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Unveiling the Aromatic Symphony: Volatile Compounds of Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) Through HS-SPME/GG-MS Technology
Abstract
Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.) is renowned for its therapeutic properties. This study offers a comprehensive analysis of Chamomile volatiles, employing Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The methodology section outlines the extraction and analysis process, emphasizing the non-invasive nature of HS-SPME for capturing volatiles without altering their composition. The results display a diverse array of volatile constituents, encompassing sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, and oxygenated compounds, each contributing uniquely to Chamomile’s fragrance and medicinal value. Although this abstract refrains from presenting specific figures or chromatograms, the outcomes underscore the complexity and diversity of Chamomile’s volatiles, warranting further exploration.
The discussion section interprets these findings in the context of Chamomile’s established health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and sedative properties. This analysis establishes a foundation for understanding how Chamomile volatiles interact with biological systems, offering potential applications in aromatherapy and natural medicine. In conclusion, the study furnishes valuable insights into Chamomile’s volatile composition, elucidating the intricate chemical nature of this plant. These findings contribute to the broader body of knowledge surrounding Chamomile and may foster new opportunities for utilizing its volatiles in various therapeutic and aromatic applications. Further research is warranted to explore the full spectrum of Chamomile’s volatile compounds and their potential benefits for human health and well-being.
... Researchers have employed various techniques to isolate essential oils from chamomile and study their volatile components. These techniques include hydrodistillation (Benali et al. 2024), supercritical fluid extraction (Stamenić et al. 2024), and headspace analysis (Assefi et al. 2024). ...
Essential oils (EOs) are the most valuable constituents of aromatic plants. EOs are used in various industries linked to their biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. Nowadays, EOs are ingredients of many products, such as food preservatives and pharmaceuticals, to prevent and treat many health problems. They are also indispensable components in aromatherapy and cosmetic products. Moreover, EOs showed promising results as penetration enhancers for the improvement of bioavailability of many drugs. As science evolved, many modern techniques have been introduced for the extraction of EOs, such as supercritical fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, and ultrasonic extraction, besides the traditional ones. These methods are critical to preserving EOs efficacy and quality, where the EOs can be produced with different qualities and chemical compositions according to the utilized technique. In fact, the different composition of EOs, especially the major compounds, subsequently affects their biological activities and hence their applications. The proposed review provides a comprehensive overview of the current methodologies for the extraction of EOs, emphasizing their implications on both chemical composition and biological activity. The introduced up-to-date research findings present a holistic view of the extraction landscape and provide valuable insights that can guide future research and practical applications in various fields. Additionally, the importance of sustainability in extraction practices is highlighted, proposing eco-friendly methods that can preserve environmental safety, while ensuring high-quality EOs production.
Naturalness is gaining ground among perfumers and the use of natural raw materials is spreading in perfumery. Forgotten perfumery plants are of concern to develop innovative and natural ingredients for modern perfume industries. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential interest of Crataegus monogyna Jacq. extracts as fragrance ingredient. To this end, various extractions, phytochemical characterizations and organoleptic evaluations of hawthorn were conducted on fresh, frozen, and dried flowering aerial parts, to identify those most likely to be of interest. More than a hundred compounds, anisaldehyde being the predominant one, were characterized for the first time in the volatile fraction, using HS‐SPME‐GC‐MS technology. Impact of plant treatment and harvest year on the extracts were also discussed. From this work, a new and natural hawthorn‐based ingredient was developed to complete the perfumers’ palette.
Background
Chamomile is consumed worldwide for enjoyment and its potentially desirable properties. Widespread patient resource websites, however, discourage preoperative chamomile intake, lest bleeding could worsen. This precaution, though, stems largely from indirect evidence in one case report. To evaluate if chamomile ingestion impacts coagulation assays via coumarin-like substances, we designed a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study.
Materials and methods
Healthy volunteers were randomized to three interventions in a cross-over-design spanning 5 weeks per subject. Interventions included 7-day consumption of chamomile tea (3 tea bags × 3 times daily = 9 tea bags daily), a chamomile extract capsule (3 times daily), or a placebo capsule (3 times daily). A 7-day washout period elapsed between intervention periods. The primary outcome was the change in prothrombin time (PT) before vs. after each intervention. Secondary outcomes included changes in the international normalized ratio (INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), thrombin time (TT), reptilase time (RT), and fibrinogen (FG) surrounding each intervention.
Results
All 12 enrolled subjects were randomized and completed the study. The primary outcome of PT change (mean ± SD) was similar across interventions (chamomile tea = − 0.2 ± 0.4 s, extract capsule = − 0.2 ± 0.4 s, and placebo capsule = 0.1 ± 0.5 s; p = 0.34). INR change was 0 s (p = 0.07) for each intervention. The aPTT, TT, RT, and FG, did not change significantly across interventions (p = 0.8, p = 0.08, p = 0.8, and p = 0.2 respectively).
Conclusions
Chamomile intake by tea or capsule does not prolong PT. These findings challenge the notion to avoid perioperative chamomile intake in patients not taking warfarin.
Trial registration
ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05006378; Principal Investigator: Jonathon Schwartz, M.D.; Registered August 16, 2021.
Dietary supplements are legally considered foods despite frequently including medicinal plants as ingredients. Currently, the consumption of herbal dietary supplements, also known as plant food supplements (PFS), is increasing worldwide and some raw botanicals, highly demanded due to their popularity, extensive use, and/or well‐established pharmacological effects, have been attaining high prices in the international markets. Therefore, botanical adulteration for profit increase can occur along the whole PFS industry chain, from raw botanicals to plant extracts, until final PFS. Besides the substitution of high‐value species, unintentional mislabeling can happen in morphologically similar species. Both cases represent a health risk for consumers, prompting the development of numerous works to access botanical adulterations in PFS. Among different approaches proposed for this purpose, mass spectrometry (MS)‐based techniques have often been reported as the most promising, particularly when hyphenated with chromatographic techniques. Thus, this review aims at describing an overview of the developments in this field, focusing on the applications of MS‐based techniques to targeted and untargeted analysis to detect botanical adulterations in plant materials, extracts, and PFS.
Chrysanthemum is one of the four major cut flowers in the world, with high ornamental and economic value. Fragrance is an important ornamental character of chrysanthemum flowers, especially those consumed as tea and other foods, and the flower fragrance is the major determinant of the commercial value of chrysanthemum cultivars. Currently, however, the research on chrysanthemum flower fragrance is mainly focused on the composition and content of fragrant compounds, and a clear classification of fragrance types is lacking. Here, we divided chrysanthemum fragrance into six categories based on sensory evaluation and determined the identity and content of fragrant compounds of chrysanthemum accessions representative of each fragrance type by GC-MS. In addition, we analyzed the conserved aromatic substances responsible for the fruity fragrance type chrysanthemum with multi-functional development potential, providing a theoretical basis for creating new chrysanthemum germplasm with specific fragrance types. The results of this study can accelerate the breeding process of chrysanthemum accessions with new fragrance types.
Aromatic and medicinal plants are a great source of useful bioactive compounds for use in cosmetics, drugs, and dietary supplements. This study investigated the potential of using supercritical fluid extracts obtained from Matricaria chamomilla white ray florets, a kind of industrial herbal byproduct, as a source of bioactive cosmetic ingredients. Response surface methodology to optimize the supercritical fluid extraction process by analyzing the impact of pressure and temperature on yield and the main bioactive compound groups were used. High-throughput 96-well plate spectrophotometric methods were used to analyze the extracts for total phenols, flavonoids, tannins, and sugars, as well as their antioxidant capacity. Gas chromatography and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry was used to determine the phytochemical composition of the extracts. The extracts were also analyzed for antimicrobial activity, cytotoxicity, phototoxicity, and melanin content. Statistical analysis was performed to establish correlations between the extracts and develop models to predict the targeted phytochemical recovery and chemical and biological activities. The results show that the extracts contained a diverse range of phytochemical classes and had cytotoxic, proliferation-reducing, and antimicrobial activities, making them potentially useful in cosmetic formulations. This study provides valuable insights for further research on the uses and mechanisms of action of these extracts.
Chorisia (syn. Ceiba) species are important ornamental, economic, and medicinal plants that are endowed with a diversity of secondary metabolites; however, their volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been scarcely studied. Therefore, this work explores and compares the headspace floral volatiles of three common Chorisia species, namely Chorisia chodatii Hassl., Chorisia speciosa A. St.-Hil, and Chorisia insignis H.B.K. for the first time. A total of 112 VOCs of varied biosynthetic origins were identified at different qualitative and quantitative ratios, encompassing isoprenoids, fatty acid derivatives, phenylpropanoids, and others. Flowers of the investigated species showed perceptibly differentiated volatile profiles, with those emitted by C. insignis being dominated by non-oxygenated compounds (56.69 %), whereas oxygenated derivatives prevailed among the volatiles of C. chodatii (66.04 %) and C. speciosa (71.53 %). The variable importance in the projection (VIP) in the partial least-squares–discriminant (PLS-DA) analysis described 25 key compounds among the studied species, of which linalool was verified as the most important aroma compound based on VIP values and significance analysis, and it could represent the most typical VOC among these Chorisia species. Furthermore, molecular docking and dynamics analyses of both the major and the key VOCs displayed their moderate to promising binding interactions with four main proteins of SARS-CoV-2, including Mpro, PLpro, RdRp, and spike S1 subunit RBD. The current results collectively cast new light on the chemical diversity of the VOCs of Chorisia plants as well as their chemotaxonomic and biological relevance.
Exotic invasive plants are present in almost all terrestrial ecosystems. Their spread and ability to colonize new habitats are predicted to increase with human travel, global trade, and climate change. These plants alter the environments they invade in multiple ways, affecting surrounding species. Chemically, invasive plants can modify their environment by releasing secondary metabolites such as root exudates (liquid) or airborne (gaseous) volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The allelopathic effect of invasive species' root exudates is well studied and acknowledged as a trait contributing to invasiveness. However, less is known about the effects of invasive species' VOCs, which are likely to play important ecological roles. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the literature during the last decade (2012–2022) to explore what is known about the ecological aspects of VOCs emitted by invasive plants, focusing on the factors affecting their emission (genetic, biotic, and abiotic), and their role on plant-plant and plant-insect interactions. We found 29 studies matching our search criteria. These studies suggest that invasive species are more “chemically diverse” than their native counterparts and have different chemical behavior in native compared to invaded ranges. The studies further highlight that chemical traits are heritable and contribute to invasiveness. Multiple biotic and abiotic factors affecting invasive plants' VOC emission have been explored (e.g., herbivory, soil microorganisms, warming, and CO2). The studies indicate that invasive plants may experience less variation in their VOC emissions in response to environmental change than natives, with trade-offs between growth, reproduction and defense influencing VOC emissions. Regarding the impact on native species and their interactions, the allelopathic role of invasive plants' VOCs on native plants is well documented, consistently showing phytotoxic effects. There is also evidence of their involvement in neighbor detection. While volatile-mediated interactions between invasive plants and native insects remain poorly studied, the existing evidence shows that invasive plant VOCs have the potential to disrupt communication between native plants and insects. But insects also use multiple cues to make foraging/oviposition decisions, compensating for the disruptive effect of invasive plant VOCs. To conclude, we identify knowledge gaps and propose avenues for future research.
Background:
Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is widely used for multiple reasons such as treatment of diseases and their symptoms, empowerment, self-care, disease prevention, dissatisfaction, adverse effects or cost of conventional medicine, perception of compatibility with beliefs, and idiosyncrasy. This study investigated CAM use in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) undergoing peritoneal dialysis (PD).
Methods:
A cross-sectional survey study was conducted with 240 eligible patients with CKD in the PD program. By applying the I-CAM-Q-questionnaire, the frequency, level of satisfaction, and reasons for CAM use were explored, and the demographic and clinical data of users and non-users were analyzed. Data analysis included descriptive analysis, Student's t-test, Mann-Whitney U, chi-square, and Fisher tests.
Results:
The main types of CAM used were herbal medicine, and chamomile was the most commonly used. To improve the state of well-being was the main reason for use, the attributable benefit of CAM was high, and only a low percentage of users reported side effects. Only 31.8% of the users informed their physicians.
Conclusion:
The use of CAM is popular among renal patients, and physicians are not adequately informed; in particular, the CAM type ingested represents a risk for drug interactions and toxicity.
Intensive chemical herbicide use has resulted in human health and environmental issues. This study evaluated the phytotoxic potential of chamomile extract as a bioherbicide to minimize chemical herbicide use in wheat production. Treatments including four concentrations (0, 50, 100, and 150 mL/L) of three different chamomile plant parts (root, shoot, and root + shoot) extracts were applied to flixweed as a major weed in wheat production. Except for 50 mL/L of root extract, other concentrations of chamomile extracts decreased the germination rate of flixweed. Germnaiton rate of wheat increased with chamomile extracts except at 150 mL/L concentration of shoot extract at which the germination rate of flixweed and wheat reduced by 71.7 and 35.4%, respectively, compared to respective controls. Compared to wheat, malondialdehyde and proline in flixweed were increased five-fold in flixweed and compared to the control, ranged from 84-473 and 240-1422%, respectively. Chamomile extract also declined cell viability much quicker in flixweed than in wheat reflecting on greater inhibitory effect for flixweed control. Chamomile shoot extract reduced seedling weight and vigor index of flixweed by 63.75 and 59.4%, respectively, compared to the respective control. Results of liquid chromatography mass spectrometry of chamomile extract indicated polyphenols, flavonoids, terpenoids, and bioactive phenolic coumarins, glycosylated derivatives, quercetin and its derivatives, herniarin, umbelliferone, P-cymene, chamazulene, farnesol, amitrole, 1,8-cineole, and limonene were effective in inhibiting the germination and growth of flixweed. We concluded that 150 mg/L of chamomile shoot extract could be used as a bioherbicide to sustainably suppress flixweed in wheat production.
Mood disorders, also often referred to as affective disorders, are a group of psychiatric illnesses that severely impact mood and its related functions. The high medical expenditures have placed a significant financial burden on patients and their families. Aromatherapy is an alternative and complementary treatment that utilizes essential oils (EOs) or volatile oils (VOs) to achieve major therapeutic goals. In general, EOs are volatile chemicals that enter the body primarily through skin absorption and/or nasal inhalation. In addition, they can work through oral administration. Inhalation aromatherapy has shown unique advantages for treating mood disorders, especially depression, anxiety and mental disorders such as sleep disorder, which have been validated over the last decade through clinical and animal studies. Accumulating evidence has shown that EOs or VOs can bypass the blood-brain barrier to target brain tissue through the nasal-brain pathway. Subsequently, they act on the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and limbic system in the brain to improve symptoms of anxiety, depression and improve sleep quality. Here, we review the natural aromatic plants’ volatiles or essential oils used commonly as adjuncts to manage mood disorders and illustrate the mechanisms of inhalation aromatherapy, and mainly summarized the application of transnasal inhalation aromatherapy in depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders. We conclude that aromatherapy does not cause side-effects, which is vastly different from commonly used psychotropic drugs. Inhalation aromatherapy via brain-targeted nasal delivery offers potentially efficacious treatment for mental disorders and merits further study.
Aromas have a powerful influence in our everyday life and are known to exhibit an array of pharmacological properties, including anxiolytic, anti-stress, relaxing, and sedative effects. Numerous animal and human studies support the use of aromas and their constituents to reduce anxiety-related symptoms and/or behaviours. Although the exact mechanism of how these aromas exert their anxiolytic effects is not fully understood, the GABAergic system is thought to be primarily involved. The fragrance emitted from a number of plant essential oils has shown promise in recent studies in modulating GABAergic neurotransmission, with GABAA receptors being the primary therapeutic target. This review will explore the anxiolytic and sedative properties of aromas found in common beverages, such as coffee, tea, and whisky as well aromas found in food, spices, volatile organic compounds, and popular botanicals and their constituents. In doing so, this review will focus on these aromas and their influence on the GABAergic system and provide greater insight into viable anxiety treatment options.
Matricaria chamomilla L. is a famous medicinal plant distributed worldwide. It is widely used in traditional medicine to treat all kinds of diseases, including infections, neuropsychiatric, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and liver disorders. It is also used as a sedative, antispasmodic, antiseptic, and antiemetic. In this review, reports on M. chamomilla taxonomy, botanical and ecology description, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological and pharmacological properties, possible application in different industries, and encapsulation were critically gathered and summarized. Scientific search engines such as Web of Science, PubMed, Wiley Online, SpringerLink, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Google Scholar were used to gather data on M. chamomilla. The phytochemistry composition of essential oils and extracts of M. chamomilla has been widely analyzed, showing that the plant contains over 120 constituents. Essential oils are generally composed of terpenoids, such as α-bisabolol and its oxides A and B, bisabolone oxide A, chamazulene, and β-farnesene, among other compounds. On the other hand, M. chamomilla extracts were dominated by phenolic compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and coumarins. In addition, M. chamomilla demonstrated several biological properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-parasitic, insecticidal, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. These activities allow the application of M. chamomilla in the medicinal and veterinary field, food preservation, phytosanitary control, and as a surfactant and anti-corrosive agent. Finally, the encapsulation of M. chamomilla essential oils or extracts allows the enhancement of its biological activities and improvement of its applications. According to the findings, the pharmacological activities of M. chamomilla confirm its traditional uses. Indeed, M. chamomilla essential oils and extracts showed interesting antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antidiabetic, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, anti-pyretic, anti-allergic, and analgesic activities. Moreover, the most important application of M. chamomilla was in the medicinal field on animals and humans.
German chamomile (M. chamomilla) is recognized as a star herb due to its medicinal and aromatic properties. This plant is found across a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. Both the flower heads and blue essential oils of German chamomile possess several pharmacological properties of an anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic and sedative, etc., nature, which makes it a highly sought after herb for use in many pharma and aroma industries. Chamomile tea, prepared from its flower heads, is also a well-known herbal tea for mind and body relaxation. Though it is a high-demand herb, farmers have not adopted this plant for large scale cultivation as a crop, which could improve their livelihood, due to the high cost in flower heads harvesting, loss in over mature and immature flower heads picking during harvesting, unavailability of varieties and agrotechnologies for machine harvesting, a lack of efficient process development of oil extraction and in the lack of improved stable varieties. There are many studies that have reported on the phytochemistry and pharmacological uses of chamomile, which further explore its importance in the medicine industry. Several studies are also present in the literature on its cultivation practices and plant ecology. However, studies on breeding behavior, genetic improvement, varietal development and mechanical harvesting are scarce in German chamomile. Hence, keeping in mind various aspects of farmers’ and researchers’ interest, earlier reports on taxonomy, floral biology, processing of oil extraction, active constituents, uses, agronomy, breeding challenges and opportunities in German chamomile are summarized in this review.
This commentary critically examines the modern paradigm of natural volatiles in ‘medical aromatherapy’, first by explaining the semantics of natural volatiles in health, then by addressing chemophenetic challenges to authenticity or reproducibility, and finally by elaborating on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes in food, therapy, and disease prophylaxis. Research over the last 50 years has generated substantial knowledge of the chemical diversity of volatiles, and their strengths and weaknesses as antimicrobial agents. However, due to modest in vitro outcomes, the emphasis has shifted toward the ability to synergise or potentiate non-volatile natural or pharmaceutical drugs, and to modulate gene expression by binding to the lipophilic domain of mammalian cell receptors. Because essential oils and natural volatiles are small and lipophilic, they demonstrate high skin penetrating abilities when suitably encapsulated, or if derived from a dietary item they bioaccumulate in fatty tissues in the body. In the skin or body, they may synergise or drive de novo therapeutic outcomes that range from anti-inflammatory effects through to insulin sensitisation, dermal rejuvenation, keratinocyte migration, upregulation of hair follicle bulb stem cells or complementation of anti-cancer therapies. Taking all this into consideration, volatile organic compounds should be examined as candidates for prophylaxis of cardiovascular disease. Considering the modern understanding of biology, the science of natural volatiles may need to be revisited in the context of health and nutrition.
Introduction: Aromatic plants produce diverse chemical constituents with potential to inhibit viral infections. These plants have been utilized for the prevention and treatment of a range of infectious and non-infectious diseases. Essential oils are among the plant-derived antiviral agents that are being employed in phytomedicine, and are considered as prospective drug candidate against the ravaging Coronavirus. Methods: Relevant articles relating to the concept were identified using a combination of manual library search as well as journal publication on the subject and critically reviewed. Results: Essential oils in medicinal plants have extensive applications in medicinal chemistry, aromatherapy and pharmaceuticals. Essential oils have several biological properties such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, wound-healing and anti-cancer effects in vitro and in vivo. Several reports have analyzed and described essential oils as good antiviral agents against Respiratory tract viral infections hence are excellent prospective candidate against Corona virus. Conclusions: It is hoped that efficient and effective exploration and optimization of essential oils from medicinal plants would improve the drug discovery process against the ravaging Coronavirus.
Coumarins belong to the benzopyrone family commonly found in many medicinal plants. Natural coumarins demonstrated a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, anticancer, antibacterial, antimalarial, casein kinase-2 (CK2) inhibitory, antifungal, antiviral, Alzheimer’s disease inhibition, neuroprotective, anticonvulsant, phytoalexins, ulcerogenic, and antihypertensive. There are very few studies on the bioavailability of coumarins; therefore, further investigations are necessitated to study the bioavailability of different coumarins which already showed good biological activities in previous studies. On the evidence of varied pharmacological properties, the present work presents an overall review of the derivation, availability, and biological capacities of coumarins with further consideration of the essential mode of their therapeutic actions. In conclusion, a wide variety of coumarins are available, and their pharmacological activities are of current interest thanks to their synthetic accessibility and riches in medicinal plants. Coumarins perform the valuable function as therapeutic agents in a range of medical fields.
Plants in ecology interact with their biotic and abiotic environment. Means of interactions, and thereby crucial for the survival of the species, are secondary plant metabolites. Exploration of the plants' metabolism in action and reaction to their environment, the formation and release of secondary plant metabolites in specific (stress) situations and their functions as attractants, defence or protection agents gives us the chance to exploit the knowledge for human purposes. The purpose of medicinal use of these metabolites turns the bearing plants into medicinal plants. Health promoting, disease preventing and other favourable effects make these plants and their extracts valuable as dietary and feed additives. This review covers some current aspects of conventional breeding, particularly of German chamomile, of phytochemical analytics and of use of medicinal plants in feed supplementation. The main three groups of functional plant metabolites terpenes, polyphenols and alkaloids are treated. Outlook in research, in challenging analytical questions and in effective product development is provided, outlining current trends in production of secondary plant metabolites and demands on the market.
Essential oils (EOs) are extracted from plants and contain active components with therapeutic effects. Evidence shows that various types of EOs have a wide range of health benefits. In our previous studies, the potential of lavender EO for prevention and even treatment of depression and anxiety symptoms was demonstrated. The favourable outcomes may be due to multiple mechanisms, including the regulation of monoamine level, the induction of neurotrophic factor expression, the regulation of the endocrine system and the promotion of neurogenesis. The molecules of EOs may reach the brain and exert an effect through two distinctive pathways, namely, the olfactory system and the respiratory system. After inhalation, the molecules of the EOs would either act directly on the olfactory mucosa or pass into the respiratory tract. These two delivery pathways suggest different underlying mechanisms of action. Different sets of responses would be triggered, such as increased neurogenesis, regulation of hormonal levels, activation of different brain regions, and alteration in blood biochemistry, which would ultimately affect both mood and emotion. In this review, we will discuss the clinical effects of EOs on mood regulation and emotional disturbances as well as the cellular and molecular mechanisms of action. Emphasis will be put on the interaction between the respiratory and central nervous system and the involved potential mechanisms. Further evidence is needed to support the use of EOs in the clinical treatment of mood disturbances. Exploration of the underlying mechanisms may provide insight into the future therapeutic use of EO components treatment of psychiatric and physical symptoms.
Plant specialized metabolites (SMs) play an important role in the interaction with the environment and are part of the plant defense response. These natural products are volatile, semi-volatile and non-volatile compounds produced from common building blocks deriving from primary metabolic pathways and rapidly evolved to allow a better adaptation of plants to environmental cues. Specialized metabolites include terpenes, flavonoids, alkaloids, glucosinolates, tannins, resins, etc. that can be used as phytochemicals, food additives, flavoring agents and pharmaceutical compounds. This review will be focused on Mediterranean crop plants as a source of SMs, with a special attention on the strategies that can be used to modulate their production, including abiotic stresses, interaction with beneficial soil microorganisms and novel genetic approaches.
Anxiety disorder is a common psychiatric disease. Roman chamomile as medicine or tea has long been used as a mild tranquilizer to reduce anxiety, but the mechanism is unclear. This research is based on network pharmacology combined with database mining to find the ingredients, action pathways and key targets of Roman chamomile for the treatment of anxiety. About 126 common targets related to chamomile and anxiety were obtained, and these targets were involved in 56 KEGG pathways. GEO screened LRRK2 as a key protein, and molecular docking showed that the protein could stably bind to drug components. Roman chamomile has the characteristics of multi‐target and multi‐pathway in the treatment of anxiety disorder. Its possible mechanism is to intervene anxiety disorder in the process of disease development, such as neuroactive ligand‐receptor interaction, serotonin synapse, and cAMP signaling pathway. LRRK2 may be an important gene for Roman chamomile in the treatment of anxiety disorder.
Practical applications
Roman chamomile is well known for its use in medicine and tea making. It contains many nutrients, which can relieve people’s anxiety, help sleep, antibacterial and anti‐inflammatory. In this article, through network pharmacology combined with Gene Expression Omnibus data mining and molecular docking, the target and mechanism of Roman chamomile in the treatment of anxiety were discussed, and its efficacy was verified by model animals, which not only clarified its mechanism at the systematic level, but also proved to be effective at the biological level. It provides a reference for the further development and utilization of Roman chamomile.
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by unpaired blood glycaemia maintenance. T2DM can be treated by inhibiting carbohydrate hydrolyzing enzymes (α-amylases and α-glucosidases) to decrease postprandial hyperglycemia. Acarbose and voglibose are inhibitors used in clinical practice. However, these drugs are associated with unpleasant gastrointestinal side effects. This study explores new α-amylase inhibitors deriving from plant volatile specialized metabolites. Sixty-two essential oils (EOs) from different plant species and botanical families were subjected to α-amylase in vitro enzymatic assay and chemically characterized using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Several EOs were found to be potential α-amylase inhibitors, and Eucalyptus radiata, Laurus nobilis, and Myristica fragrans EOs displayed inhibitory capacities comparable to that of the positive control (i.e., acarbose). A bio-guided fractionation approach was adopted to isolate and identify the active fractions/compounds of Eucalyptus radiata and Myristica fragrans EOs. The bio-guided fractionation revealed that EOs α-amylase inhibitory activity is often the result of antagonist, additive, or synergistic interactions among their bioactive constituents and led to the identification of 1,8-cineole, 4-terpineol, α-terpineol, α-pinene, and β-pinene as bioactive compounds, also confirmed when they were tested singularly. These results demonstrate that EO oils are a promising source of potential α-amylase inhibitors.
Chamomile and sage are common herbs that are mostly used as infusions due to their beneficial properties. The aims of this study were to determine the total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, and potential toxicity of chamomile and sage aqueous extracts prepared at three different temperatures (25, 80, 100 °C) and finally, to detect their phenolic profiles at the optimum temperature. In order to measure the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity, Folin–Ciocalteu and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl hydrate (DPPH) assays were applied, respectively. The extraction temperature at 80 °C was the optimum, with maximal antioxidant activity and the highest total phenolic content for both herbs. Luminescence-based assay demonstrated that all the examined aqueous extracts possessed toxicity towards Vibrio fischeri. Microtox assay demonstrated no correlation with the other two assays, which were positively correlated. The major phenolics of chamomile were rutin trihydrate, ferulic acid, chlorogenic acid, and apigenin-7-O-glucoside; and major phenolics of sage were rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid K, and luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, as defined by LC-MS of aqueous extracts at 80 °C. It can be concluded that the extraction of herbal aqueous extracts at 80 °C can provide significant bioactive and antioxidant compounds, but their consumption must be in moderation.
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are saprophytic fungi which can infect and contaminate preharvest and postharvest food/feed with production of aflatoxins (B1, B2, and G). They are also an opportunistic pathogen causing aspergillosis diseases of animals and humans. In this study, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from Streptomyces yanglinensis 3-10 were found to be able to inhibit mycelial growth, sporulation, conidial germination, and expression of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes in A. flavus and A. parasiticus in vitro. On peanut kernels, the VOCs can also reduce the disease severity and inhibit the aflatoxins production by A. flavus and A. parasiticus under the storage conditions. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation showed that high dosage of the VOCs can inhibit conidial germination and colonization by the two species of Aspergillus on peanut kernels. The VOCs also showed suppression of mycelial growth on 18 other plant pathogenic fungi and one Oomycetes organism. By using SPME-GC-MS, 19 major VOCs were detected, like in other Streptomyces, 2-MIB was found as the main volatile component among the detected VOCs. Three standard chemicals, including methyl 2-methylbutyrate (M2M), 2-phenylethanol (2-PE), and β-caryophyllene (β-CA), showed antifungal activity against A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Among them, M2M showed highest inhibitory effect than other two standard compounds against conidial germination of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. To date, this is the first record about the antifungal activity of M2M against A. flavus and A. parasiticus. The VOCs from S. yanglinensis 3-10 did not affect growth of peanut seedlings. In conclusion, our results indicate that S. yanglinensis 3-10 may has a potential to become a promising biofumigant in for control of A. flavus and A. parasiticus.
The cyanobacterial species used in this study were collected from medicinal plant beds and were cultured using nitrate free BG-11 medium. As heterocystous cyanobacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen and some of them additionally produce phytohormones, we hypothesized that using a suspension of beneficial cyanobacterial species in the soil of the plant might enhance its growth and would probably also affect the essential oil of this plant. Based on a seedling growth test, the cyanobacterial species Nostoc carneum, Wollea vaginicola and Nostoc punctiforme were selected for a pot trial. A glasshouse experiment with seven replicates was designed to evaluate the effects of the cyanobacterial suspensions on Matricaria chamomilla L. growth and essential oil production. The cyanobacterial suspensions were applied 15 days after planting. Fifty days after flowering the plants were harvested and the plant growth parameters were measured. Additionally, the chemical composition of soil samples from both the treatments and control pots were analyzed. All of the studied cyanobacterial suspensions had a significant effect on the weight of essential oil as well as on root growth. The chamazulene content of the essential oil in plants treated with N. carneum was 26.9% more than in the control. HPLC analysis revealed that the cyanobacterial species used in this experiment were able to produce plant growth–promoting hormones such as indole 3-acetic acid, indole 3-propionic acid and indole 3-butyric acid. There was a significant positive correlation between cyanobacterial IAA and all of the growth factors, as well as some constituents of the essential oil.
Thyme is an evergreen shrub that has been utilized in traditional medicine and culinary packages for centuries because of its aroma and medicinal properties. The medicinal properties of thyme leaves are attributed to its volatile constituents. The study aimed to identify the volatile constituents in the oil extracted from the Thyme sp grown in Oman and to evaluate its in vitro antibacterial and antioxidant activity. Fresh Thyme leaves were collected from Muscat, Sultanate of Oman in the month of September 2018. Thyme oil was isolated from leaves by hydro-distillation. The volatile chemical constituents present in the thyme oil were analyzed by Gas Chromatograph coupled with Mass Spectrometer. The ability of isolated oil to scavenge free radicals was evaluated by an in vitro DPPH assay method while antimicrobial activity was tested against S. aureus and E. coli bacterial strains by disc diffusion method. The bioactivity of the major constituent of the oil was predicted with the help of PASS and CLC-pred software. Molecular docking studies were performed by docking server. GC–MS analysis of thyme oil revealed the presence of 11 components. Carvacrol and γ-terpinene were identified as the major volatile constituents in thyme oil. Thyme oil inhibited 71.57% of DPPH radicals at 40 µg/mL concentration. Thyme oil displayed the better antimicrobial activity than the standard drug ampicillin against both the bacteria. Antiseptic, antiinfective, reductant and antimutagenic bioactivities of carvacrol as predicted by PASS support the in vitro experimental results. CLC-pred showed carvacrol to be active against Metastatic melanoma, Oligodendroglioma and Non small cell lung cancer cell lines. The antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Omani thyme oil could be due to its high content of carvacrol. Omani thyme oil seems to be a viable alternative source of natural antimicrobial agent(s) and warrants further studies to ascertain its therapeutic spectrum of biological studies.
The review presents typical pathways of artefacts generation from the plant and honey phytochemicals: (a) cutting of the fresh plant material (with or without characteristic aroma release); (b) drying process of the plant material; (c) distillation or extraction; (d) thermal processing; (e) storage; (f) gas chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis. Major reactions of artefacts formation were presented (oxidation, hydrolysis, H2O addition, degradation, rearrangement, others) in order to point out general mechanisms of the artefacts formation that could occur in any sample containing particular phytochemical molecular structures. Degradation of phytochemicals and formation of the artefacts depends on several chemical and external factors (such as temperature, water, light, accessibility to atmospheric oxygen, chemical composition, compound structures, or presence of impurities). Most common examples of volatile artefacts generation were presented. Detail analysis, based on different preparative methods, should be performed as a part of the analytical toolbox to obtain more complete understanding on the artefacts formation.
Insomnia, a widespread issue in modern life characterized by sleep difficulties, has prompted interest in herbal remedies known for their calming effects. This study explores the potential of a herbal tea formulation containing Passiflora incarnata L. (PI), Valeriana officinalis (valerian), and Chamomilla matricaria extracts as a solution for insomnia. Microscopic examination validated the authenticity of the herbal components, while extracts were prepared through meticulous maceration and evaporation. Safety analysis, assessing lethal dose (LD50), confirmed the tea's safety with an LD50 of 2400 mg/kg.In an animal study involving thiopental sodium-induced sleep in mice, significant findings emerged. The test group receiving the herbal tea at 300 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg exhibited notably shorter sleep onset times (p < 0.05) compared to the control group. Additionally, their sleep duration at these doses significantly exceeded that of the control group (p < 0.01). These results collectively suggest that the herbal tea, especially at doses of 300 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg, exhibited an anxiolytic effect, as evidenced by increased open-arm exploration and reduced anxiety-like behavior in the Elevated Plus Maze (EPM) test. These findings highlight the herbal tea's potential as a safe and effective sleep aid, offering promise in addressing insomnia. However, further research is necessary to explore its clinical applications in humans, advancing our understanding of its broader therapeutic potential for sleep-related issues.
Phytochemical investigation of the volatile oil of Yueju (YJVO) and its constituent herbs induced the detection of 52 compounds in YJVO, mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes as well as a small amount of aromatic and aliphatic compounds. 5 of these compounds were found only in the YJVO instead of the volatile oil of its constituent herbs. The anti-depressant effect of YJVO was proved by behavioral tests in chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) mice. An acute oral toxicity evaluation determined the LD50 of YJVO was 5.780 mL/kg. Doppler ultrasound and laser speckle imaging have detected that the YJVO could improve depression-related cerebral blood flow. In addition, related neurotransmitters and proteins were analyzed through targeted metabolomics and immunofluorescence. The potential antidepressant mechanisms of YJVO related to significantly decreasing Glu in CUMS mice by up-regulating the ERK/AKT-mediated expression of GLT-1.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Chamomile (M. chamomilla L.) is an herbaceous plant from family Astereaceae, that has a long history of use in traditional medicine. It has been used as herbal remedies for thousands of years to treat several diseases, including infections, neuropsychiatric, respiratory, gastrointestinal, and liver disorders. Chronic inflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of most infectious and non-infectious diseases and macrophages are considered the major cellular players that drive disease initiation and maintenance.
Aim of the study:
The aim of this study was to evaluate the variation in the chemical profile of the essential oil of M. chamomilla L. plants collected three experimental field sites in the Molise, Additionally, we evaluated the pharmacological mechanism behind the anti-inflammatory effect of M. chamomilla essential oils (E.O).
Material and methods:
Three essential oils (called GC1, GC2 and GC3) were extracted from aerial parts of M. chamomilla by hydrodistillation and chemical analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The Eos were tested for their ability to modulate pro-inflammatory murine macrophages and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) functions.
Results:
The chemical analysis of the samples revealed the presence of a high content of the oxygenated sesquiterpenes that represented more than the half of the entire oils. GC1, GC2 and GC3 essential oils significantly attenuated LPS/IFN-γ-induced inflammation by reducing M1 polarization. In details, they showed significant anti-inflammatory property by inhibiting NO, TNF-α and IL-6 production. These effects were correlated to a suppression of LPS-mediated p65 activation, the critical transactivation subunit for NF-κB transcription factor. Oxidative stress may trigger macrophages activation and elicit strong immune responses. Our study demonstrated that GC1, GC2 and GC3 were highly effective at increasing GCL and HMOX-1 anti-oxidant enzymes expression leading to the rapid scavenging of ROS. The antioxidant activity of these EOs was explained throughout the activation of NRF2 signaling pathway. Next, we demonstrated that EOs were able to reduce CD4+ T cell activation which are also involved in inflammatory processes.
Conclusions:
Our data describe for the first time that chamomile EOs exerted their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity by modulating macrophages and CD4+ T cells-mediate immune response.
Chrysanthemum morifolium is one of the four major cut flowers in the world and has important ornamental and economic value. Flower fragrance is an important ornamental character of chrysanthemum, especially for tea and edible chrysanthemum, and the excellent fragrance determines its commercial value. At present, however, chrysanthemum is mostly chrysanthemum fragrance and medicinal fragrance, and the research on chrysanthemum flower fragrance mainly focuses on the composition and content of fragrancetic substances, and there is no clear classification of fragrance types. Here, we divided chrysanthemum fragrance into six categories by sensory evaluation, and detected the fragrance components and contents of every representative chrysanthemum with different fragrance types by GC-MS. In addition, we analyzed the genetic conservative substances of fruity fragrance chrysanthemum with multi-functional development potential, which provided a theoretical basis for creating new chrysanthemum germplasm with specific fragrance types, which was conducive to accelerating the biological breeding process of chrysanthemum with new fragrance types.
Aromatic plants produce aromatic compounds, generally in form of essential oils which can be brought to use for several purposes. Essential oils are examples of secondary metabolites that are produced by only a few species of plants and the production of secondary metabolites in plants is in direct proportion to the crop yield which is highly regulated by the availability or non-availability of nutrients required by the plant. Aromatic plants require both macro and micronutrients for normal physiological and metabolic processes of the plant. Though the amount of micronutrients required is quite small, still they play a prominent role in the metabolic and cellular functions performed by plants. Besides, the deficiency, availability and amount of micronutrients in the soil have straight and major effects on biosynthesis and concentration of secondary metabolites, thus influencing the essential oil yield and content. However, imbalance of micronutrients in soil also chiefly modifies the amount of essential oil and its composition in aromatic plants. Therefore critical aspects need to be considered for micronutrient management like quantity of micronutrient required by crop, range between deficiency and toxicity of micronutrient and cropping pattern of the plant. Soil and plant analysis have over the years been the most adopted methods to assess the deficiency and requirement of micronutrient in plants. Moreover, bio-fertilization and Nano-fertilization are emerging technologies for better management of micronutrient application to plants.
Essential oilsEssential oils have been used since the discovery of fire by many civilizations. Alchemists used to produce the Quinta essentia by distillation, which now is known as essential oils. This review aims to provide a systematic overview of the composition in terms of active compounds and main biological activitiesBiological activities of different essential oils. In general terms, these include anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, antioxidant, antitumor, antimicrobial, anticancer, and antimutagenic activities. In addition, the techniques to extract and evaluate their composition are discussed. Moreover, their main industrial applicationsIndustrial applications, especially the application as flavors and fragrances, in pharmaceutical and medicinal industry, in alternative medicines, in cosmetic industry, and in food industry are also reviewed and discussed in order to identify the future trends. Finally, the biotechnological productionBiotechnological production of essential oils and their components was also assessed.
Thousands of structurally and chemically diverse phytochemicals called secondary metabolites are ubiquitously found in the plant kingdom. They are not essential for plant growth and development, yet they act as herbivore repellents and pollinator attractants. This fundamental role is facilitated via modulating the colour and fragrance of the plant/parts. However, they are economically important for humans in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, food additives, and agrochemicals. Therefore, different ways and means have been explored to enhance their production and accumulation in the plants. Salicylic acid (SA) is one of the most important plant phenolics that affects seed germination, stomatal movements, pigment accumulation, photosynthesis, ethylene biosynthesis, heat production, enzyme activities, abscission reversal, nutrient uptake, flower induction, membrane functions, legume nodulation, metabolic activities and overall growth and development of the plants. Due to its hormone-like activity, SA has also been employed to different plant species, both in vivo and in vitro, to explore its role in the secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation. These studies clearly demonstrate that SA can efficiently recuperate the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in plants. Moreover, plant tissue culture technique per se elicits the secondary metabolites production. Supplementation of SA to the culture medium or short term exposure of the cultures to SA additively boosts the biosynthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites. All this information is consolidated and presented here in detail to add a new dimension to the role of SA in plants as well as to explore a potent strategy to enhance the production and accumulation of secondary metabolites in plants.
Background
Essential oils (EOs) have remained in the limelight of the scientific community due their versatility coupled with consumers increasing demand for natural, safe and effective health products. Besides, its applications in the food, pharmaceutical, agricultural and textile industries amongst others have consolidated its popularity.
Scope and approach
EOs are rich sources of pharmacologically active phytoconstituents which justifies their health and industrial applications. Despite their wide applications, their low aqueous solubility, high volatility and sensitivity to light, temperature and oxygen compromises the exploration of their abounding benefits. Hence, this paper focuses on disseminating the chemistry, pharmacology, modes of action as well as the applications of EOs in various industries. Additionally, it focuses on the factors affecting their yield and composition as well as novel methods (micro-/nano-technology) that can be employed to optimize their effects.
Key findings and conclusions: The pharmacological properties (anti: microbial; oxidant; hyperpigmentation; diabetic; microbial; viral; and cancer properties as well as the cardio-, hepato- and neuro-protective) of EOs have been validated through various studies and their corresponding mechanisms of action have been reported in this paper. Notably, their antimicrobial and antioxidant attributes have enabled their exploration in active packagings whereby they extend the shelf life alongside maintaining food quality. On the other hand, their encapsulation in nanodelivery sytems permits to target and modulate their release thereby enhancing their pharmacological potential for biomedical aplications. In addition to imparting fragrance, they serve as antimicrobials in fabrics in textile industry. In agriculture, their biocidal effects makes them effective eco-friendly pesticides.
The consumption of flowers as food is reported in various cultures around the world as part of traditional cuisine or alternative medicine, in addition to their wide use as ornaments. However, many species of edible flowers can be considered more than a delicacy or a garnish due to their nutritional value as source of protein and essential aminoacids. In this scenario, flowers represent an important segment to expand food market, due to their suitable sensory and nutritional characteristics, as well as presence of bioactive compounds beneficial to human health. Research on consumer behavior and purchase intent have been unraveling ways to explore the different attributes of edible flowers, in order to conquer this promising market in the following decades. Socio-cultural factors involved in the consumption of edible flowers have been subject of several studies aiming at popularizing and expanding this growing industry and encouraging local use of traditional flowers is important to preserve endangered traditions. On the other hand, nutritional properties, pharmacological benefits, chemical composition and the forms of preparation of edible species have been increasingly studied with the growing search for natural and health foods. Modern and effective methods for extraction of bioactive compounds from flowers are also contributing to explore their components, allowing the development of functional ingredients for food industry. Some key information as proper taxonomy and toxicological profile are still necessary to stimulate the consumption of edible flowers, as well as the creation of a good practice manual for proper management (cultivation, handling and preparation) of flowers for commercialization. Scientific and technical information on nutritional, therapeutic and chemical features of edible flowers are reviewed and discussed, aiming at strengthening the knowledge, and, consequently, consuming habits and research on their benefits in human diet.
Betel leaf (Piper betle L.) var. Bangla is an essential oil (EO) rich plant belongs to Piperaceace family used as traditional herbal medicine. The extraction of EO from fresh and cured betel leaves is of high interest for industrial application. Thus, the present study was aimed to optimize the EO extraction and its bio-chemical characterisation. Box-Behnken Design coupled with response surface methodology was employed to optimize the independent variables such as liquid to solid ratio (30:1-50:1 mL/g), extraction time (5–7 h), and particle size (0–20 mesh). Quadratic polynomial models were found to be highly significant (p < 0.05) obtaining fresh and cured betel leaf EO with a yield of 0.18%±0.01% and 0.22%±0.02% at optimal condition: 40:1 mL/g, 6 h, and 10 mesh. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis revealed thirty-three and thirty volatile compounds, representing 98.41% and 97.34% of the optimized fresh and cured leaf EO, respectively which have a varied range of biological activities and industrial applications. Eugenol, estragole, linalool, α-copaene, anethole, chavicol, and caryophyllene were found to be highly abundant in both EO with different percentages. Antibacterial activity was evaluated against Mycobacterium smegmatis, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the results demonstrated that cured leaf EO showed significantly higher antimicrobial activity against M. smegmatis than fresh leaf EO. Moreover, morphological study was carried out to investigate the extraction mechanism of fresh and cured betel leaves with the help of scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Phyto-Pharmalogical Effect of Six Medicinal Plants used in Gastrosight herbal distillate as a Traditional Treatment of Gastrointestinal disorders
- M Jamzadfard
- H Ebrahimi
Super-powered immunity: natural remedies for 21st century viruses and superbugs
- M S Cook
- MS Cook
Exploration and characterization of Wild Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb) Wats. Var. Sofia
- J Hemalatha
- M Vinutha
- K Sreelatha
- K T Saraswathi
Edible flowers: bioactive profile and its potential to be used in food development
- J A Takahashi
- Fagg Rezende
- Maf Moura
- Lcb Dominguete
- D Sande
- JA Takahashi
Total volatile profile of Artemisia umbelliformis Lam. as a predictive marker of thujones amount in genepì liqueur
- L Boggia
- B Sgorbini
- C L Cagliero
- G Pignata
- M L Colombo
Potential of the reversed-inject differential flow modulator for comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography in the profiling and fingerprinting of volatiles from complex food samples
- Cei Cordero
- F Magagna
- E Liberto
- L Cobelli
- G Stani
- A Miliazza
Flavour thesaurus: more flavours: plant-led pairings, recipes and ideas for cooks
- N Segnit