and Arifudin. (2017). Study of heavy metal content at a

traditional gold mining site in Sangon Village, Kokap District, Kulon Progo Regency.

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75–86.

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Gold Mining In Community Mining Area Case Study: Kalirejo Village, Kokap District,

Kulon Progo Regency." Journal of Science Tech 4(1): 19–28.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 233

BIOPHILIC DESIGN TO ENHANCE THE HEALING

ENVIRONMENT IN MALAYSIAN PRIVATE HOSPITALS:

EXPERTS’ PERSPECTIVES

Nurul Zalifah Zakaria, Suriati Ahmad* and Atikah Fukaihah Amir

Department of Built Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi MARA

(UiTM) Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: suria564@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Malaysia is making many efforts to integrate nature into hospital building design to enhance

the healing environment. This aligns with the Malaysian Sustainable Development Goal (Goal

3), which is to focus on good health and well-being, ensure everyone lives a healthy life, and

encourages well-being at all ages. Therefore, the biophilic design concept successfully

implemented in international hospital buildings to incorporate nature could be used for

Malaysian hospital buildings. This study aims to establish the biophilic design elements

checklist for Malaysian private hospitals through experts’ perspectives. Therefore, five experts

who were involved in designing green hospitals in Malaysia had been selected for semi-

structured interviews to obtain valid and reliable data. The experts were architects of the Green

Building Index (GBI) green-rated hospitals in Malaysia. The data were analysed by using

content analysis. From the analysis, twelve biophilic design elements had been agreed upon

by the experts to be integrated into private hospitals in Malaysia. Establishing a biophilic design

elements checklist for Malaysian private hospitals could encourage more green hospital

development.

Keywords: Nature; Biophilic design; Hospital; Field experts; Design Checklist

INTRODUCTION

Natural interactions provide many advantages to physical health, psychological well-

being, and cognitive performance. People are encouraged to spend at least 120 minutes with

nature every week to increase their health and well-being (White et al., 2019). Even though

the world is growing with a greater focus on technology development, the human and nature

connection still needs to be emphasised. Therefore, E.O. Wilson (1984) introduced the

biophilic design concept that had to be utilised by many designers in their projects to bring

humans closer to nature.

Biophilic design is a concept that strengthens the human and nature connection through

direct nature, indirect nature, and space conditions (Nkubiyaho, 2020). It improves

productivity, give positive impacts on people’s stress levels, and speeds up the recovery time

from pain. Human contact with nature and the quality of this relationship is beneficial to

humans’ emotions, culture, health and thought (Totaforti, 2018). According to scholars and

experts, the utilisation of biophilic design may have an impact on the human mind and body-

depending on the way it is applied and the results that follow.

Research by Ulrich in 1980 has discovered the patients’ recovery and relationship with

nature where the biophilic design has proven to be beneficial for the healing process and

hospital environments (El Messeidy, 2019). The application of biophilic design is a method

of healing for humans since it improves the healing environment in hospitals. The hospital

space design with consideration of the biophilic design concept is needed within the hospital

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 234

building’s internal compound and spaces. The utilisation of biophilic design in hospital space

design is important to connect nature with occupants which may result in positive impacts on

them (Totaforti, 2018).

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Today’s hospital design focuses on technology and mechanical development which

causes hospital design to ignore the demand relationship between humans and nature. The

development of modern hospital construction that focuses on the built environment has taken

away the healing benefits of human healthcare (Lydia, 2019). The concept of biophilic design

has been successfully implemented in international hospital buildings including the Ostra

Hospital in Sweden (El Messeidy, 2019) and Singapore's Khoo Teck Puat Hospital (KTPH)

(Cheok & Chan, 2017). However, the study related to biophilic design implementation in

Malaysia has only covered shophouses based on the study done by Bahauddin et al. (2021;

2019) and office buildings (Ibrahim et al., 2021) (Hui & Bahauddin, 2019). Particularly, there

are no biophilic hospitals found or being built in Malaysia. Hence, this has significantly

evidenced the lack of study on the biophilic design that focuses on Malaysian hospitals, thus

placing a notable gap (knowledge and practise) that is able to offer from this research.

Malaysia and 192 world leaders adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

(2030 Agenda). With more than 200 indicators, 17 Goals and 169 Targets, the SDGs

encourage action over the following fifteen years in areas of vital importance to the

environment and mankind. One of the SDGs goals (Goal 3) is to focus on good health and

well-being by ensuring everyone lives a healthy life and encouraging well-being at all ages.

Apart from that, the SDGs (Goal 11) emphasise sustainable cities and communities. It is a

worldwide commitment to more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive development. In

accordance with the 2030 Agenda, Malaysia implements the Twelfth Malaysia Plan and

Shared Prosperity Vision 2030 with the goal to create an inclusive, prosperous, and

sustainable Malaysia. This highlights the significance of this research to further improve the

current hospital design – in line with the national agenda to provide a better quality of life.

In particular, the post-Covid-19 pandemic around the world has resulted in numerous

health issues and complications. Patients admitted and staying in hospital require a longer

duration due to quarantine and treatment, thus giving them a limited time to spend outdoors.

Besides that, the workload of healthcare workers increased, and they are working overtime

and being in the hospital building longer. This affects both workers' and patients’ physical

health and mostly mental health (Muller et al., 2020). This significantly explains that more

studies on biophilic design approaches are needed to enhance the hospital healing

environment.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Evolution of Biophilic Design

Biophilic design is an approach to connect its occupant with nature (Ryan et al., 2014).

The term biophilic is originally from biophilia, which means the passionate life’s love and

everything alive such as plants, people, social groups, and ideas. Erich Fromm (1973), a

psychoanalyst who studied about unconscious mind, introduced the term biophilia in his book

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 235

titled The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. He stresses on the biophilia concept while

elaborating differences between 11 human beings and other natures (Moghaddami, 2019).

According to the Dictionary of Environment and Ecology Fifth Edition in 2004, ‘bio’ means

living organisms while ‘philia’ is referring to attraction towards something. Overall, biophilia

means the innate feeling of human beings to connect with nature and living organisms (Sayuti,

2016).

Biophilia has many meanings based on researchers and their areas of study. Edward O.

Wilson, cited in Krcmarova (2009), defines biophilia as a natural tendency to concentrate on

life and other life processes as well as describing the relationship with nature not only in the

physiological aspect but also contains the genetic basis of the meaning. He established a

hypothesis about biophilia in 1984 through his book titled Biophilia and popularised that

response. The hypothesis elaborates on the concept of humans need to relate to nature and

some biotic forms because of individual fulfilment and evolution to survive. Moghaddami

(2019) accentuated that the ideas on biophilia through his observations, journeys, and personal

experience he had in the natural environment caught wider attention.

In-depth research and studies on biophilia have led to the evolution of biophilic design.

The biophilic design concept was expanded into the field of architecture at the beginning of

the 21st century (Zhong et al., 2021). It has taken on meaning as an expression of the inherent

human need to integrate with nature in the design of the built environment (Kellert, 2008). It

is an attempt to translate the understanding of the relationship between humans, natural

systems and processes into the building. Kellert et al. (2011) did mention that the positive

effects of the natural systems, processes and constructed landscapes built into our buildings

remain essential to human well-being and performance in their book titled Biophilic Design:

The Theory, Science, and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life.

The Significant Elements, Attributes and Patterns of Biophilic Design

Kellert & Calabrese (2015) established the biophilic design elements framework in three

categories which are the direct experience of nature, the indirect experience of nature and the

experience of space and place. Table 1 below shows the twenty-four attributes listed to be

potentially applied to the building design.

Table 1. Experiences and Attributes of Biophilic Design by Kellert & Calabrese (2015)

Direct Experience of Nature

Indirect Experience of Nature

Experience of Space and Place

Light

Images of nature

Prospect and refuge

Air

Natural materials

Organized complexity

Water

Natural colours

Integration of parts to wholes

Plants

Stimulating natural light and air

Transitional spaces

Animals

Naturalistic shapes and forms

Mobility and wayfinding

Weather

Evoking nature

Cultural and ecological attachment to place

Natural landscape and

ecosystem

Information richness

Fire

Age, change and the patina of time

Natural geometrics

Biomimicry

(Source: Kellert & Calabrese, 2015)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 236

There is also a biophilic design framework introduced by Browning et al. in 2014 through

a book titled 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Wellbeing in the Built

Environment. The idea of listing the design patterns is supported and published in Terrapin

Bright Green LLC. It is to arrange a systematic biophilic design agreement among urban

designers and architects (Moghaddami, 2019). Table 2 below shows the biophilic design

elements that are divided into three categories which are natural in the space, nature analogues

and nature of the space. The framework consists of fourteen biophilic design patterns that can

be implemented into the buildings’ design.

Table 2. Biophilic Design Patterns

Nature in Space

Natural Analogues

Nature of The Space

Visual connection with nature

Biomorphic forms and patterns

Prospect

Non-visual connection with nature

Material connection with nature

Refuge

Non-rhythmic sensory stimuli

Complexity and order

Mystery

Thermal and airflow variability

Risk/peril

Presence of water

Dynamic and diffuse light

Connection with natural system

(Source: Browning et al., 2014)

Green Building Index (GBI)

Green Building Index (GBI) is the Malaysian green rating tool system introduced in 2009.

It is the first rating tool system that is recognised to encourage more use of green architectural

concepts in Malaysia. The GBI green-rated buildings are known for incorporating

environmentally-friendly design and sustainable criteria to decrease the negative impacts and

ensure the new buildings being built remain relevant in the future (Kamil et al., 2018). GBI

was highlighted by Usman & Abdullah (2018) to have more advantages, more parameters and

a better range of rating grades than other green rating tools in Malaysia – namely GreenRE,

PH JKR and Green PASS, which are in the last level of development or newly launched.

Building design needs to meet the requirements of the GBI rating tool system and received

an award that is platinum, gold, silver or certified. Out of five hundred GBI projects in

Malaysia, there are six GBI hospitals building projects as illustrated in Table 3 below.

Table 3. Green Building Index (GBI) Hospitals in Malaysia

No

Name

Location

GBI Rating

Validity

Hospital Category

1

1 Blok Bangunan Tambahan 15

Tingkat Hospital Pakar Ampang

Puteri

Selangor

Certified

25th January 2013 –

24th January 2016

Private

2

Bandar Dato’ Onn Specialist

Johor Hospital

Johor

Silver

6th July 2018 –

5th July 2021

Private

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 237

No

Name

Location

GBI Rating

Validity

Hospital Category

3

Gleneagles Hospital

Kuala

Lumpur

Gold

3rd September 2015 –

2nd September 2018

Private

4

Hospital Pakar Kanak-Kanak

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Kuala

Lumpur

Certified

10th May 2019 –

9th May 2022

Government

5

KPJ Damansara 2 Specialist

Hospital

Selangor

Certified

10th May 2019 –

9th May 2022

Private

6

Pantai Hospital Laguna Merbok

Kedah

Silver

24th June 2021 –

23rd June 2024

Private

(Source: https://www.greenbuildingindex.org/how-gbi-works/gbi-certified-buildings/)

METHODOLOGY

A qualitative method was used for this study and a semi-structured interview was

conducted to collect data. It was to collect information related to the green elements applied

in Malaysian Green Building Index (GBI) green-rated hospitals and the expert’s perspective

on biophilic design elements for private hospital buildings. A semi-structured interview is an

open framework that enables focused, conversational and two-way communication between

the researcher and interviewee (Halil, 2013). According to Rabionet (2011), the semi-

structured interview was a powerful and flexible medium to collect data by accumulating the

thirty interviewees' experiences and expertise. Thus, the data obtained from the interview

were reliable and valid.

The semi-structured interview questions were prepared by referring to the systematic and

comprehensive literature review before the interviews were conducted. This study has

undertaken the UiTM human research ethic exercise, with approval granted in November

2022. A set of questions with three parts which were knowledge about biophilic design,

biophilic design elements, as well as challenges and improvements for this study and seven

questions were established. The experts were asked with open-ended questions in Part A and

Part C. However, in Part B, the experts were asked with close-ended questions with agree and

disagree answers’ option. Part B requires them to choose one answer and give an explanation

of the choice made.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 238

Firstly, in Part A, the focus is drawn to the hospital concept and understanding related to

biophilic design. For Part B, questions were designed to obtain feedback from the

interviewees related to biophilic design elements guided by Kellert & Calabrese (2015) and

Browning et al. (2014). Since there is no Malaysian government policy related to biophilic

design, the international biophilic design elements were used as references to build the

interview questions. The biophilic elements from Kellert & Calabrese (2015) and Browning

et al. (2014) are valid and reliable because there are many hospitals abroad such as Khoo Teck

Puat Hospital and Ostra Hospital that have successfully integrated the concept of biophilic

design in reference to their studies. Part C questions were focused on the challenges of

incorporating nature into the hospital, suggestions for improvement and their perceptions

towards the effectiveness of biophilic design.

The range of interviewees recommended for this data collection method is between five

to twenty-five (Townsend, 2013). Considering this recommendation and the limited number

of GBI hospitals, therefore five experts were selected for semi-structured interviews based on

the above recommendation. The experts were architects involved in designing the GBI green

hospitals in Malaysia since Malaysia had no expertise in biophilic hospitals. According to

Hamid et al. (2014), GBI is one of the Malaysian rating systems that the professional

associations established, and only GBI has reached maturity at this time as it continues to

manufacture various tools compared to other green rating tools in Malaysia. They are the

experts who have mastered the green elements design in hospitals specifically GBI design,

since they have led the construction of the green-rated hospital in Malaysia. This panel of

experts is identified based on the architectural firms involved in constructing each green

hospital.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study was using the content analysis method to analyse the data obtained. This

method was chosen because it was a well-known and most often used method to analyse

interview transcripts (Zhang & Wildermuth, 2009). It is a method to identify the data

collection patterns gained from interviews, books, films, social media and much more. The

advantages of using content analysis is it has high validity since the data were related to the

interviewee's experience. This has made data patterns easy to see and summarise. No

computer programmes were used to analyse the data because the number of interviewees was

only five.

This data analysis method was using a summative distinct approach. It involves

identifying the significant keywords by counting occurrences across the sources and reading

them over to provide a conclusion. In the summative distinct approach, the analysis is used to

investigate and explore a topic without inferring meaning (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). This

method was used to report on the most highlighted, significant keywords and elements for

each question. Counting the frequency of keywords that appear in the transcripts’ data allows

validate findings and makes judgements regarding how important the data and findings are

made (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Hence, using content analysis with a summative approach

is beneficial to explore the relevant aspects and provide simple insight into the usage of certain

words for better understanding.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 239

The semi-structured interview data were analysed by content analysis with a summative

approach where the significant keywords were identified. The higher the frequency of the

keywords means the more important it was in the topic. The significant keywords of Part A:

Knowledge About Biophilic Design was shown in Table 4. This section highlighted the main

concept of hospital building utilised by designers, the sources for designers to improve

knowledge regarding biophilic design and understanding of biophilic design.

Table 4. Significant Keywords of Part A

No.

Questions

Significant Keywords

1

The main concept of hospital

building

• Apply green concept that comply with all government policies

• Hospital must have a user-friendly design

• Focused on the function of the hospital

2

Biophilic design knowledge

• 4 out of 5 experts have heard about biophilic design

• Sources of biophilic design knowledge are from reading and experts

3

Understanding of biophilic

design

• It is a concept of incorporating natural element into building design

• A concept used to increase connectivity with nature

From the analysis, it was discovered that Malaysia is nearing the biophilic design concept

without notice. The expert’s idea of integrating nature, focusing on the function of the hospital

and ensuring a user-friendly hospital design into their GBI hospitals was slightly found in the

biophilic design concept. However, biophilic design elements were insufficient and still

needed to enhance the healing environment in hospitals because GBI hospital design is

energy-centred and not a human-centred hospital that focuses on healing.

Biophilic design is not a new concept and has been widely used by architects and

designers abroad. From the semi-structured interviews, the experts’ specific understanding of

biophilic design was still shallow although they have expertise in green design for hospital

buildings. Most experts rate their knowledge related to biophilic design range from twenty-

five percent to fifty percent indicating the understanding on biophilic design concept is

lacking. Awareness of the use of biophilic design should be emphasized and spread among

experts and designers to build more biophilic hospitals in Malaysia. Sources of knowledge

that are only from reading and experts can also be diversified.

Figure 1. Count and Percentage of Agree and Disagree

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For Part B: Biophilic Design Elements, Figure 1 above shows the count and percentage

of interviewees’ responses for each of the biophilic design elements' application to hospital

building design. Since there are five interviewees in total for this data collection then one

count refers to 20%; 20%(1), 40%(2), 60%(3), 80%(4), 100%(5). Biophilic element that gets

100% means five out of five interviewees have the same answer. Both count and percentage

were used in this study to evaluate the interviewees' answers easily.

The 100% agreeable elements by the experts are natural lighting, water features, plants

or landscape design, the image of nature, natural colours, consideration of prospects and

refuge and lastly orderly and organised hospital design. These biophilic design elements are

essential elements that must be present in the development of green hospitals to enhance the

healing environment. There was no figure presented during the interview session. However,

Figure 2 below shows the example of hospital design incorporating biophilic design elements

mentioned by the experts during the interview session. The successful hospitals such as Ostra

Hospital and Khoo Teck Puat Hospital had been mentioned by the experts as examples of the

maximal use of natural light and plants in hospital design. Meanwhile, the element that was

disagreed with by all interviewees is fire features. This is because the element is not suitable

for Malaysian weather, climate and temperature. Malaysia is a hot, humid country.

Ostra Hospital Khoo Teck Puat Hospital

(Source: Etezadifar, 2020)

Figure 2. Biophilic Hospitals

Besides that, the biophilic design elements with the highest percentage of agreement are

incorporating pets’ areas (60%), natural materials (80%), shapes and forms that are suitable

for healing environments (60%) as well as cultural and ecological aspects (80%). The

percentage of experts who agree that this element should be used in the design is higher than

those who disagree because of its advantages and benefits to hospital occupants. The experts

acknowledge that the biophilic design elements have a positive impact on physical and mental

health such as releasing stress and speeding up healing.

Natural ventilation and a sense of mystery are mostly not agreed to be applied to

Malaysian private hospital design. Four out of five experts prefer full air-conditioned hospital

design due to comfort for patients and health reasons - such as preventing polluted air from

entering, avoiding uncomfortable sweating, and allergy. As for the sense of mystery, the

experts disagree with this biophilic design element. Curved hallways, dimly-lighted area and

partially-obscured artwork as shown in Figure 3 had been mentioned by the experts as designs

to be avoided in hospitals. Figure 3 was not presented during the presentation but it was taken

from the 14 Patters of Biophilic Design book to illustrate the example of design with mystery

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 241

biophilic elements mentioned by the experts. A hospital design needs to be straightforward,

easily visible and clear.

(Source: Ryan, 2016)

Figure 3. Design in Mystery Elements of Biophilic Design

The significant keywords of Part C: Challenges and Improvements are shown in Table 5

below. The challenge of incorporating nature in hospital design can help designers in thinking

of solutions to design a successful biophilic hospital. Designers cannot overlook the needs of

The Ministry of Health (MOH), firefighting requirements and more. To help with technical

aspects and authority requirements, other bodies such as Cawangan Kawalan Amalan

Perubatan Swasta (CKAPS) will help and check the hospital design plan. Cost and

maintenance can be overcome in ways such as the selection of materials for the building, the

type of plants chosen for the landscape, the way the pipes are installed and even the way the

wires are installed for electricity.

Table 5. Significant Keywords of Part C

No

Questions

Significant Keywords

1

Challenges in incorporating

biophilic design

• Fulfilled local authorities’ requirements

• Comply and do not disregard on technical aspect of hospital building

• Consideration on cost in designing

• Ensure the hospital design has an easy and regular maintenance

2

Improvements that can be

made

• Designers should study on the element suitability for hospital building

3

Effectiveness of biophilic

design

• A hospital cannot 100% depends on natural element to create

healing environment but should also has mechanical system

Designers also need to study the suitability of the biophilic elements before applying them

to the hospital design even though the requirements and checklists have been provided. For

example, the concept of open space to utilise natural ventilation is suitable for rural areas but

not for urban areas with unhealthy and polluted air. According to experts, nature through

biophilic design cannot be one hundred percent helpful in healing and hospital design needs

to be balanced with mechanical systems. Medical machineries such as ventilators, ultrasound

and blood analysers are still needed in the treatment of diseases even when patients are

exposed to nature. Nature can mostly help mental health by reducing stress and creating

positive emotions.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 242

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The study findings have discovered that there is a total of twelve biophilic design elements

which are the most justifiable for Malaysian private hospitals. Natural light, water features,

plants or landscape, pets’ area, image of nature, natural materials, natural or soft colours,

shape and form, prospects, refuge, complex and orderly design as well as culture and ecology

can be found as the suitable biophilic design elements to be applied in hospital design and

validated by the experts. From the semi-structured interview and data analysis, it can be

summarised that not all biophilic design elements listed by Kellert & Calabrese (2015) and

Browning et al. (2014) are suitable for Malaysian private hospital contexts. Table 6 below

illustrate the biophilic design checklist for Malaysian private hospitals that can significantly

guide the designers to develop and build a Malaysian biophilic hospital.

Table 6. Biophilic Design Checklist for Malaysian Private Hospitals

Checklist

 Allowing the natural light to enter the building

 Allowing the presence of water features outdoors

 Planting plants or landscape design outdoors

 Incorporating pets’ area for certain type of pets

 Giving an image of nature through photos, murals, etc.

 Use natural materials not for structure but for aesthetic purpose

 Use natural, soft or pastel colours and avoid contrasting and vibrating colours

 Shape and form suitable for healing environment

o Building design with basic geometrics and shapes for easy equipment arrangement and wayfinding

o Fulfilled authorities’’ requirements

 Consideration of prospects where the design has a long-term benefit

 Consideration of refuge where the design of the building provides a sense of safety and security

 The building has a complex and orderly design that does not make people confused and chaotic

 Conservation and preservation of the site’s culture and ecology such as local flora and fauna, history and

meteorological conditions to preserve both the natural and built environment

As a consequence, further study on biophilic design for Malaysian hospitals is needed to

develop biophilic design hospitals in Malaysia since the advantages have been highlighted.

This adds a new idea to the field of hospital design that enables the healing environment in

hospitals to be enhanced. In conclusion, this paper evidence that the reliability and practicality

in applying biophilic design are no more in doubt and lead towards achieving the Malaysian

Sustainable Development Goal Agenda 2030, the Twelfth Malaysia Plans and Shared

Prosperity Vision 2030 to provide a better quality of life.

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PRIORITISATION OF INDICATORS FOR ASSESSING

THE OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF PUBLIC

PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP (PPP) PROJECTS USING

AHP MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION-MAKING METHODS

Nor Suzila Lop1*, Kharizam Ismail1, Haryati Mohd Isa1, Natasha Khalil1 and Ellyyanti Tahir2

1Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus, Seri Iskandar, 32610 Perak, Malaysia

2School of Quantity Surveying, Jalan. R. Mangun Mula Raya No. 2, Jakarta Timur, Indonesia

*Corresponding Email: norsu993@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Public Private Partnership (PPP) procurement has been used worldwide as a mechanism for

the public sector to procure public facilities and services. Therefore, the quality performance of

public facilities and services provided by concessionaire will be evaluated based on Key

Performance Indicators (KPIs) as stipulated in the contract. This KPIs is used for determining

the level of performance against the agreed level of standards as expected by the government.

However, most of the PPP projects are currently facing difficulties in meeting the government’s

standards. It is due to several issues for instance lack of methods for measuring the KPIs, the

lack of KPIs implementation, project performance not reflecting the actual performance on-site,

and inconsistent of works performance. These shortcomings have led to the difficulty in

determining the performance level of the PPP projects. Thus, objective of this paper is to

determine the relative importance weight for KPIs in measuring the operational performance of

PPP projects. This research adopted the quantitative approach using questionnaires that

consisted of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Out of the 23 experts, 19 experts

expressed their willingness to participate in the survey. Thus, the response rate for the survey

was deemed acceptable, (i.e. 82.6%). The data are then analysed by using The Expert Choice

11 software for multi-criteria decision making. The results of AHP have successfully assigned

weights and prioritized KPIs, with seven dimensions and 36 sub-dimensions of KPIs by listing

the most critical KPIs according to weights. Hence, the establishment of the weighted KPIs was

successfully employed as an aid of improving current method of assessing operational

performance of PPP projects.

Keywords: Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP); Key Performance Indicators; Operational Performance;

Public Private Partnership (PPP)

INTRODUCTION

The PPP procurement approach has been adopted extensively in construction projects

globally to achieve value for money (VFM). As mentioned by Almarri & Boussabaine (2017),

the main driver behind the paradigm of PPP procurement is achieving VFM by providing all

the necessary service provisions at an optimal cost and to the output specified standards.

Furthermore, VFM in the PPP context is often used to express satisfaction on the cost of good

quality service by achieving good performance (Ismail, 2009). Although the importance of

achieving good performance is often emphasised in implementing this procurement approach,

there are still numerous PPP projects that demonstrate poor performance levels especially in

social infrastructure projects (Liu et al., 2016, Lop et al., 2020). Besides this, Hashim et al.

(2017) reported that most PPP projects face difficulties in meeting client expectations known

as government. Hence, these issues have raised questions concerning the rationale of adopting

the PPP approach in Malaysia, where VFM is a part of the goal to achieve success (UKAS,

2009).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 246

Currently, the implementation of PPP’s, especially for PPP schemes in Malaysia, has

entered into more than fifth year of the operational and maintenance (O&M) phase and many

researchers had argued on the issues and challenges that will be faced by the stakeholders in

this phase (Lop et al., 2020; Hashim et al., 2017; Khaderi & Aziz, 2010). Among these include

insufficient PPP implementation guidelines, difficulties in managing key performance

indicators (KPIs), maintenance approach, service delivery failure, asset risk, and life cycle

issues, and challenges in PFI management (Hashim et al., 2017). He further added that these

issues would indirectly contribute to project implementation failure. This is also supported by

Hashim et al. (2018) in a study stating that defects occurring in PPP projects had significantly

affected project performance and disrupted project operations during the O&M phase. Lop et

al. (2020) revealed that four major issues were discovered in the implementation of PPP

project, namely lack of skills and knowledge on PPP, lack of procedures and its

implementation, challenges in PPP management, and conflicts on documentation. All the

issues highlighted will significantly affect the operational performance of PPP projects and

simultaneously lead to project failure.

In Malaysia, one of the problems faced by PPP stakeholders is managing KPIs effectively

(Lop et al., 2020; Hashim et al., 2017). In the PPP approach, KPIs is used to ensure that project

performance is achieved at a certain level in line with agreed quality standards. Thus, KPIs

are a useful mechanism in assessing the performance of a PPP project operation. The agreed

level of performance helps determine the payments or deductions from the public sector to

the private sector. Therefore, if the quality of service does not meet the minimum standards

and requirements as stipulated in the output speciﬁcation, a payment deduction or other

penalties can be triggered in the form of a performance failure payment deduction (Yescombe,

2007). Javed et al. (2013) revealed that there were numerous complex KPIs specified in the

PPP contract, resulting in the difficulties in monitoring, measuring, and implementation by

end users. This finding is further supported by an interview conducted by Javed et al. (2013)

on the challenges faced by Australian PPP projects. Therefore, actions need to be taken to

ensure that all the problems can be overcome without affecting the operational performance.

Therefore, assigning the weight and prioritisation of Key Performance Indicators (KPI) is

important in ensuring the operational performance of PPP project can be measured more

accurately.

CONCEPTS OF KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

NAO (2003d) has acknowledged that most of the PPP contracts in the UK utilise KPIs as

a benchmarking tool to evaluate FM contractors’ regarding service delivery. This is similar

to Holman (2009) suggesting that KPIs include benchmarks, targets, milestones, dates,

numbers, percentages, variances, distribution, rates, time, cost, indexes, ratios, survey data

and reports that are used to evaluate phenomenon. These evaluations typically compare actual

to estimated performance regarding effectiveness, efficiency and quality. Hence, to measure

the performance of PPP projects, appropriate KPIs need to focus on and measure the impact.

In other words, KPIs are more specific milestones or components of performance

measures that serve as precursors to indicate progress towards the eventual achievement of

the desired performance measures (Garvin et al., 2011). In this sense, KPIs should be specific

rather than general, measurable against objectives and capable of being achieved. KPIs must

also be relevant to the services provided, and the scoring mechanism must be capable of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 247

calculating monthly unitary payment (Oyedele, 2013). Accordingly, KPIs are the core

elements and viewed as an effective method able to help PPPs in assessing the project

performance and deliver VFM (Yuan et al., 2012).

The importance of KPIs in PPPs is the ability to assess the work performance against the

standards as agreed by the public and private sectors. However, there remains a firm debate

among researchers with regards to the significance of KPIs. There are several factors

concerning the importance of implementing KPIs in PPP projects. The importance of using

KPIs as a measurement tool is in the ability of the KPIs to benchmark the performance of a

project against other comparable industries or projects where the lessons learned from others

can be used to make targeted improvements (Ismail, 2009). Whereas, according to Reh

(2018b); Ismail and Yusuf (2009a); and Smith (2001), benchmarking can be described as the

process of comparing an organisation’s operations or processes against other organisations

within the same industry or other related organisations. The concept involves measuring the

actual performance of certain aspects related to activities and comparing these against others

referred to as best practice examples in a specific sector (Haponava & Al-Jibouri, 2012).

Consequently, benchmarking has become an important component in many organisations and

industries (i.e. construction) for continuous improvement and quality initiatives. Moreover,

benchmarking encourages industry practitioners to collaborate in sharing best practices and

ideas while avoiding the burden of having too many KPIs (Ismail & Yusuf, 2009a).

Nevertheless, KPIs are also important to highlight organisational and project related

weaknesses through performing a project assessment using KPIs. For instance, an

organisation without an effective strategy, supported by KPI’s to measure project

performance, may experience significant defects or poor service delivery (Lop et al., 2017b).

Inevitably, if these weaknesses or failures are not addressed, poor performance and low

satisfaction level may result. Thus, KPIs are crucial to assist organisations and projects to

continuously improve in order for the organisation and projects to be successful. Moreover,

the implementation of KPIs will undoubtedly benefit multiple stakeholders.

Importantly, as a useful tool to help improve performance, KPIs can help to monitor and

evaluate performance, particularly in PPP projects. According to Liu et al. (2014b),

monitoring and evaluating the performance of PPP projects are the core activities of contract

and project management, which are considered important in most countries as part of their

PPP policy regime. Therefore, KPIs are not only used in scoring the performance level but

are also for monitoring the activities and outcomes in PPP projects (Yuan et al., 2009). This

is also supported by Mladenovic et al. (2013); Cox et al. (2003) and Kagioglou et al. (2001)

stating that KPIs are recognised as one of the popular tools used to measure the performance

of PPP projects. Likewise, PPP project performance needs to be measured continuously to

ensure that the concessionaire complies and meets established standards. Principally,

performance will be measured when the project enters the O&M phase of the PPP project.

According to the study by Akbiyikli (2013), during the O&M phase, service delivery is

frequently measured to determine its compliance with the output specification(s) and payment

deductions for performance failure according to the payment mechanism.

Even though several studies investigating KPIs have been conducted with the aim to

improve performance, the use of KPIs is continuously debated (Ismail, 2012; Khaderi & Aziz,

2010). For instance, numerous challenges have been highlighted from a global perspective

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 248

during the implementation of PPPs as reported by Lawther and Martin (2014); Javed et al.

(2013); Toor and Ogunlana (2010). Most of the researchers’ stated that KPIs lack clarity,

difficult to understand, too complicated and some are too general and may lead to project

failure and poor projects performance. Hence, this illustrates that there is a need to establish

effective KPIs for measuring and monitoring the performance of PPP projects in order to

achieve the project’s goals and demonstrate VFM. According to Locke and Latham (2006),

goals are related to the impact and in that goal has set the key standard to achieve satisfaction

with performance. He also added that the level of satisfaction can be created by measuring

the discrepancies between goals and performance levels.

KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS FOR SPECIFIC PPP O&M PHASE

One of the major tasks in designing a Performance Measurement System (PMS) is the

selection of KPIs as they are at the heart of a PMS, enabling performance-based management

decisions to be effectively made concerning strategies and activities (Neely et al., 2005).

Moreover, selected KPIs represent the most fundamental and important dimensions for

tracking future progress and to assess the current baseline performance of the process

(Carlucci, 2010). She also stated that the KPIs reflect “how good” a system is, as an

objectively measurable term.

Table 1 presents the summary of KPIs for specific O&M phase by previous researchers.

From the review of literature, there are 13 indicators identified under five (5) elements of

KPIs that have been implement for measuring the performance of PPP projects during O&M

phase. During the O&M phase, health, safety and environment, facility management, and

good governance are very important since this phase involves end users and the condition of

the buildings (Liu et al., 2015; Ogunsanmi 2013; Yuan et al., 2008). These indicators are

grouped under one single KPI namely; process. The process indicators help to monitor

whether the process is delivering value as intended, which will assist the end users in tracking

the capabilities of the process (i.e., strength and weakness) in providing value to the

stakeholders (Yuan et al., 2008).

Table 1. Summary of KPIs for Specific O&M Phase

Item

Key Performance Indicators

Authors

Dimensions

Sub-dimensions

1

Process

1. Health, Safety and Environment

2. Facility Management

3. Good Governance

Liu et al. (2015);

Ogunsanmi (2013);

Yuan et al. (2008)

2

Innovations &

Learning

1. Training & Learning System

2. Technology Transfer

3. Investment in Research & Development

Liu et al. (2015);

Ogunsanmi (2013);

Yuan et al. (2008)

3

Strategies

1. Value for Money (VFM)

Liu et al. (2015)

4

Stakeholder’s

Satisfaction

1. Public Clients Satisfaction

2. Concessionaire Satisfaction

3. End user’s Satisfaction

4. Project Team Satisfaction

Liu et al. (2015);

Ogunsanmi (2013);

Yuan et al. (2008)

5

Stakeholder’s

Contribution

1. Concessionaire Performance

2. User Willingness to the infrastructure use

Liu et al. (2015)

The second KPI is regarding innovation & learning which are both important factors to

influence the performance of PPP projects (Akbiyikli et al., 2012). The PPP project is in

effect, a long-term process with significant risks, competition, and uncertainty, and requires

the private and public sectors to acquire advanced knowledge and experience along with

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 249

relevant information. Whereas innovation is the method of applying new knowledge and

techniques in strategic planning, process design, creative financial applications, resource

allocation and management to improve performance (Yuan et al., 2008). Knowledge or

technology transfer could also be an effective mechanism for mitigating risks associated with

PPP projects which is a key issue in the increasing complexity of the PPP operating

environment (Mustapa & Carrillo, 2008; Carrillo et al., 2006). Moreover, sufficient

investment on research, an excellent learning organisation and a suitable training mechanism

can help to increase the ability to improve performance through gaining new knowledge (Liu

et al., 2015; Ogunsanmi, 2013; Yuan et al., 2008).

According to Liu et al. (2015), VFM related to PPP projects needs to be assessed by

examining organisational strategies in managing projects. These indicators focus on what long

term and short-term strategies are required to ensure the needs and wants of targeted PPP

stakeholders are achieved. Stakeholder apposition has been reported as the main reason why

PPP projects fail (Yuan et al., 2008). Therefore, capturing and addressing the input of

stakeholders is important for the success of PPP projects which include public client’s

satisfaction, concessionaire’s satisfaction, end user’s satisfaction and the project team’s

satisfaction (Liu et al., 2015; Ogunsanmi 2013; Yuan et al., 2008). These indicators are

selected given they also help to measure the performance of PPP projects and are grouped

under one single KPIs namely; stakeholder’s satisfaction.

The final KPIs for the O&M phase are in relation to the stakeholder’s contribution. The

indicators are grouped under the following KPIs: concessionaire performance and user’s

willingness to use the infrastructure (Liu et al., 2015). These indicators are also related to the

roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in PPP projects. However, these five (5) KPIs just

mentioned from the previous studies are insufficient in representing the KPIs for measuring

the performance for the entire O&M phase of the project. During the O&M phase, maintaining

the government asset is very crucial as it involved soft facilities management (FM) services

(e.g. cleaning, catering, security, etc) and hard FM services (e.g., building maintenance,

groundwork, landscaping, etc). Therefore, there is a need to explore and determine more

appropriate KPIs that suit for the O&M phase of the PPP projects.

All these identified KPIs by previous researchers has been organised and characterised

through the empirical study for public infrastructure projects (Liu et al., 2015; Ogunsanmi,

2013; Yuan et al., 2008). Even though, all these KPI models discussed among the previous

researchers have been built specifically to assess the overall performance of PPP projects

however these KPIs has been segregated according to the appropriate phases in project

implementation.

INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF DIMENSIONS AND SUB-DIMENSIONS OF KPIs FOR

O&M PHASE

The implementation of PFI projects in all campuses (the six case studies) was based on

the KPIs developed and agreed by all three parties; i.e. UiTM, MOHE and the concessionaire.

Contractually, there are six (6) dimensions and 37 sub-dimensions of the KPIs specified in

the Building Maintenance Manual (BMM) under the Concessionaire Agreement (CA). All

KPIs need to comply and be achieved by the concessionaire throughout the implementation

of the project. However, most of the participants mentioned that they needed to comply with

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 250

all agreed KPIs in performing the maintenance works and in delivering good quality services

and facilities to the public sector. Even though the KPIs were contractually agreed between

the parties, the interview participants argued about the effectiveness and appropriateness of

the current KPIs during the O&M phase. This argument was founded on the participant's

experiences throughout the implementation of the operational PFI projects. Most of the issues

and arguments mentioned were concerning the appropriateness of the KPIs in the O&M

phase, overlapping and redundant KPIs, and the lack of KPIs in measuring project

performance during PFI implementation.

Table 2. Initial Construct of 7 Dimensions and 36 Sub-Dimensions of KPIs

No.

Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)

Dimensions

Sub-Dimensions

1.

Operational

Element

1.1

Action time

1.2

Pending Work Instruction

1.3

Maintenance Index

1.4

Facilities Condition Index

1.5

Condition Auditing

1.6

Health, Safety and Environment

1.7

Innovation & Learning

1.8

End User’s Satisfaction

2.

Mechanical

2.1

Availability Major Service

2.2

HVAC Element

2.3

Sewerage Treatment Plant

2.4

Water Reticulation

2.5

Lift Element

2.6

Fire Fighting

2.7

Building Management System

2.8

Energy Management

2.9

Planned Preventive Maintenance for Mechanical

2.10

Compliance to statutory requirements

2.11

Customer rating feedback for mechanical

3.

Electrical

3.1

Power Factor

3.2

3 Phase Load & Balancing

3.3

Lighting

3.4

Utilities

3.5

Customer rating feedback for electrical

4.

Telecommunication

4.1

Response time for PABX breakdown

4.2

Action time for PABX breakdown

4.3

Customer rating feedback for telecommunication

5.

Civil, Structural &

Architectural

5.1

Low risk safety hazards for civil, structural & architectural

5.2

Request for unscheduled maintenance for civil, structural & architectural

5.3

Planned Preventive Maintenance for civil, structural & architectural

6.

Landscape &

Ground

6.1

Low risk safety hazards for landscape & ground

6.2

Request for unscheduled maintenance for landscape & ground

6.3

Planned Preventive Maintenance for landscape & ground

7.

Pest Control &

Wildlife Control

7.1

Low risk safety hazards for Pest Control & Wildlife Control

7.2

Request for unscheduled maintenance for Pest Control & Wildlife Control

7.3

Planned Preventive Maintenance for Pest Control & Wildlife Control

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 251

The initial construct of dimensions and sub-dimensions of KPIs for O&M phase was

confirm through qualitative approach via a semi-structured interview technique. 32

participants among PPP stakeholders (i.e., public sectors and private sectors) within 6 case

studies were involved in the interview. The purpose of conducting interviews was to

investigate KPI implementation by determining the appropriate KPIs for use as a measuring

tool in PPP projects. Therefore, their input had been needed in order to determine the

appropriates KPIs for assessing operational performance of PPP projects. The issues of six

(6) dimensions and 37 sub-dimensions of the KPIs as stipulated in the contract in six (6) case

studies was discussed during the interview. Although the current KPIs are considered

complete, there remain some areas that need to be further refined to ensure that the KPIs are

comprehensive and act as a useful tool in measuring the operational performance of PPP

projects. Thus, the findings of the interview contribute towards identifying appropriate KPIs

for the O&M phase of PPP projects as illustrated in Table 2. There are 36 sub-dimensions

classified under seven (7) dimensions of improved KPIs resulted from the interviews. This

will be developed further according to the priority based on the relative importance and

assigned weights for each listed dimensions and sub-dimension (i.e., the main survey) using

the AHP method as a decision-making approach.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Before conducting quantitative research, qualitative research approach has been

conducted in order to gathered data on the appropriate KPIs through the case studies via semi-

structured interviews. The selection of cases studies was based on the list of projects

established by the Public Private Partnership Unit (UKAS) of the Prime Minister’s

Department of Malaysia. Six (6) UiTM PFI campuses under phase 1 were chosen as the

research case studies.

In order to prioritise the KPIs, this research adopted the quantitative approach using

questionnaires that consisted of the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The final list of the

KPIs (i.e., 7 Dimensions and 36 sub-dimension) was incorporated into the questionnaire as

survey questions. The purpose of the survey was to determine the relative importance weight

for each KPIs in measuring the performance. For this research, the AHP method developed

by Prof. Dr Thomas L. Saaty in 1977 was adopted to gain the expert's judgement for the

decision-making approach in prioritisation and assigning a weight for the KPIs. The rationale

behind adopting the AHP method in this research was that it could assist in the decision-

making process especially in measuring PPP project performance that requires decision

makers to determine the operational performance level of a project. The use of AHP was also

deemed appropriate because it can determine the priority of KPIs according to the assigned

weight. Besides, the AHP method can assist decision makers in comparing the relative

importance of KPIs systematically and quantitatively.

Application of Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)

The AHP is a theory of measurement through pairwise comparisons and relies on the

judgement of experts to derive priority scales (Esmatullah et al., 2016; Doloi et al., 2010;

Saaty, 2008, 1990). This approach required experts to compare and rate the relative

importance of each KPI by considering its impact on the project’s operations. This AHP

technique also dealt with a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) process where it involved

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 252

the expert's judgment through rating the importance of the KPIs. Regarding this process, with

this, Khalil et al. (2016); and Sabaei et al. (2015); recommended using the Analytic Hierarchy

Process (AHP) developed by Prof. Thomas L. Saaty in 1977. It is supported by Sabei et al.

(2015) that AHP is the most suitable method amongst other types of MCDM methods as AHP

can provide decision makers with a robust solution. Furthermore, Saaty (1980) stated that the

AHP allowed experts to rate the KPI weightings with greater consistency through pairwise

comparisons. The rating process is vital in assigning weighting and prioritise the KPIs.

Therefore, it requires knowledge from experts who understand and experience in managing

PPP projects during the O&M phase. In addition, it also should involve in assessing the

operational project’s performance. The involvement of experts is important to ensure that the

rating process is valid and reliable. To complete and answer the research question more

precisely, hence, the AHP method was adopted in this research.

Administration of the Questionnaire (AHP Method)

In the context of the research, the researcher decided to employ a questionnaire using the

AHP method as the main instrument for the main data collection process based on the findings

from the semi-structured interviews. A set of questionnaires were provided earlier to the

respondents via email and followed by a telephone conversation with the respondent. This

was to confirm receipt of the questionnaire, their consent and setting an appointment date to

perform the research. This method is unlike the usual questionnaire distribution method,

where respondents can answer the questionnaire without any explanation given by the

researcher. Similarly, the confirmation of the invitation and the date of the appointment were

vital to assist the respondents in deciding on this AHP approach. In total, 19 respondents

agreed to participate in the survey.

According to Saaty and Ozdemir (2014), there are no pre-set rules for determining the

size of experts sampling for the AHP method as it relies on the purpose of the survey, the

nature of the problem, the availability of experts and the diversity of the targeted population

(Khalil et al., 2016). Purposive sampling was adopted which 23 experts was shortlisted.

However, only 19 experts were agreed to participate and selected based on the following pre-

determined criteria:

a) Designated in the position of manager/top level in the division and also a professional

practitioner.

b) Possessing knowledge in PPPs particularly concerning the implementation of KPIs.

c) More than 3 years’ experience dealing with PPP projects concerning operational

performance assessments.

d) Ten years minimum experience in a managerial capacity dealing with issues related

to project management; currently or previously.

In applying the AHP method, consistency in judgment is a significant concern. In this

research, the data collected from the questionnaires were processed to structure the

corresponding pairwise comparison judgment matrices (PCJM), in order to establish the

normalised weights. Each of these matrices was then converted into the largest eigenvalue

problem and was solved to determine the normalised and unique priority weights for each

criterion. The computer package, The Expert Choice 11, was then used to analyse the data

and present the results for the AHP survey. The output quality of the AHP was strictly related

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 253

to the consistency of the pairwise comparison judgement given by the panel of experts. Saaty

(2008), suggested a simple procedure for checking consistency, called the consistency ratio

(CR). If the CR value is larger than 0.10, it implies that there is a 10% chance that the elements

have not been properly compared (Saaty, 2008). In this case, the decision maker (panel

experts) must review the comparisons made. If the CR equals 0, the judgments are perfectly

consistent. Therefore, to control the results, the CR must be less than 0.10 (CR < 0.1) in order

to prove the comparisons are acceptable and all of the judgements are consistent.

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

Employing the AHP method, the data were analysed using computer software (Expert

Choice 11) where the weightings indicated by the respondents for the dimensions and sub-

dimensions were extracted from the pairwise comparison of the relative importance. The

numerical pairwise comparisons of all dimensions were obtained by combining the

judgements of the 19 experts.

In this rating process, there were seven (7) dimensions for the pairwise comparison;

operational element; mechanical; electrical; telecommunication; civil, structural and

architectural; landscape and ground and pest control and wildlife control. Subsequently, the

pairwise importance of each sub-dimension was made within the same areas. For instance,

there were eight (8) sub-dimensions for the operational element, 11 sub-dimensions for

mechanical, five (5) sub-dimensions for electrical, three (3) sub-dimensions for

telecommunication, three (3) sub-dimensions for civil, structural and architectural, three (3)

sub-dimensions for landscape and ground and three (3) sub-dimensions for pest control and

wildlife control. All pairwise importance from each sub-dimension was undertaken within the

specified dimensions.

Step 1: Structuring the Problem

The first step of performing the AHP analysis was to design the decision hierarchy. This

is also called decision modelling, which consists of building a hierarchy to analyse the

decision. At this stage, the relevant dimensions and sub-dimensions of operational

performance were based on seven (7) dimensions, and 36 sub-dimensions considered in the

development of the AHP hierarchy. This step was crucial to ensure all appropriate dimensions

and sub-dimensions were considered for the judgement.

Step 2: Pairwise Comparison Judgement Matrix (PCJM)

The next step was to perform a pairwise comparison of the dimensions and sub-

dimensions followed by calculating the relative weights. This step required the panel experts

to judge the relative importance of each KPI (dimensions and sub-dimensions) by assessing

their impact on the project operations and contribution towards the achievement of the overall

goal. The data collected from the questionnaires were processed in order to structure the

corresponding pairwise comparison judgment matrices (PCJM) to establish the normalised

weights. Once the judgements were finalised regarding the comparisons, each of the matrices

was then converted into the largest eigenvalue problem, solved to determine the normalised

and unique priority weights for each KPI. Figure 1 and 2 display the results of the PCJM of

the operational performance for the main dimensions and sub-dimensions according to the

assigned weightage.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 254

Figure 1. Pairwise Comparison Judgement Matrices (PCJM) – Main Dimensions

(i) Operational Element

(ii) Mechanical

Figure 2. Pairwise Comparison Judgement Matrices (PCJM) - Sub-Dimensions (i) and (ii)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 255

(iii) Electrical

(iv) Telecommunication

(v) Civil and Structural

(vi) Landscape and Ground

(vii) Pest Control and Wildlife Control

Figure 2. Continued - (iii), (iv), (v), (vi) and (vii)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 256

Based on the results presented in Figure 1 and 2, the 36 sub-dimensions were keyed-in in

the AHP software (The Expert Choice 11) according to their category (based on the 7

dimensions). In AHP, weights were determined to perform a pairwise comparison between

each pair of dimensions and sub-dimensions. Further, each comparison was converted to

numerical values.

As shown in Figure 1 and 2, the weightage was assigned based on the priority values. The

results show that the assigned weight for the operational element is 0.193, mechanical is

0.274, electrical is 0.236, 0.076 for telecommunication, 0.135 for civil, structural and

architectural, landscape and ground is 0.044 and pest control and wildlife control is 0.042.

The results were then prioritised according to their assigned weight.

Similarly, as presented in Figure 1 and 2, the priority values for each sub-dimension are

determined within separate main dimensions. The results show that the most important sub-

dimensions within the operational element are action time (0.286) which shows the highest

weight amongst others followed by pending work instruction (0.247), and health, safety and

environment (0.107). As can be seen in the figure, the weighted assigned for other sub-

dimensions such as for facilities condition index is at 0.085, condition auditing is at 0.080,

0.083 for end users’ satisfaction and 0.061 for maintenance index. However, innovation and

learning have the lowest weight assigned at 0.050. Even though the results of innovation and

learning is lower compared to other sub-dimensions, it doesn’t mean that this sub-dimension

is not important, but it indicates a lower impact on the project’s operations. Accordingly, the

findings indicate that it is important for FM contractors to manage the complaints of end users

as a failure to manage these complaints will undoubtedly impact project operations and

performance. This is in line with Hashim et al. (2011) stating that it is important to manage

the end user’s complaints reported by the users by completing works according to the action

time as listed in the work order.

As for the mechanical category, the sub-dimensions valued as the most important are

planned preventive maintenance for mechanical (0.158), compliance to statutory

requirements (0.153), availability major service (0.145) and lift element (0.142). Besides, the

weight assigned for other sub-dimensions is at the middle range such as for the water

reticulation element at 0.099, the HVAC element at 0.081, 0.059 for the building management

system, 0.045 for fire-fighting, 0.042 for the sewerage treatment plant and 0.040 for energy

management. Meanwhile, the customer rating feedback for mechanical (0.035) had a low

weightage of relative important assigned amongst all sub-dimensions within the mechanical

dimension. Accordingly, the findings show that it is essential to undertake planned preventive

maintenance (PPM) for the mechanical category as this sub-dimension (PPM) contributes to

having a significant impact on the project’s operations. Poor maintenance of facilities under

the mechanical category, will inevitably lead to defects and malfunction of the asset and

significantly contribute to the low level of achieving acceptable performance.

For the electrical category, the most important value of sub-dimension within this

dimension is power factor (0.385). This sub-dimension affords a significant impact on the

overall operation of PPP projects if an electrical breakdown occurs. The power factor readings

set by Tenaga National Berhad (TNB) must not less than 0.85. The organisation will be

penalised if the power factor reading is less than 0.85 as this will cause damage to TNB's

electrical component. This is followed by the sub-dimensions of 3 phase load & balancing

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 257

(0.331), lighting (0.109), utilities (0.106) and customer rating feedback for electrical (0.068).

The findings suggest that customer rating feedback for electrical contributes to a lower impact

on the project’s operations. This presumes that the overall project operations will not be

significantly affected if this sub-dimension is not entirely achieved.

The next dimension is telecommunication. The findings show that the weight assigned

for action time for PABX breakdown is at 0.516, followed by the response time for PABX

breakdown with a weight at 0.367. These two sub-dimensions show the higher weightage

assigned compared to the customer rating feedback which allocated a weight at 0.117. This

result demonstrates that it is important to respond and take action to the complaints reported

by the end users as they can influence the operation and performance of projects.

The next important sub-dimension is civil, structural and architectural. The findings

show that the most important sub-dimension is on planned preventive maintenance (PPM) for

civil, structural & architectural (0.625). This result demonstrates that PPM is the most

important sub-dimension amongst the others (i.e., within civil, structural and architectural)

throughout the O&M of PPP projects. Moreover, it indicates that if the concessionaire failed

to deliver good quality service and maintenance of the building, it could affect the operation

and performance of PPP projects. The second highest weight is a low risk safety hazard for

civil, structural & architectural with an importance weight at 0.208, followed by request for

unscheduled maintenance for civil, structural & architectural that obtained a weight at 0.168.

Notwithstanding, the most important sub-dimensions for landscape and ground is

planned preventive maintenance (PPM) for landscape and ground (0.645) and the second

important sub-dimensions rated by the experts is, a low risk safety hazard for landscape and

ground with the assigned weight of 0.185. Finally, unscheduled maintenance for landscape

and ground is 0.170 as rated by the experts. The findings, therefore, indicate that it is

important to execute PPM works to maintain the landscape and ground. This PPM involves

detailed scheduling prepared by the FM contractors to assist in maintaining the landscape

according to the planned and standard required.

Finally, for the sub-dimension of pest control and wildlife control category. The findings

indicate that the highest weightage is assigned between several sub-dimensions, firstly,

planned preventive maintenance (PPM) for pest control & wildlife control (0.587) which is

then followed by request for unscheduled maintenance for pest control & wildlife control

(0.214) and low risk safety hazards for pest control & wildlife control (0.198). The results

demonstrate that it is important to execute the PPM work in order to improve the performance

and safety of the property and users. Likewise, implementation of PPM for pest control and

wildlife control can help to keep the environment free from pests.

Step 3: Prioritisation Procedure

The third step was the prioritisation procedure (ranking) for the dimensions and sub-

dimensions. To obtain the priorities of KPIs, the distribution mode was selected as it

normalises the sub-dimension scores under each dimension in order to sum to one (1.00). This

enables the local weight for each dimension to be obtained. Further, the global weight for

each sub-dimension within the same group was next determined by multiplying the local

weight of the sub-dimensions with the local weight of the dimensions. In this case, the

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 258

determination of the global weight indicates the priority of the overall sub-dimensions

according to the relative importance weight.

Table 3 reports the derivation of weightage for the KPIs and priorities. Based on the table,

the local weight for the dimensions and sub-dimensions is derived from the PCJM, and the

global weight can also be directly derived from the AHP software, (The Expert Choice 11).

Based on Table 3, the priority of KPIs where the results indicate that the top priority for the

importance of dimensions is mechanical (0.274), followed by the second priority of the

relative importance weight being electrical (0.236), operational element (0.193), civil,

structural & architectural (0.135), telecommunication (0.076), landscape and ground (0.044)

and pest control and wildlife control (0.042). According to Isa et al. (2017), the mechanical

elements recorded a high number of defects after the architectural elements. This

circumstance is due to the FM contractor failing to perform maintenance work that ultimately

contributed to damage and failure of a building function. As a result, it will affect and disrupt

the entire project operations.

As for the overall findings regarding the sub-dimensions, it can be seen that power factor

is ranked as the most important sub-dimension with a weight of 0.091, followed by planned

preventive maintenance (PPM) for civil, structural and architectural at 0.084, 3 phased load

and balancing at 0.078, action time at 0.055 and 0.048 for pending work instruction. This

result suggests that these five (5) indicators are the most important sub-dimensions that need

to perform well to achieve good performance of a project given they can generate a much

larger impact on the operations of the project. The results also indicate that low risk safety

hazard for landscape and ground, request for unscheduled for landscape and ground and low

risk safety hazard for pest control and wildlife control had the lowest weight at 0.008. The

findings, therefore, show that although the weights assigned to these sub-dimensions were

lower compared to the others, their contribution towards achieving good performance is

similar. Moreover, what distinguishes these sub-dimensions from the other sub-dimensions is

that the impact is less regarding the PPP project’s operations and overall performance. Hence,

the importance of the weight for all dimensions as rated by the respondents was determined.

The priority of the KPIs also helps to demonstrate the level of importance and their significant

impact on the operational performance of the PPP projects in achieving VFM.

Step 4: Consistency of Pairwise Comparison

Next, the calculation to measure the internal consistency of the pairwise comparison was

conducted. Once the expert’s judgements have been entered; the next step was to check the

internal consistency. Given the numeric value derived from the subjective preferences of

individuals, it is near impossible to avoid inconsistencies in the final matrix of the judgements.

Therefore, it is important for the AHP to calculate a consistency ratio (CR). Here for instance,

if the CR is less than 0.10, the comparisons are acceptable. For this application, the result of

internal consistency for the combined instance for the overall sub-dimensions is 0.02. It also

shows that CR is lower than 0.1 (CR < 0.1). Therefore, all judgements are consistent. This is

aligned with Saaty (1990) where the results of internal consistency ratio (CR) must be less

than 0.1 (10%) given that the main concern of the AHP is to obtain consistency in the

judgements.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 259

Table 3. Derivation of Weightage and the Priority of KPIs

Goal

Key Performance Indicators

Priority

Dimensions

Local

Weight

Sub-Dimensions

Local

Weight

Global

Weight

Operational

Performance

of PPP

Projects

Operational

Element

0.193

Action Time

0.286

0.055

4

Pending Work Instruction

0.247

0.048

5

Maintenance Index

0.061

0.012

26

Facilities Condition Index

0.085

0.016

22

Condition Auditing

0.080

0.015

25

Health, Safety and Environment

0.107

0.021

20

Innovation and Learning

0.050

0.010

30

End User’s Satisfaction

0.083

0.016

21

Mechanical

0.274

Availability Major Service

0.145

0.040

8

HVAC Element

0.081

0.022

19

Sewerage Treatment Plant

0.042

0.012

27

Water Reticulation

0.099

0.027

14

Lift Element

0.142

0.039

9

Fire Fighting

0.045

0.012

28

Building Management System

0.059

0.016

23

Energy Management

0.040

0.011

29

Planned Preventive Maintenance for

Mechanical

0.158

0.043

6

Compliance to Statutory Requirements

0.153

0.042

7

Customer Rating Feedback for

Mechanical

0.035

0.010

31

Electrical

0.236

Power Factor

0.385

0.091

1

3 Phase Load & Balancing

0.331

0.078

3

Lighting

0.109

0.026

15

Utilities

0.106

0.025

16

Customer Rating Feedback for

Electrical

0.068

0.016

24

Telecommuni-

cation

0.076

Response Time for PABX Breakdown

0.367

0.028

12

Action Time for PABX Breakdown

0.516

0.039

10

Customer Rating Feedback for

Telecommunication

0.117

0.009

32

Civil, Structural

& Architectural

0.135

Low Risk Safety Hazards for Civil,

Structural & Architectural

0.208

0.028

11

Request for Unscheduled Maintenance

for Civil, Structural & Architectural

0.168

0.023

18

Planned Preventive Maintenance for

Civil, Structural & Architectural

0.625

0.084

2

Landscape &

Ground

0.044

Low Risk Safety Hazards for Landscape

& Ground

0.185

0.008

34

Request for Unscheduled Maintenance

for Landscape & Ground

0.170

0.008

35

Planned Preventive Maintenance for

Landscape & Ground

0.645

0.028

13

Pest Control &

Wildlife Control

0.042

Low Risk Safety Hazards for Pest

Control & Wildlife Control

0.198

0.008

36

Request for Unscheduled Maintenance

for Pest Control & Wildlife Control

0.214

0.009

33

Planned Preventive Maintenance for

Pest Control & Wildlife Control

0.587

0.025

17

Total

1.000

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DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

In the context of this research, the AHP technique was employed to facilitate the

prioritisation and assigning a weight to the KPI for assessing the operational performance of

PPP projects. This approach resulted in a systematic decision-making approach in order to

assist stakeholders in determining which KPIs would have a greater impact on the operations

of the project. A simple demonstration or development hierarchical of the AHP technique was

also used to demonstrate the principle and to avoid in the complex evaluation. The

applicability of these approaches has been employed for many topics of research within the

PPP approach, such as by Esmatullah et al. (2016); Doloi et al. (2010); and Li and Zou (2008).

However, the specific area of KPIs for assessing operational performance using the AHP

approach by applying this weightage and prioritisation for KPI’s is limited. Therefore,

findings provide a significant contribution to the body of knowledge in this field of study and

also for the construction industry in assessing PPP project performance.

There are different reasons to prioritise and assign a weight to KPIs. For example,

adopting the AHP approach, the most important KPIs that have a greater impact on the

operations of the project can be determined which is crucial in performing maintenance

works, and to assist in monitoring these works. Similarly, the determination of the priority

and importance of KPIs with relative importance weight will help stakeholders in tracking

KPIs that achieve low-level performance. These weighted KPIs can also be used to determine

the elements that need to be improved to achieve better performance. Therefore, appropriate

action can be taken to enhance the level of performance through close monitoring of KPIs via

continuous improvement. However, Shahin and Mahbod (2007) argued that, although the

outcome of the AHP can help to determine which dimensions and sub-dimensions require

improvement, it fails to guide an appropriate action to address any deficiencies. Therefore,

the stakeholders still need to plan appropriate actions and methods for continuous

improvement in order to enhance the level of performance as well as the implementation of

KPIs in PPP projects.

Overall, the results of the AHP survey specified that each sub-dimension had been

assigned with a relative weight. The obtained weight for the KPIs facilitated the development

of the performance measurement tool for PPP projects. As mentioned by Esmatullah et al.

(2016) and Doloi et al. (2010) AHP is one of the most comprehensive systems for multi-

criteria decision making which it has an ability to formulate problems based on a paired

comparison. From the AHP analysis that was carried out, the results ranked the dimensions

according to the weight assigned, such as mechanical (0.274), electrical (0.236), operational

element (0.193), civil, structural and architectural (0.135), telecommunication (0.076),

landscape and ground (0.044) and pest control and wildlife control (0.042). It was indicated

that, the mechanical element was the most critical KPI that would significantly impact the

operations of the project if not maintained. This may be due to most of the major elements

such as HVAC, lift, firefighting, sewerage treatment plant, and water reticulation grouped

under this element having the greatest contribution towards the operations of the project.

The findings of this research also show that there is a significant difference in the relative

importance of the dimensions based on the judgement of experts. Indeed, this result may

suggest that stakeholders involved in managing PPP projects particularly regarding

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 261

performance management should place greater emphasis on the priority of KPIs (weighted

KPIs) to ensure project operations are not disrupted and KPIs can be successfully achieved.

CONCLUSION

This research discussed the application of the AHP as a method of the decision-making

technique to assign a weightage for the dimensions and sub-dimensions derived from the

results employing the qualitative approach. A total of 23 experts, as respondents, were

shortlisted based on purposive sampling, with pre-determined criteria. However, only 19

experts were agreed to participate in this survey. The selection was based on their knowledge

and experience in managing PPP project performance. Further, the results of the main survey

generated valuable data for the development of a performance measurement tool, which is the

main aim of this research. The prioritisation of the dimensions and sub-dimensions was

successfully achieved in accordance with the weight assigned. The priority of the dimensions

based on the weightage assigned highlighted the significant impact on the operations of PPP

projects. Therefore, the obtained weightings achieved the objective of this research; to

determine the relative importance weight for KPIs for the purpose of assessing the operational

performance of PPP projects.

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BIM-BASED PROJECT CONTRACTORS' PERSPECTIVE

OF BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM) USES

IN THE BIM EXECUTION PLAN

Wan Nur Syazwani Wan Mohammad1*, Shahela Mamter1, Raja Nurulhaiza Raja Nhari1,

Nurhasyimah Ahmad Zamri1, Hasni Suryani Mat Hasan1 and Norzaidi Haron2

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, Seri Iskandar Campus, 32610 Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

2Sunway Construction Group Berhad, Level 8, Menara Sunway, Jalan Lagoon Timur, Bandar Sunway,

47500 Selangor Darul Ehsan

*Corresponding Email: wannur956@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

Building Information Modelling (BIM) is an important technology enabler for digital

transformation in the construction industry. It is a highly collaborative process that allows

architects, engineers, contractors, and other construction professionals to plan, design and

construct a building or facility in the form of a 3D model based. Despite the advantages of BIM,

the adoption level of BIM among contractors in developing countries, particularly Malaysia,

remains lower than expected. This is due to the fact that the contractors have no profound

understanding of BIM and its’ requirement. Hence, the aim of this paper is to explore the uses

of BIM focusing on the planning-to-design stage based on the BIM execution plan from the

perspective of the BIM-based project contractors. The data was gathered through semi-

structured interview sessions with the six (6) respondents and evaluated using a content

analysis approach via the software ATLAS-Ti 9. The findings showed that the planning phase

via 4D modelling was remarked as the upmost significant use in the planning-to-the-design

stage. The 4D modelling involves time-related information, installation periods and sequences,

workflow rescheduling, construction visualization, material optimization, project coordination,

and project safety. This study also showed that the PWD DB, PWD203A and PAM2018/2006

contract has been used by the BIM-based project contractors. Thus, the results of the study

provide insight into the BIM-based project contractors’ that have taken into consideration the

uses of BIM for future BIM-based project contractors.

Keywords: Building Information Modelling (BIM); Uses; BIM-based Project Contractor; Planning;

Design stage

INTRODUCTION

Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a digital repository integrated system that

organizes the appropriate building design and project data throughout the building’s life cycle

(HKIBIM, 2020). Similarly, BIM serves to share knowledge through a digital presentation

and forms a reliable basis for decision-making during the entire life-cycle of the project

(National Institute of Building Sciences, 2007). Apart from that, BIM is a methodology that

would improve the construction players’ work performance throughout the project life-cycle

(Brahim, 2018). In Malaysia, Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a new shift of

information technology (IT) in the construction industry. The BIM wave has also spread

tremendously in Malaysia as it is able to generate income through time and cost savings that

can be seen in the Cost Performance Index (CPI); earning value over actual cost and Schedule

Performance Index (SPI); actual progress over planned progress. One of the Malaysian

government’s agenda in the 12th National Key Economic Area (NKEAs) is to enhance

business growth in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry. BIM is

also relevant to the Eleventh Malaysian Economic Plan in achieving Vision 2020 as one of

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 266

the Malaysian National Development Strategy (MyNDS) as it contributes to high impact,

rapid execution and implementation, and sustainability (RMK11). The Construction Industry

Transformation Program (CITP) 2016-2020 developed four (4) strategic thrusts, and BIM has

been emphasized as a productivity-strategic thrust. The purpose of this strategic thrust is that

it is beneficial to the construction industry in terms of careful planning and selection before

construction begins, which therefore reduces the need for rework and redundancies, thus

leading to cost savings (CIDB, 2016). The importance of BIM is continued in Malaysia’s

current agenda, such as the Construction 4.0 Strategic Plan (2021-2025), where BIM acts as

an accelerator in embracing Industry 4.0 (IR4.0) (CIDB, 2020). It is also supported by the

Policy Enablers of the Twelfth Plan (Accelerating Technology Adoption and Innovation),

which highlights the application of digital technology to create new opportunities in preparing

Malaysia to achieve a high technology-based economy (Economic Planning Unit, 2021).

Despite the embracing of BIM by the Malaysian government, sadly the adoption of BIM

among contractors is relatively low compared to the other stakeholders in Malaysia. CIDB

(2019) revealed that the contractors score showed the lowest percentage of BIM adoption

(16%) compared to Architects (19%) and clients and developers (23%). The percentage of

adoption level by contractors is stagnant and remains less than 20% (Idrus & Bahar, 2018);

(Wan Mohammad et al., 2020). According to Wan Mohammad et al. (2020), the low adoption

of BIM among Malaysian Contractors is due to several reasons: 1) having no profound

understanding of what BIM is all about and what its requirements are; 2) producing uncertain

outcomes and; 3) inability to obtain the benefits offered by BIM. As a result, the BIM uses

among BIM-based project contractors are required to reap the advantages and benefits of

BIM. Hence, this paper aims to investigate and explore the significant uses of BIM,

particularly during the planning to design stage based on the BIM Execution Plan, focusing

on the BIM-based project contractors’ perspective. To achieve this aim, this paper further

discusses the followings; 1) uses of BIM during the planning-to-design stage based on the

BIM execution plan; 2) methodology; 3) results and discussions; and 4) conclusion.

USES OF BIM DURING THE PLANNING TO DESIGN STAGE BASED ON THE

BIM EXECUTION PLAN

The Computer Integrated Construction Research Program (2019) recommended twenty-

five (25) uses of BIM during the planning to maintenance stages. The identification of uses

for BIM projects is also dependent on the measurable goals created by the project and

company. According to Rojas et al. (2019), the uses of BIM are a set of actions and conditions

that are created and associated with a defined objective or application for the construction

project. This is also agreed by The Computer Integrated Construction Research Program

(2019), which explicated that the use of BIM is a unique task or procedure on a project which

can benefit from the integration of BIM into that process.

From twenty-five (25) modelling uses of BIM, there are fourteen (14) uses (shown in

Table 1 and Figure 1) that are involved during the planning to design stage based on the BIM

execution plan that will be further emphasized in this study. The importance of BIM to be

implemented during the planning-to-design stage is required in this study in order to

investigate the uses of BIM among contractors. The involvement of the contractor during the

earlier stages (i.e., the planning and design stage) contributes a great impact on the entire

project, due to the reason whereby most of the information is derived from these stages. This

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 267

is in line with the McLeamy curve, which enables the identification of the conflicts and errors

ahead, thus the project modification can be done at an early stage of delivery (Trach et al.,

2019). Furthermore, the involvement with other stakeholders (i.e., Architect, Structural

Engineer, and MEP Engineer) enables the prevention of project cost overruns and

construction site time delays (Rojas et al., 2019).

(Sources: The Computer Integrated Construction Research Program (2019)

Figure 1. BIM Uses During the Planning to Design Stage in the BIM Execution Plan

Table 1. Description of Uses of BIM During the Planning to Design Stage in BIM Execution Plan

Uses of BIM

Descriptions

Existing Condition

Modelling

The development of a 3D model which consists of existing conditions such as site

conditions, facilities on site, or a specific area within a facility

Cost Estimation

To generate accurate quantity take-offs and cost estimation throughout the project life-

cycle. Furthermore, it aids contractors in quantity and material estimation accuracy, as

well as cost control efficiency.

Phase Planning

The development of a 4D model to show the construction sequence, resource

allocation, and space requirements on the building and construction site.

Programming

The BIM model serves to analyse space and the complexity of space by using the

spatial program.

Site Analysis

The process is to evaluate the properties in a given area, such as to determine the

most optimal site location for the next projects.

Design Authoring

The first purpose of the BIM Model is to develop a Building Information Model based on

the translation of the building design.

Design Review

The process in which the contractors can review the 3D model and provide feedback to

validate multiple design aspects.

Structural Analysis

The development of the 3D model to determine the most effective engineering method

based on design specifications.

Energy Analysis

Lighting Analysis

Mechanical Analysis

Other Eng. Analysis

LEED Evaluation

The analysis tools from the development of the 3D model for performance simulations

to improve the design and facility or energy consumption across the project life-cycle.

Code Validation

The validation software checks the model parameter against the project’s specific code.

(Source: The Computer Integrated Construction Research Program (2019); Wan Mohammad et al. (2020))

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 268

Procurement is a process of purchasing goods or services from outside companies. The

companies can either be sellers or buyers of the product and services (PMBOK, 2008).

According to Abdul Rashid et al. (2006) the most frequently construction procurement

method in Malaysia is the traditional/conventional method, design and build method,

management contracting and construction management. Various sources have come up with

procurements where the contractors will be involved in BIM projects (Raja Berema et al.,

2023).

Chong et al. (2017) discovered that the procurement contract for BIM is separated into

three main phases, which are the pre-construction stage, construction and the post-

construction stage. Unfortunately, since the evolvement of BIM in Malaysia, there is an

absence of appropriate BIM contracting documents, particularly in the Malaysian

construction industry (Abd. Jamil & Fathi, 2018; Kamal Hasni et al., 2019; Teoh et al., 2018).

Interestingly, Aina et al. (2021) observed that the Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) has

emerged in Malaysia acting as a new procurement method that has a huge settlement in the

delivery of BIM-based projects. Hence, Raja Berema et al. (2023) stated that comprehensive

systematic reviews were inclined towards identifying the standard form of contract for BIM-

based public projects, but they did not dig deeper into the BIM-based project contractors in

Malaysia. Accordingly, this gap gave rise to the research inquiry of this study. This research

also deviated from past studies by first describing the BIM uses in the BIM execution plan

stage (planning-design stage) related to the procurement type in BIM-based project

contractors.

METHODOLOGY

The qualitative study design was employed in the form of semi-structured interviews

among the BIM-based project contractors in Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. The purpose of the

semi-structured interview is to explore the significance of BIM uses during the planning-to-

design stages among BIM-based project contractors in Malaysia. Purposive sampling

involved six (6) respondents (as shown in Table 3) from various positions, such as BIM

Managers, BIM Coordinators, and BIM Executives that was selected. According to Moser &

Korstjens (2018), Samsuddin et al. (2017) recommended six to ten respondents for

phenomenological directed towards discerning the essence of experience. As a result, six (6)

respondents involved in this research were acceptable and reliable. The selection of the

respondents was based on the following criteria: 1) acquiring BIM knowledge; 2) experience

in BIM-based projects (5 years or above 5 years) and willing to cooperate with the researcher.

On the other hand, Saunders et al., (2018) mentioned that the rule of thumb for saturated data

and emerging findings is that when it begins to hear similar instances over and over again,

there are no further new findings as the data is further collected.

Prior to the interviews taking place, the proper guidelines and protocols are established.

For example, the respondents provided an information sheet including open-ended questions

(table 2), a briefing of the research, a university permission letter, and ethical issues (including

confidentiality) of the interviews. Furthermore, the respondents were also given a copy of

questions one week before the interview was held and informed that the interviews were

recorded using a recorder and noted by the researchers. In addition, the interview process was

held in the respondent’s office, site office, and other places which was convenient and

preferable by the respondents to be interviewed. During the interview process, the respondents

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 269

were asked on their personal information background and previous and current background

of BIM-Based projects that they were involved with. Then, the respondents moved on to the

main study of this research to explain the significant uses of BIM during the planning-to-

design stage. The respondents also took about forty-five (45) minutes to one (1) hour for the

interviews. After that, for each interview, follow-ups by phone call were carried out to clarify

the unclear points, further feedback, reviews, and comments from the respondents.

Nevertheless, this was done by a few of the respondents according to the information that was

needed only. ATLAS-ti 9 software-assisted content analysis was utilized to assess the

interview findings. Hence, in the next section, the results and discussions from these

interviews were explained.

Table 2. Interview Questions

Questions

Section 1:

Q1: What are your responsibilities?

Q2: How long is your experience in the construction industry and BIM-based projects?

Q3: What type of procurement is used?

Section 2:

Q3: What are the significant uses of BIM during the planning to design stage for BIM-based projects?

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

The data gathered from the data collection is discussed in the following section. It consists

of two sections as captured from the semi-structured interviews (i.e., section 1; respondents’

background, and section 2; the significance of BIM uses among the BIM-based project

contractors during the planning-to-design stage based on the BIM execution plan stage.

Respondents Background

The six (6) interview sessions with the six (6) respondents were conducted for this

research. The respondents involved in this interview were selected based on their designation

in the company, years of experience in the construction field, and their usage of BIM in their

projects.

Table 3. Respondents Background

R

Designation

Years of Experience in

Construction

Years of Experience in BIM-

Based Projects

R1

BIM Manager – Senior C&S Engineer

11–20 years

Above five (5) years

R2

BIM Executive – Senior M&E Engineer

11–20 years

Above five (5) years

R3

BIM Executive – Quantity Surveyor

6–10 years

Above five (5) years

R4

BIM Coordinator – Senior Architect

11–20 years

Above five (5) years

R5

BIM Manager – Head BIM Department

11–20 years

Above five (5) years

R6

BIM Executive – Project Manager

6–10 years

Above five (5) years

(Remarks: R – Respondents)

Table 3 shows the respondents’ background and indicates that 4 out of 6 respondents

(66.7%) have experience in the construction industry for more than ten (10) years, while only

two (2) respondents have experience between 6-10 years. Based on the table, it can also be

seen that all six (6) respondents (100%) have five (5) years of experience in BIM-based

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 270

projects. It shows that the data collected is appropriate as 66.7% of respondents have

experience of ten (10) years and above in the construction industry (Masrom, 2012: Mohd

Nordin et al., 2018) and five (5) years of experience in projects using BIM which shows the

respondents are familiar with the BIM concept (Ku & Taiebat, 2011).

Figure 2 shows the network view for BIM uses during the planning-to-design stage. Ten

(10) uses of BIM: Phase Planning, Design Review, Cost Estimation, Existing Condition

Modelling, Design Authoring, Programming, Structural Analysis, Site Analysis, Energy

Analysis, and Lighting Analysis (coded in green) are associated with the BIM uses during the

planning to design stages (coded in yellow). From the figure, it can be deduced that these ten

(10) BIM uses are significant during the planning-to-design stage from the perspective of

BIM-based contractors, while the four (4) uses (i.e., Mechanical Analysis, Other Engineering

Analysis, LEED Evaluation, and Code Validation) were insignificant.

Figure 2. Network View of BIM Uses During the Planning to Design Stage

Table 4 illustrates the interview’s findings that a significant understanding of BIM uses

based on the BIM execution plan relates to the procurement types concerning the BIM-based

project contractors in Malaysia. The most-used standard form applied by the contractors of

BIM projects was the PAM contract, propounded by the Pertubuhan Akitek Malaysia (PAM).

All respondents mentioned that the procurement contract which has been used were the

traditional contract and the design & build contract. For the Design & Build contract,

respondents (R1) explained that the uses of BIM utilized during the process of planning to

design stage were carried out by the contractors almost in parallel and concurrently with each

other. However, the uses of BIM are for tendering public and private projects where the full

involvement of the contractors for traditional contracts is mostly after the project is secured.

Besides, in traditional contracts, the private client will be closely involved in the planning to

construction stage through its BIM team that is technically and commercially resourceful in

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assessing the recommendations of the BIM manager in taking the necessary actions (R2, R4,

R5 & R6). Interestingly, BIM uses in cost estimation are essential during bid preparation for

public project (R3).

Table 4. BIM Uses and Procurement Types in BIM-Based Project Contractors

Respondents

(R)

The BIM Uses During to

Planning-To-Design Stage

Types of Projects

Types of Procurement

R1

Phase planning, programming, design

authoring, design review, structural

analysis.

Public project

(government client-main

contractor)

Design & Build contract

(PWD DB)

R2

Phase planning, energy analysis &

lightning analysis.

Private project

(client-main contractor)

Traditional contract

(PAM2018 with quantities)

R3

Cost estimation

Public project

(government client-main

contractor)

Traditional contract

(PWD203A)

R4

Existing modelling, phase modelling,

programming, design authoring, design

review

Private project

(client-main contractor)

Traditional contract

(PAM2006 with quantities)

R5

Existing Condition Modelling, Cost

Estimation

Phase Planning, Programming,

Site Analysis, Design Authoring,

Design Review, Structural Analysis,

Energy Analysis.

Private project

(client-main contractor)

Traditional contract

(PAM2006 with quantities)

R6

Existing Condition Modelling, Cost

Estimation

Phase Planning, Design Authoring,

Design Review, Structural Analysis.

Private project

(client-main contractor)

Traditional contract

(PAM2006 with quantities)

The following Table 5 shows the percentage of respondents that agree with the use of

BIM during the planning-to-design stage. Five respondents (83.3%) agreed that phase

planning is the most significant (first-ranked) use of BIM during the Planning Design Stage

based on the BIM execution plan.

Table 5. Uses of BIM During the Planning to Design Stages

BIM Uses

Respondents

Frequency

Percentage

1

2

3

4

5

6

Existing Condition Modelling

√

3

50.0%

Cost Estimation

√

3

50.0%

Phase Planning

√

5

83.3%

Programming

√

3

50.0%

Site Analysis

√

2

33.3%

Design Authoring

√

3

50.0%

Design Review

√

4

66.7%

Structural Analysis

√

3

50.0%

Energy Analysis

√

2

33.3%

Lighting Analysis

√

1

16.7%

Mechanical Analysis

0

Other Eng. Analysis

0

LEED Evaluation

0

Code Validation

0

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 272

“By applying 4D modelling to our project, it facilitates us to support site personnel and

to also efficiently coordinate equipment space requirements compared to the

conventional Critical Path Method Network (CPM) and 2D model” (R5)

“Demonstrating 4D modelling to our client during the tender stage helps us to present

our construction planning more efficiently” (R6)

“Based on my view, 4D modelling can enhance our construction planning regarding site

logistics, site layout traffic, and identification of safety hazards prior to the

commencement of construction” (R4)

From the respondents’ feedback (R5 and R6), it has been deduced that the planning phase

with the appliance of 4D modelling allows BIM-based project contractors to visualize the

construction sequence of the projects. The BIM-based project contractors are able to create,

review, edit, and simulate the 4D models frequently to obtain a better and more reliable

schedule. This is in line with Doukari et al. (2022); Alzarrad et al. (2021); and Rafael Sacks

et al. (2018), who revealed that 4D modelling facilitates the BIM-based project contractors to

visualize the planning information and assists in understanding the problems associated with

the schedules earlier prior to the start of the construction. As revealed by respondent R5, 4D

modelling has a great impact on BIM-based project contractors. This implies that the current

traditional construction planning method (i.e., using the Critical Path Method Network

(CPM)) is not running effectively and affects the project performance parameter (i.e., Time,

Cost, and Quality). Moreover, the existing CPM appearance is rather confusing and is not

easily understood by the BIM-based project contractors. As such, a complex project may

require more effort to replan and redraw the network each time it needs to be updated (Pitake

& Patil, 2013). With the aid of the 4D model, facilitates the BIM-based projects to overcome

the following: 1) miscommunication of project information, 2) disappointment in project

performance due to inappropriate design, 3) improper construction planning, and 4) lack of

communication between project teams. Other than that, respondent R4 disclosed that 4D

modelling enhances the safety of a construction project. It shows the usage of 4D modelling

in assessing, preventing, and detecting safety risks and avoidance from accidents prior to the

commencement of construction and throughout the construction process.

The second-ranked BIM use during the planning-to-design stage is design review, with

66.7% agreement from the respondents.

“After the 3D model is completed and designed, we normally use it for design review. As

such, during the design coordination meeting, we review the design workflow and design

aspects (i.e., design layout, space allocation, and colours)” (R4)

“The design review process enables the project teams, including designers and project

owners, to easily collaborate on design and constructability issues prior to the start of

the construction” (R5)

The results from respondents R4 and R6 revealed that the use of the BIM model for design

review is to obtain feedback and validation from the project team from various aspects. This

practice facilitates the project teams to quickly analyse design alternatives and solve the

design and constructability issues (The Computer Integrated Construction Research Program,

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 273

2019). As a result, this process will assist the project teams in reducing their time in rectifying

similar models frequently, thus saving cost and increasing the quality of design. The third,

fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh-ranked BIM usages during the planning-to-design stage are

design authoring, cost estimation, existing condition modelling, programming, and structural

analysis, with a score of 50% cut-off point agreed by the respondents.

“In our projects, we author, create, and build a BIM model in Revit Architectural, and

the model becomes a powerful database as all properties, quantities and measures, costs,

and schedules are inserted. Furthermore, it facilitates our designer and consultant in

producing a good quality model” (R5)

“Currently, we are using the BIM model to extract quantities and to produce a simple

cost estimation. It is much easier and quicker compared to traditional cost estimating”

(R3)

“With the integration of the BIM model and LiDAR scanner, the project teams are able

to capture the existing conditions and existing structural data much faster and digitally”

(R6)

“During the process of developing the BIM model by using 3D software, we also apply

the spatial program which allocates and analyses the space requirement that is with

accordance to the rules and regulations” (R4)

“The BIM model helps us to draw and model our structural details such as bolts and nuts

connections, structural jointing as well as generating the structural costing” (R1)

From the results of respondent R5, it can be construed that the primary use of BIM is

design authoring. The developed BIM model has become the main model for other uses of

BIM (i.e., cost estimation, structural analysis, 4D model, and other analyses). The BIM-based

project contractors have created and designed the 3D model, which consists of component

information, parametric information, and other extra information from the supplier’s

specifications and products. The following use is cost estimation. As mentioned by respondent

R3, it is proven that the use of BIM in cost estimation by BIM-based project contractors is

crucial in establishing accurate quantity, labor and equipment costs. With the aid of BIM

software tools to extract the quantities, it helps to avoid costly mistakes, delays, and double

counting. On the other hand, the result from respondent R6 explicated that with the ability of

BIM to capture the existing conditions of buildings, sites, and facilities, BIM has transformed

the way existing buildings are renovated and innovated. As a result, this process contributes

to up-to-date and sustainable documentation with high accuracy of data.

As highlighted by respondent R4, it shows that the use of BIM in programming involves

a spatial program that is used to assess the design performance accurately in the form of spatial

requirements (The Computer Integrated Construction Research Program, 2019). The use of

the BIM model enables to facilitate the BIM-based projects architect to assist and analyse the

complexity and uses of space according to the function of the space and facilitates the

decision-making process during the design stages. Whilst for structural analysis, as mentioned

by respondent R1, it aids the BIM-based project contractors, particularly structural engineers,

to simulate the analysis of structural behavior related to the force equilibrium, frame and truss

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 274

analysis, support reactions, shear force, and bending moment, and concrete, steel, and timber

design. Therefore, this process assists them to promote the understanding of the fundamentals

of structural analysis through virtual presentation.

The eighth, ninth, and tenth-ranked BIM usages are site analysis, energy analysis, and

lighting analysis. These uses of BIM (i.e., site analysis, energy analysis, and lighting analysis)

are less mentioned by the respondents (<50%). As such, the use of the BIM model for site

analysis with the integration of the Geographic Information System (GIS) is to evaluate the

site area and determine the optimum site location for future projects. The use of BIM-GIS in

the Malaysian Construction Industry is still at its infant stage, and research on BIM-GIS is

currently still ongoing (Wan Abdul Basir et al., 2020). Therefore, the knowledge of

understanding BIM-GIS among BIM-based project contractors is also limited. Whereas for

energy analysis and lighting analysis, Hussain & Choudhry (2013) revealed that specialist

contractors are majorly involved in these uses. Since the sample of this study is limited to

BIM-based project contractors, that are mainly targeted for the Malaysian G7 contractors,

therefore these uses are less obtaining attention from the respondents. In addition, they

disclosed that these uses (i.e., energy analysis and lighting analysis) require highly skilled

personnel that are multidisciplined to be applied. The remaining uses of BIM (i.e., mechanical

analysis, other engineering analysis, LEED evaluation, and code validation) obtained 0%

agreement from the respondents and indicated that these uses of BIM are insignificant for the

BIM-based project contractors.

CONCLUSION

This paper presented the findings on the uses of BIM during the planning-to-design stage

based on the BIM execution plan from the BIM-based project contractors’ perspective. Ten

uses of BIM (i.e., Phase Planning, Design Review, Cost Estimation, Existing Condition

Modelling, Design Authoring, Programming, Structural Analysis, Site Analysis, Energy

Analysis, and Lighting Analysis) have been addressed as significant uses from the BIM-based

project contractors’ perspective. In relation to that, the respondents pointed out that the

planning phase in the form of 4D modelling is the upmost significant use. The 4D model

provides a comprehensive site management tool for the BIM-based project contractors during

the planning-to-design stage, which enables them to visualize planning, linkages, 3D

geometrical models, bar chart schedules, resource requirements, material allocation, and cost

breakdown. Apart from that, the extensive use of 4D models using BIM with the safety aspect

such as monitoring job site safety and safety planning boosts the powerful tool for

construction planning and provides a good impact to the BIM-based project contractors. This

study also found that the PWD DB and PAM2018/2006 contract has been used by BIM-based

project contractors.

The contributions of this research are twofold. First, its knowledge contributions as

extending and improving the existing uses of BIM designed by The Computer Integrated

Construction Research Program (2019). Secondly, the output of this research provides a guide

for BIM-based project contractors in understanding the uses of BIM as well as achieving the

benefits of BIM. This research is in line with the Malaysian National agendas (i.e., Malaysia’s

National Policy on Industry 4.0, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 9), the 12th Malaysian

Plan Agenda, the Shared Prosperity Vision 2030 and the Construction 4.0 Strategic Plan

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 275

(2021-2025), which highlights in embracing the digital technologies to reduce uncertainty,

promote quality, improve safety and timely delivery of completed construction products.

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MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 277

A MODEL FOR ASSESSING THE COMPETENCY OF

FACILITY MANAGERS IN PRE-CONSTRUCTION

HOSPITALS IN MALAYSIA

Norsyazwana Jenuwa1*, Wan Norizan Wan Ismail1, Norhafizah Yusop1, Siti Sarah Mat Isa1 and

Mohd Saidin Misnan2

1Department of Built Environment Studies and Technology, College of Built Environment, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Perak Branch, 32610, Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia

2Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai,

Malaysia

*Corresponding Email: syazwana@uitm.edu.my

Abstract

This study was conducted to develop a model for assessing a facility manager's competency

in a complex construction project such as a hospital construction. The involvement of a facility

manager during the construction phase is highlighted as a means to reduce operating costs for

the building in the long run. The study examines the relationship between facility managers’

competence with six relevant competencies namely leadership and strategy, finance and

business, operation and maintenance, communication, human factors, and real estate

management. The data were analysed using the analysis technique of Modelling Structured

Equations Partial Smallest Square Estimation (SEM-PLS). This statistical software assesses

the psychometric characteristics of model measurements and estimates the parameters of

structural models. A total of 262 respondents from the facility and construction fields

participated in the study. The results show that only the null hypotheses (H0) for competencies

in leadership, finance, and business were rejected. The null hypothesis for other competencies

namely operation and maintenance, communication, human factors, and real estate

management were accepted. This paper is the first in its category to relate a competent facility

manager with relevant competencies such as leadership and strategy, finance and business,

operation and maintenance, communication, human factor, and real estate management. The

model developed in the study would assist Human Resource professionals to design more

effective training programs and to make more effective recruitment processes.

Keywords: Competent Facility Manager; Assessment of Competency; Probability of Success

INTRODUCTION

Facility management (FM) is a discipline that assists an organization in efficiently

providing its primary business, (IFMA, 2003). FM is a profession that offers a range of

services to assist a company's main line of business. It is responsible for overseeing the

services needed for any structures, machinery, furnishings, or other items that could aid

businesses in competing in a dynamic environment (Nordiana et al., 2016). Facility managers

and stakeholders involved in the building process must consider the long-term implications

of construction choices. Balancing initial construction costs with future operational expenses

is essential for creating buildings that are both cost-effective and conducive to occupants'

needs and comfort over time. Effective facility management strategies that integrate

considerations for both construction and ongoing operations can significantly impact a

building's lifecycle cost and overall success (Potkany, 2015).

Competency research gained steam after it was established that competency was a more

important differentiator for success than intelligence (McClelland, 1973). The idea of

competency has been employed more and more over the past forty years in a variety of private

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 278

and public sector organizations to hire successful human resources, utilize them to their fullest

potential, and create effective plans for gaining an advantage in a cutthroat business

environment. Compelling definitions of competency have been offered by experts in human

resources over time and from many angles. While the majority of these classifications are

based on performers' fundamental characteristics, some are based on observable performances

or outcome quality (Hoffman, 1999). The cost-effectiveness of operating a building is

significantly impacted by various factors involved in the building process. These factors

include the materials utilized during construction and the design choices made to ensure not

only immediate functionality but also long-term sustainability and safety for future occupants

(Potkany, 2015).

FACILITY MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA: STANDARD AND CURRENT

PRACTICE

The FM discipline is still relatively new in Malaysia. Norafiziah and Zairul (2017)

claimed that the lack of a specialized entity to provide norms and control over the quality and

performance of FM practice is the root of the difficulties in analysing FM in Malaysia.

Because there is no reliable framework that can be used to compare the effectiveness of FM

methods, comparisons cannot be made. Due to this conundrum, it is challenging to identify

real FM professionals from whom necessary knowledge and abilities may be obtained. Since

it is impossible to determine the knowledge and competencies that are acceptable for the

industry and professions of FM, it is also difficult to construct a (structured) FM standard.

Professional organizations like IFMA and BIFM and MAFM have adopted the competency

framework as the foundation for professional accreditation in the field of FM (Nordiana et al,

2016).

(Source: BIFM Website)

Figure 1. BIFM Professional Standard Pyramid

According to BIFM (2010), the technical competencies included in the Professional

Standards reflect what employees do in their work and the standards they are required to

uphold constantly, as seen in Figure 1. The underlying behavioral skills describe the desirable

traits and behaviors for success in the workplace. FM essential skills have been established

by the International Facility Management Association (IFMA, 2010), which also accredits

FM academic programs globally.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 279

Figure 2 lists them in the following order: Communication, Business continuity planning,

Emergency preparedness, Environmental stewardship, Finance, Human factors, Leadership,

Operations and maintenance, Project management, Quality, Real estate and property

management, and Technology.

(Source: IFMA, 2008)

Figure 2. IFMA 11 Core Competency Circle

The core competency of facility managers is to identify and consult defects which is

appropriate to the competency of sustainability, where the facility managers must be able to

preserve the environment and the people who use their facilities while also enhancing

organizational effectiveness and reducing risks and liabilities, which are well suited for the

study's keywords. In all phases of facility planning, design, construction, and management,

the facility manager is required to assess the overall environmental impact of the facilities as

early as it is practically possible. They are also supposed to adhere to and carry out rules and

guidelines for maintaining, safeguarding, and repairing structures, grounds, ecosystems, and

the environment.

Five areas of FM capabilities were identified by Seong et al. (2017) and Mariah (2012),

which are financial control and change management, support, user engagement, and

maintenance operations. According to Mariah's research, there is an overall level of

efficiency, which is crucial for facility management. These results could be used to improve

Malaysian facility managers' associated training modules for sustainable development, as well

as to help management organize and plan the facility managers' training requirements for

carrying out facility management tasks. They also learned that the management had made a

decision based on this finding that only people with this level of competency could handle

tasks related to facility management.

The competency and proficiency of a facility manager are pivotal in ensuring the effective

functioning and maintenance of a building. Facility managers hold a comprehensive role

encompassing various responsibilities crucial for the optimal operation of a facility.

Competent facility managers possess a diverse skill set that includes leadership,

communication, problem-solving, technical knowledge about building systems, regulatory

compliance, financial acumen, and strategic planning abilities. They play a crucial role in

ensuring the smooth functioning of a building, meeting the needs of its users, and effectively

managing resources to maintain the facility's longevity and efficiency (Syahrul et al., 2017).

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 280

Previous studies have shown that the varied approaches used by civilizations to foster

leadership and organizational success have been significantly influenced by heterogeneity

during the course of social evolution. According to Nordiana et al. (2016), the International

Facility Management Association's (IFMA) guidelines and standards are broken down into

eight categories which include real estate, planning, budgeting, space management, interior

planning, interior installation, architecture or engineering services, and building maintenance

and operations.

Table 1. Barriers in Implementing Competency Facility Manager by Past Researchers

Barriers in Implementing for Competency Facility Manager by

Past Researchers

Competency

Hariati A.H., &

Maimunah S. (2019)

Mariah A. &

Mohammed, A. H.,

Maimunah S. (2014)

Nor Diana (2017)

Potkany (2015)

Jim Curtis (2017)

Nethmin (2016)

Oladejo (2015)

Dubem Ikediaski

(2015)

Floren Yean (2014)

Cheng Peng (2017)

Total

Leadership and Strategy

x

10

Finance and Business

x

8

Operation and Maintenance

x

10

Communication

x

7

Human Factor

x

7

Real Estate Management

x

8

Based on past studies, much emphasis has been put on leadership competency and

strategy, communication competency, operational and maintenance competency, and

business continuity competency.

HYPOTHESES

To establish a facility manager’s competence in relation to the competencies of leadership

and strategy, finance and business, operation and maintenance, communication, human factor,

and real estate management, six hypotheses were formulated:

i. Hypothesis 1: Leadership and strategy competence has a relationship with the

competency of the Facility Manager

ii. Hypothesis 2: Communication competence has a relationship with the competency of

the Facility Manager

iii. Hypothesis 3: Operational and maintenance competence has a relationship with the

competency of the Facility Manager

iv. Hypothesis 4: Human factor competence has a relationship with the competency of

the Facility Manager

v. Hypothesis 5: Real estate management competence has a relationship with the

competency of the Facility Manager

vi. Hypothesis 6: Finance and business competence has a relationship with the

competency of the Facility Manager

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 281

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Building and facility management is complex because buildings and facilities are

significant parts of valuable fixed assets for most organizations. Pay attention to the

complexity of the task, and the competence of the facility manager. Generally, experienced

facility managers can provide the services required by the organization or customers, at a

satisfactory level ensuring that all tasks are done efficiently to provide excellent building

performance.

This research adopted a quantitative method in order to achieve the research aim and

objectives. The data collection was conducted in two stages, starting with a questionnaire

survey followed by semi-structured interviews. The participants in the study were facility

managers, architects, engineers, and quantity surveyors in the Klang Valley especially where

the respondents work in hospital construction projects. The respondents for this study are

usually involved and responsible for making decisions for the best procurement for building

construction, especially the construction of hospitals. The data collection started by sending

out 500 questionnaires to the targeted populations. This questionnaire survey was conducted

by posting and distributing the questionnaires directly to the respondents. A total of 262

respondents completed and returned the questionnaires to the researchers.

Table 2. Guidelines Used for Structural Model-Inner Model

No

Structural Model-Inner Model Criteria

Guidelines

1

Coefficient determination (R²) for

endogenous variables

When value:

0.25 - large

0.13-moderate; And

0.02-less (Cohen, 1988)

When value:

0.67-large

0.33-moderate; And

0.19- less (Chin, 2010)

When value:

0.75-large

0.50-moderate; And

0.25- less (Hair et al, 2014)

2

Path coefficient (β)

The value of the coefficient for path coefficient is as follows:

P value < 0.01 T value > 2.58 (Two tailed)

t value > 2.33 (one tailed)

P value < 0.05 T value > 1.96 (Two tailed)

T value > 1.645 (one tailed)

P value < 0.10 T value > 1.645 (Two tailed)

t value > 1.28 (one tailed)

3

Effect size (f²)

When value:

0.35-big impact

0.15-moderate effect and

0.02-small effect

4

Relative impact (q²)

When value:

0.35-large

0.15-moderate and

0.02-weak

(Source: Ramayah, 2018)

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 282

Important criteria used for the structural model-inner model are composed of coefficient

determination or R² for endogenous variables, estimated value path coefficient or β, effect

size or f², predictive relevance or Q², and relative impact or q². The results of the evaluation

of the structural model were obtained after analysis using Smart PLS 3.0 software through the

Bootstrapping function was conducted. Table 2 shows the guidelines used for the structural

model-inner model.

To obtain the value of R² and path coefficient (β), the SEM-PLS model was analysed

using a bootstrapping approach generated from 500 samples from 262 cases to obtain the

standard error value, t-statistical value, and test significant levels to determine the evaluation

criteria of this structural model.

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Out of 262 respondents, 208 (79.4%) were facility managers,39 (14.9%) were architects,

9 (3.4%) were engineers, and 6 (2.3%) were quantity surveyors.

To assess the influence of a variable, the R² Value is used against a leaning pendant

variable by measuring the degree of correlation strength of both variables. When the R² value

is high, it means that the forecast of the model has increased capabilities and thecloser the

value is towards a strong value angle.

Figure 4. Summary of The Results of The Structural Model-Inner Model

As portrayed in Figure 4, the R² value of this structural model was 0.944. According to

Cohen (1988), the R² value of the endogenous variable is evaluated from the following angle

where the value 0.25 is strong; 0.09 is moderate and 0.01 is weak. Thus, the R² value of 0.944

is considered strong.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 283

To test the hypothesis that has been proposed, the level of importance of each independent

variable was checked. The determination of whether the proposed hypothesis is accepted or

rejected depended on the t-statistical values of the structural model. The summary of whether

the proposed hypothesis was rejected or accepted is shown in Table 3. If the level of interest

falls between 0.1 or 10% two-tailed or when the t-statistic value is above 1.645 and and p

exceeds 0.1, the hypothesis is accepted otherwise, the hypothesis is rejected.

Table 3. The Results of The Analysis of Hypothetical Testing

Hip.

Relation

Path

Koefision

(β)

Standard Error

Value of t-statistics

Result

H1

Human Factors > Competency of

Facility Manager

0.787

0.028

28.169**

Accepted

H2

Communication > Competency of

Facility Manager

0.037

0.022

1.812**

Accepted

H3

Real Estate Management >

Competency of Facility Manager

0.151

0.021

5.091**

Accepted

H4

Operation and Maintenance >

Competency of Facility Manager

0.120

0.021

4.772**

Accepted

H5

Finance and business >

Competency of Facility Manager

-0.034

0.025

1.588

Rejected

H6

Leadership and strategy >

Competency of Facility Manager

-0.030

0.03

1.353

Rejected

**Note: The value of t-statistics should exceed 1.645 where p>0.10

According to Table 3, of the six main factors of competency for facility managers, only

four factors recorded a band coefficient value of more than 0.1, whilst the other two factors,

finance and business; and leadership and strategy competencies recorded band coefficients

below 0.1, which are -0.033 and -0.035 respectively. This is aligned with the study conducted

by Dubem Ikediashi et al. (2015) that mentioned a competent facility managers prioritize the

well-being of the people in the facility. This includes ensuring a safe and comfortable work

environment, managing ergonomic considerations, and addressing any health and safety

concerns. The findings have significantly aligned with study by Hariati et al. (2019); Syahrul

Nizam and Nik (2017). As supported by Florence (2011), the competency of a facility

manager is intertwined with their ability to understand and manage the human factor within a

facility and to communicate effectively with a diverse set of stakeholders. Human factors

often lead to conflicts or disputes in a workplace. A skilled FM should be adept at resolving

conflicts, promoting a harmonious work environment, and ensuring that the facility meets the

diverse needs of its occupants. According to Hariati et al. (2019), FMs need to understand the

needs and expectations of the occupants of a facility. This involves effective communication

and engagement to identify and meet user requirements, creating a positive experience for

everyone in the facility. Competent FMs maintain accurate and up-to-date documentation to

facilitate smooth operations and decision-making Potkany et al. (2015). Proper

documentation of facility-related information and procedures is essential. This includes

maintenance records, safety protocols, and communication logs. By prioritizing the well-

being of occupants, resolving conflicts, and maintaining clear and open lines of

communication, a skilled FM contributes significantly to the overall success and efficiency

of the facility.

MCRJ Special Issue; Vol. 22 | No. 2 | 2024 284

Overall, the results of the analysis show that H1, H2, H3, and H4 were accepted, while

H5 and H6 were rejected. In addition, out of these six competencies, human factor

competencies are strong predictors or have a strong relationship with the competency of the

facility managers followed by real estate management competencies, operational and

maintenance competencies, and lastly the communication competency.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, out of the six main factors of the facility manager’s competency tested only

four factors were accepted and another two were rejected. The quantitative values of

competency levels of different performers in different tasks or activities, assessed from the

relation, would be useful for all organisations to manage and develop the performance of their

human resources more effectively by designing training programs, non-training interventions,

and recruitment processes.

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