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DOI 10.26773/smj.240708
Sport Mont 22 (2024) 2: 53–59 53
Analyzing the Associations between Physical
Literacy, Physical Activity Levels, and
Sedentary Behavior: Cross-sectional Study in
Preadolescent Children
Antea Sipalo Lilic
1
, Petra Rajkovic Vuletic
1,2
, Miran Pehar
3
, Edin Uzicanin
4
, Ivana Cerkez Zovko
3
, Belmin
Bujakovic
3
, Natasa Zenic
1
1University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, 21000 Split, Croatia, 2University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, 3University of
Mostar, Faculty of Science and Education, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 4University of Tuzla, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education,
75000 Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Abstract
Physical literacy (PL) is considered an important determinant of physical activity level (PAL), but studies have
rarely examined the associations between PL and PAL in preadolescents. is study aimed to evaluate asso-
ciatios between PL, PAL and sedentary behavior (SB) in preadolescents from southeastern Europe. e par-
ticipants were 9- to 11-year-old children from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (n=333, 52% girls) who
were tested for PL, PAL and SB. e PLAYself questionnaire was used for the evaluation of PL, while PAL was
estimated by data provided throughout the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children (PAQ-C). Pearson’s
correlations and multiple regressions were calculated to identify the associations between study variables. e
results revealed a signicant correlation between PL and PAL in the total sample (16% of the common variance)
among boys (10% of the common variance) and girls (25% of the common variance), which was additionally
conrmed by multiple regression calculated between the PL subdomains and PAL (R2=0.23, 0.15, and 0.31 for
total sample, boys and girls, respectively). e SB was not signicantly correlated with PL (<2% of the common
variance; p>0.05) or with PAL (<1% of the common variance; p>0.05). e results indicated a stronger asso-
ciation between PL and PAL in girls than in boys, indicating the possible inuence of the types of physically
demanding activities children are involved in on the studied associations. To explore causality more specically,
intervention studies are warranted.
Keywords: prepubescent children, questionnaire, regression, correlation
Introduction
ere is strong evidence that physical activity (PA) has
multiple benets for children and adolescents, improving
physical and mental health, sleep quality, brain develop-
ment, bone health, and social, psychological, and cognitive
health (Alvarez-Pitti et al., 2020). Furthermore, PA is recog-
nized as an important factor in the prevention of overweight
and obesity (Ariza et al., 2019). However, despite the current
knowledge on the benets of PA, there is an increasing level
of sedentary behavior characterized by low physical activity
levels (PAL). Unfortunately, the majority of the young pop-
ulation is not physically active, and global reports indicate
that >80% of children and adolescents do not have sucient
PAL (Guthold, Stevens, Riley, & Bull, 2020; Kuna, Duvnjak,
Correspondence:
P. Rajkovic Vuletic
University of Split, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Kinesiology
E-mail: petra.rajkovic@kifst.hr
ORIGINAL SCIENTIFIC PAPER
54 Sport Mont 22 (2024) 2
PHYSICAL LITERACY IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN | A. S. LILIC ET AL.
& Sklempe Kokić, 2023). Of particular concern is that re-
cent reviews of scientic papers emphasize that a progressive
decline in moderate to severe PAL occurs even before ad-
olescence, beginning between early and middle childhood,
that is, between the ages of six and nine (Farooq et al., 2020;
Vukelja, Milanovic, & Salaj, 2022). erefore, it is necessary
to investigate methods to increase the level of PAL in chil-
dren and determine the factors associated with it. As one
of the novel solutions, the concept of physical literacy (PL),
which is considered a key factor that leads to an increase in
the PAL was proposed (Caldwell et al., 2020; Geets-Kesić,
Maras, & Gilić, 2023)
Physical literacy (PL) is dened as “the motivation,
condence, physical competence, knowledge, and under-
standing to value and take responsibility for engagement in
physical activities for life (Whitehead, 2013). e concept of
PL encompasses the development of skills, knowledge and
attitudes that empower individuals to lead a physically ac-
tive lifestyle throughout their lives and, as such, emphasizes
the importance of encouraging lifelong engagement in PA.
Although dierent concepts of PL and tools for assessing the
level of PL have been developed around the world, there is
no consensus on which is the most appropriate (Longmuir &
Tremblay, 2016). However, the most popular and common-
ly used tools for assessing PL are the Canadian Assessment
of Physical Literacy (CAPL) and the Physical Literacy
Assessment of Youth (PLAY; de Dieu & Zhou, 2021). Recent
studies have shown better reliability and validity of the PLAY
questionnaire in the evaluation of PL in preadolescents
(Vuletic et al., 2023). is is important to highlight because,
from the aspect of the development of lifelong participation
in PAs, preadolescence is a crucial period.
More precisely, the PL recognizes several subdomains,
including (1) the physical domain (which includes motor
skills and physical capacity), (2) the aective domain (which
includes motivation and condence) and (3) the cognitive
domain (which includes knowledge and understanding).
ese subdomains are interrelated and are critical for sup-
porting participation in PA. erefore, encouraging the de-
velopment of PL in children from an early age is important
for a lifelong active and healthy lifestyle. However, although it
can be assumed that PL and PA are related, studies have rare-
ly investigated their associations in children and adolescents,
and the results are generally inconsistent. In brief, Canadian
studies have shown a certain positive association between PL
and PAL in children aged 8 to 12 years (Belanger et al., 2018;
Stearns, Wohlers, McHugh, Kuzik, & Spence, 2019). Similar
results were reported in another Canadian study of children
aged 7-14 years (Bremer et al., 2020). Moreover, a study
performed in China on adolescents aged 12 to 18 years evi-
denced a low (although signicant) correlation between PL
and PAL (Choi, Sum, Leung, & Ng, 2018). Finally, a recent
Croatian study revealed a signicant correlation between PL
and PAL in girls aged 9-11 yers but not among boys of the
same age (Rajkovic Vuletic et al., 2024).
From the previous literature overview, it is clear that
there is increased interest in the association between PL and
PAL in children (Belanger et al., 2018; Bremer et al., 2020;
Choi et al., 2018; Stearns et al., 2019). However, the majority
of previous studies used various instruments for PL assess-
ments that focused on motor competence (e.g., the Canadian
Agility and Movement Skill Assessment, PLAYfun) and cog-
nitive domains (knowledge and understanding), while there
are few studies that have used the PLAYself to assess the
cognitive and aective domains of PL in younger children
(Stearns et al., 2019). Furthermore, studies performed thus
far included samples of participants of relatively wide age
spans, which could inuence the reported ndings simply
because of the known decrease in PAL with the age of the
children (Bremer et al., 2020; Choi et al., 2018). erefore,
the aim of this study was to investigate the association be-
tween PL levels assessed with PLAYself and PAL in an inter-
national sample of children aged 9-to-11 years from south-
eastern Europe. Additionally, we evaluated an association
between sedentary behavior and PAL in preadolescents.
Materials and methods
Participants
is study involved preadolescent children (n=333; 170
girls) from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. All partic-
ipants were in good health, attended the 3rd or 4th grade of
elementary school (4th and 5th in Bosnia and Herzegovina),
and regularly attended physical education (PE) classes.
During the research, all participants were aged between 9
and 11 years. Children who were ill or had an injury aect-
ing their movement in the two weeks before the examination
were not included in the study. e research team informed
the parents or guardians about the research’s objectives and
procedures and obtained their consent for their children’s
participation. is research was approved by the Ethics
Committee of the Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Split.
Variables and procedures
In addition to age (years), sex (male or female), we
observed PL, PAL and sedentary behavior (SB). e PL
was assessed using the PLAYself questionnaire, which is
a component of the PLAY tools (PLAYfun, PLAYbasic,
PLAYself, PLAYparent, PLAYcoach, and PLAYinventory).
is questionnaire is used by children and adolescents for
self-assessment of their PL level and has four subdomains:
(i) Environment, which assesses the degree of condence
of movement in dierent environments (e.g., activities in
the gym, in and on water, and on snow and ice), including
questions such as “How good are you at doing sports and
activities in the gym?“ or “How good are you at doing sports
and activities in and on the water?“ (ii) Self-reports of PL,
which assess a number of aective and cognitive segments
(e.g., motivation, condence, and self-esteem) related to
PL that determine an individual’s self-ecacy and ability to
participate in PA, including questions such as “It does not
take me long to learn new skills, sports or activities” or “I
think I can take part in any sport/PA that I choose”. (iii) e
relative ranking of literacy with its subdomains of literacy,
numeracy, and physical literacy assesses literacy in dierent
environments (e.g., school, home, and friends) and evalu-
ates the importance that an individual places on each of the
mentioned literacies. (iv) e level of tness is assessed by
the following question: “My state of tness is good enough
to allow me to participate in all the activities I choose”. is
subdomain is excluded from the nal PLAYself score. e
overall result of the questionnaire is calculated by summing
the points from the rst three subdomains and dividing by
the total number of questions (27 in total). e maximum
possible self-concept score for PL is 100, and it is represented
PHYSICAL LITERACY IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN | A. S. LILIC ET AL.
Sport Mont 22 (2024) 2 55
by PLAY self points. e Croatian version of the PLAYself
questionnaire has recently been shown to be feasible, valid,
and reliable in Croatian children aged 9 to 11 years (Vuletic
et al., 2023).
PAL was evaluated using the “Physical Activity
Questionnaire for Older Children” (PAQ-C) (Crocker,
Bailey, Faulkner, Kowalski, & McGrath, 1997). e PAQ-C-
Croatian version of the questionnaire for assessing the lev-
el of PA was constructed for children of similar age (from
8 to 14 years) to assess the overall level of arithmetical PA
(Samaržija & Mišigoj-Duraković, 2013). e questionnaire
comprises 9 questions that are evaluated on a 5-point scale,
for example, “In the last 7 days, what did you mostly do
during a long break (except eating a snack)?” and In the last
7 days, during your physical education (PE) classes, how of-
ten were you very active (playing hard, running, jumping,
throwing)?“. e total score for PA was determined by cal-
culating the mean of the responses provided. A maximum
PAQ-C score of 5 represented high activity, while a score of
1 represented very low or no activity.
e level of SB was evaluated by a questionnaire consist-
ing of questions about the time children spent in six dier-
ent groups of behaviors in hours and minutes per day: (1)
watching television, (2) playing computer games, (3) brows-
ing the internet, (4) homework and studying, (5) listening
to music, and (6) reading (Štefan, Horvatin, & Baić, 2019).
Statistical analysis
e normality of the variables was tested with the
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. For normally distributed vari-
ables, means and standard deviations were reported, while
counts and percentages were reported for categorical and
ordinal variables.
Dierences between boys and girls were evidenced by
t-test for independent samples.
e associations between study variables were rst es-
tablished by calculating the Pearson’s product moment cor-
relation coecients. In the next phase, multiple regressions
were performed with PAL as the criterion and dierent
subdomains/facets of PL as predictors. Generally, multiple
regressions were calculated between facets of PL and PAL,
due to established correlations (please see previous phase,
and Results for more details). e coecient of the multiple
correlation (R), coecients of determination (R2), standard-
ized (β) and nonstandardized (B) regression coecients are
reported.
Statistica ver 13.5 (Tibco Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA) was
used for all calculations, and a p-level of 95% was applied.
Results
e descriptive statistics and dierences between sex-
es in the study variables are presented in Table 1. Boys and
girls were of the same age, and no signicant dierences were
found between boys and girls for the PL subdomains or total
PL score. However, boys had greater PAL (t test =2.55, p<0.01)
and less sedentary time than girls did (t test =3.37, p<0.001).
e Pearson’s product moment correlation coecients
between the study variables calculated for the total sample
and for girls and boys are presented in Table 2. No signicant
correlation between SB and PL or PAL was detected. PAL
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and dierences between boys and girls
Girls (n = 170) Boys (n = 163) t test
Mean Std.Dev. Mean Std.Dev. t value p-level
Age (years) 9.99 0.66 9.95 0.74 0.61 0.54
PL-1 (score) 361.13 120.70 353.35 113.98 0.61 0.55
PL-2 (score) 891.88 163.51 915.95 146.41 -1.42 0.16
PL-3 (score) 228.83 64.68 222.52 71.61 0.84 0.40
PL-4 (score) 236.17 63.20 224.68 75.61 1.50 0.13
PL-5 (score) 253.54 60.42 259.76 52.15 -1.01 0.31
PLAYself (score) 73.02 12.27 73.19 11.03 -0.14 0.89
SB (score) 19.04 5.98 21.62 7.86 -3.37 0.001
PAQ-C (score) 3.02 0.63 3.21 0.73 -2.55 0.01
Note. PL-1 – environment subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-2 – self-description subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-3 –
literacy subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-4 – numeracy subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-5 – physical literacy subdomain
of the PLAYself questionnaire; PLAYself – total score for the PLAYself questionnaire; SB – sedentary behavior; PAQ-C – physical activity level
obtained by the PAQ-C questionnaire
was signicantly correlated with the rst two subdomains of
the PL in the total sample (<17% of the common variance),
in girls (<25% of the common variance), and in boys (<20%
of the common variance). Additionally, the correlation be-
tween PAL and the PL total score reached statistical signif-
icance for the total sample (16% of the common variance),
girls (25% of the common variance), and boys (10% of the
common variance).
e results of the multiple regression calculations for the
PAQ-C as criterion variables with the PL subdomains/fac-
ets and PL-total score as predictors are presented in Table 3.
Predictors explained a signicant proportion of the variance
in the criterion when regressions were calculated for the total
sample and separately for boys and girls (23%, 15%, and 31%
of the explained variance, respectively). In the total sample,
signicant partial predictors were the rst two facets of PL
(β=0.31 and 0.24, respectively). e rst facet of the PL was a
signicant partial predictor for boys (β=0.28), while the rst
two facets were signicantly partially associated with the cri-
terion for girls (β=0.38 and 0.23, respectively). In general, the
positive association between specic PL facets and PAL should
be highlighted.
56 Sport Mont 22 (2024) 2
PHYSICAL LITERACY IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN | A. S. LILIC ET AL.
Table 2. Correlation between study variables for the total sample of participants and stratied by sex (* indicates coecients
signicant at p<0.05)
PL-1 PL-2 PL-3 PL-4 PL-5 PLAYself SB
PL-1 Total -
Girls -
Boys -
PL-2 Total 0.50* -
Girls 0.46* -
Boys 0.51* -
PL-3 Total 0.11* 0.22* -
Girls 0.11 0.25* -
Boys 0.06 0.11 -
PL-4 Total 0.11 0.19* 0.69* -
Girls 0.16* 0.26* 0.69* -
Boys 0.01 0.05 0.67* -
PL-5 Total 0.21* 0.33* 0.49* 0.50* -
Girls 0.17* 0.32* 0.55* 0.63* -
Boys 0.19* 0.23* 0.40* 0.38* -
PLAYself Total 0.69* 0.81* 0.59* 0.58* 0.62* -
Girls 0.67* 0.82* 0.59* 0.63* 0.63* -
Boys 0.69* 0.77* 0.56* 0.51* 0.55* -
SB Total 0.00 0.06 0.04 0.00 0.09 0.06 -
Girls 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.06 -
Boys -0.04 -0.03 0.02 -0.09 0.08 -0.04 -
PAQ-C Total 0.43* 0.40* 0.07 0.10 0.19* 0.42* 0.06
Girls 0.50* 0.43* 0.14 0.20* 0.20* 0.50* 0.08
Boys 0.35* 0.29* -0.03 -0.01 0.06 0.28* -0.05
Note. PL-1 – environment subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-2 – self-description subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-3 – literacy subdomain
of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-4 – numeracy subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-5 – physical literacy subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire;
PLAYself – total score for the PLAYself questionnaire; SB – sedentary behavior; PAQ-C – physical activity level obtained by the PAQ-C questionnaire
Table 3. Multiple regression calculation for physical activity level as a criterion variable for the total sample and stratied by sex
(* indicates coecients signicant at p<0.05)
Total sample Boys Girls
βBβBβB
Intercept 1.41* 2.02* 1.31*
PL-1 0.31* 0.00* 0.28* 0.00* 0.38* 0.00*
PL-2 0.24* 0.00* 0.15 0.00 0.23 0.00*
PL-3 -0.07 0.00 -0.09 0.00 -0.03 0.00
PL-4 0.04 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.08 0.00
PL-5 0.05 0.00 -0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00
R 0.48 0.38 0.55
R2 0.23 0.15 0.31
p 0.001 0.001 0.001
Note. PL-1 – environment subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-2 – self-description subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-3 –
literacy subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-4 – numeracy subdomain of the PLAYself questionnaire; PL-5 – physical literacy subdomain
of the PLAYself questionnaire; R – coecient of multiple correlation; R2 – coecient of determination; p – level of signicance; β – standardized
regression coecient; B – nonstandardized regression coecient
Discussion
e few most important ndings of this study are discussed
in the following text. First, despite the signicant correlation
between PL and PAL in the total sample of participants, these
associations were weak. Second, the correlation between PL
and PAL was greater among girls than among boys. ird, SB
was not signicantly associated with PL in the studied pread-
olescent children.
PHYSICAL LITERACY IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN | A. S. LILIC ET AL.
Sport Mont 22 (2024) 2 57
Low correlation between PL and PAL in the total sample
To the best of our knowledge, few studies have investi-
gated the correlations between PL and PAL in preadolescent
children. Additionally, the results are generally inconsistent.
In brief, when studying a large sample of Canadian children,
Belanger et al. reported that children who met PA guidelines
had greater PL, conrming a positive correlation between PL
and PAL (B elanger et al., 2018). In another Canadian study, the
PL of preadolescent children was also signicantly associated
with PAL, as evaluated through moderate-to-vigorous PAL
(Caldwell et al., 2020). However, in both previously presented
investigations, the sample of participants was “one”, not divid-
ing boys from girls or younger from older children (although
the authors included gender/sex as covariate in the calculated
regression models). Moreover, a very recent Croatian study
performed with preadolescents revealed a positive correlation
between PAL and PL (i) in girls but not in boys and (ii) in
older (4th graders) and not younger (3rd graders) children
(Rajkovic Vuletic et al., 2024). erefore, our results on the
generally poor (although signicant) association between
PL and PAL when preadolescents were observed as a unique
sample are in line with previous reports. ere are several
possible explanations for such ndings, which we will discuss
in the following text.
First, the self-evaluation of the PL is based on one’s percep-
tion of (personal) physical abilities and physical competencies
in comparison to those of other people (i.e., peers, friends,
schoolmates) (Vuletic et al., 2023). erefore, the children
observed in this study compared themselves to others who
were participating in activities where physical competencies
were present (i.e., sport training, PE, and free play). Naturally,
boys compared themselves with boys, while girls compared
themselves with peer girls. When translated to the PL scale,
there was no signicant dierence between boys and girls in
the PL subscale. However, it is well known that the PLs of boys
and girls are not similar, even in preadolescence. Overall, this
approach results in specic bias in the scoring of the PL and
translates to the calculation of the correlation between the PL
and PAL when calculated for the total sample of participants
(not dividing boys and girls).
Second, despite previous ndings, there is a certain possi-
bility that in this period of life, PL and PAL are not as associ-
ated as they appear later in life. Specically, although there is a
global consensus that PL is an important determinant of PAL
in life and that “physically literate” individuals will have great-
er PAL, the association between PL and PAL is expected to be
stronger in adulthood. Namely, at younger ages children are
physically active irrespective of their physical literacy simply
because (i) young children are frequently engaged in free play
and (ii) most of them participate in PE (Veitch, Salmon, &
Ball, 2010). In other words, in this period of life, PA is not de-
termined and conditioned by “physical competence”, as is the
case in later life. Taken together, these facts ecologically de-
crease the correlation between PL and PAL in preadolescence.
Dierences in correlations between PAL and PL for boys and girls
Interestingly, sex-stratied analyses of the correlations
between PL and PAL are not common. is is particularly
important considering that studies thus far have conrmed
(i) nonsignicant gender/sex dierences in PL between gen-
ders during childhood and adolescence and (ii) gender/sex
dierences in magnitude of correlations between PL and
PAL (Rajkovic Vuletic et al., 2024; Vuletic et al., 2023). For
example, research on preschool children revealed that the PL
is predictive of PAL in girls but not in boys (Cairney et al.,
2018). Similarly, the authors found no signicant correlation
between PL and PAL in preadolescent boys, but a signicant
correlation between PL and PAL was found in same-age girls
from Croatia (Rajkovic Vuletic et al., 2024). Although our re-
sults are not entirely consistent with those of previous reports
(i.e., we found a signicant correlation for both boys and
girls), our ndings support those of previous studies. Namely,
the correlation we have evidenced for girls is almost twice as
large as the correlation evidenced for boys.
e rst issue that deserves attention in explaining
sex-specic associations between PL and PAL is free-play.
Free-play (i.e., participation in nonstructured activities) is a
signicant source of PA in preadolescence (Rajkovic Vuletic
et al., 2024). Additionally, in the region where this study was
conducted, boys are regularly involved in physically demand-
ing nonstructured activities, while girls participate in phys-
ically less demanding games (Maric et al., 2020). Moreover,
although it is an important source of PA, participation in non-
structured physically demanding activities is not as strong-
ly associated with PL, as is the case for structured activities
(PE and organized sport participation), where PL is speci-
cally accentuated and developed (Sunda et al., 2022). On the
other hand, the PAL of girls is more a result of participation
in structured activities, such as PE and organized sports,
where coaches and PE teachers specically emphasize PL. As
a result, girls who are physically active are more likely to be
“physically literate”.
Another explanation for the nding that PL and PAL
are more strongly associated in girls than in boys is based
on practical/professional knowledge of the authors who are
long-term professionals in PE and sport. In brief, the authors
share the opinion that participation in any kind of physical-
ly demanding activity in girls is accompanied by a certain
profound interest in the activity itself. In other words, girls
rarely participate in any form of PA if they are not “interest-
ed in it”. Meanwhile, boys are frequently engaged in physi-
cally demanding activities (only) emotionally to compete and
win. is is supported in studies where authors described the
motives for being physically active between genders/sexes. In
brief, boys are oen motivated by competition, social recog-
nition, and challenges, while girls are more likely to be moti-
vated by intrinsic factors such as fun and being with friends
(Portela-Pino, Lopez-Castedo, Martinez-Patino, Valverde-
Esteve, & Dominguez-Alonso, 2019). Consequently, girls’
participation in PA (i.e., PE, sport) actually leads to better PL
than is the case for boys, resulting in a greater correlation be-
tween PAL and PL among girls.
Lack of correlation between SB and PL in preadolescence
Although sedentary behavior is oen considered a habit
that is directly opposed to PA, the association between PAL
and SB has not been frequently explored. Most of the relat-
ed studies have examined problems in late adolescence and
young adulthood, and the related research has yielded mixed
results. In brief, when authors summarized studies performed
with children and adolescents, Pearson et al. reported a small
negative association between sedentary behavior and PA in
children and adults (Pearson, Braithwaite, Biddle, van Sluijs,
& Atkin, 2014). In contrast, a more recent study revealed a
58 Sport Mont 22 (2024) 2
PHYSICAL LITERACY IN PREADOLESCENT CHILDREN | A. S. LILIC ET AL.
weak but positive correlation between SB and PA in under-
graduate students (de Andrade Leão, dos Santos, & da Silva,
2018). erefore, our nding of a nonsignicant association
between sedentary time and PAL is not surprising.
Indeed, SB is a certain counterpoint of physically active
behavior. It is logical to consider that people who have greater
SB are less physically active. For that reason, “sedentarism”
(high SB) and “physical inactivity” (i.e., low PAL) are fre-
quently used interchangeably as synonyms (Forero, Morales,
& Forero, 2023). Naturally, sedentary people spend more time
in sedentary activities (i.e., watching TV, reading, playing vid-
eo games, reading), which results in less time available to be
physically active. Additionally, there is no doubt that seden-
tarism negatively inuences physical capacity by decreasing
muscular and functional capacities (i.e., tness), which is an-
other reason why people with high SB have lower PAL, sim-
ply because proper tness allows one to be physically active
at rst place. As a result, a negative correlation between PAL
and SB could be (naturally) expected.
On the other hand, modern life is oen saturated with
more or less mandatory sedentary activities. If we focus
solely on children, at the very beginning of the mandatory
school education (starting from six or seven years, depend-
ing on country), they are obligated to dedicate 5-6 hours of
sedentarism during direct or indirect schooling (Tremblay
et al., 2011). If we add the necessity of transport to dierent
activities (including sports), SB increases to 7-8 hours daily.
Furthermore, children oen socialize through sedentary ac-
tivities (mostly screen time), resulting in up to 9-10 hours of
SB in regular circumstances. It is also common for parental-
ly guided children to be involved in other forms of educa-
tion (i.e., language, music), which additionally increases SB.
Notably, children who have “increased SB” due to music or
foreign-language education are oen the same children who
are engaged in out-of-school sport activities. While PAL ex-
ponentially increases as a result of sport participation lasting
(for example) six hours per week, the duration of SB increases
very much because of the other activities that are regular in
preadolescence. Taken together, these results revealed small
and nonsignicant correlations not only between SB and PAL
but also between SB and PL. erefore, a clear distinction
should be made between “sedentary behavior” and “sedentary
lifestyle (sedentarism)”.
Limitations and strengths
e most important limitation of this study is that PAL
was evaluated by questionnaire and not directly measured.
erefore, further analyses including direct measurements of
the PAL at this age are needed. Next, this is a cross-section-
al analysis, and consequently, causality cannot be explicitly
identied. In future intervention studies, clear cause–eect
relationships should therefore be evaluated.
is is one of the rst studies in which the associations
between PAL, SB and PL were evaluated via a sex-specic ap-
proach. is approach allowed specic and clear interpreta-
tions of the identied associations and provided directions for
further studies in the eld. Additionally, while PAL, PL and
SB should be specically investigated in dierent regions and
under dierent sociocultural circumstances, this is one of the
rst investigations on a problem performed in southeastern
Europe (e.g., the territory of former Yugoslavia).
Conclusion
e results clearly supported the necessity of a sex-strati-
ed approach for evaluating associations between PL and PAL
in preadolescence. Namely, the evaluation of the PL is based
on comparisons with peers and friends, which is in this age
group that is dened by sex/gender.
e greater correlation between PL and PAL in girls than
in boys is probably inuenced by dierences in PA partici-
pation between boys and girls. While boys in preadolescence
frequently participate in nonstructured activities, girls’ PA is
almost exclusively dened by participation in structured PA.
Consequently, PA among girls is naturally followed by higher
PL to a greater extent than among boys.
Although this is one of the rst studies in which the cor-
relation between SB and PAL was evaluated in preadolescents,
it seems that SB and PAL are poorly correlated in this period
of life. Most likely, the time spent in schooling and other ed-
ucational activities increases sedentary time for all children,
despite their PAL, leading to a lack of correlation between
PAL and SB.
Acknowledgments
There are no acknowledgments.
Conict of Interest
The author declares that there is no conict of interest.
Received: 12 Aprile 2024 | Accepted: 20 May 2024 | Published: 01 June
2024
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