Content uploaded by Dzokom Alexis
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Dzokom Alexis on Jul 08, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4 || www.tijer.org
TIJER2404062
TIJER - INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org
a427
Effects of Ecological Charcoal Production
Processes Based on Eichhornia crassipes on its
Characteristics as Cooking Energy
Alexis DZOKOM1, Ezekiel KODJI1, Joel TIZE KODA2, Roger DJOULDE DARMAN3
1Department of Environmental Sciences, National Advanced School of Engineering,
University of Maroua, Cameroon
2Department of Renewable Energy, National Advanced School of Engineering, University
of Maroua, Cameroon
3Department of Agriculture Animal Husbandry and By-Products, National Advanced School of
Engineering, University of Maroua, Cameroon
Abstract:
Eichhornia crassipes is an invasive plant in the waters of Lake Chad. The ecological problems caused by its permanent and invasive
presence lead to search solutions. Thus its valuation as cooking energy is an option whose objective is to assert the effect of
production processes of ecological coal based on Eichhornia crassipes on their performance as cooking energy. The collection and
sorting of these plants made it possible to prepare the raw material while their pre-treatment made it possible to carry out the
anaerobic carbonization between 400-600°C on the one hand, and on the other hand, the semi-decomposition of Eichhornia
crassipes biomass allowed us to have a raw material ready after 14 ± 03 days. Hygro-calorific characterization show that the
ecological charcoal based on decomposed Eichhornia crassipes has 4.401±0.972% as moisture content average with a calorific
value average of 17.825±8.308 MJ/Kg. The ecological charcoal based of carbonized Eichhornia crassipes has 3.79±1.05% as
moisture content with average calorific value 21.05±7.76MJ/Kg. The chemical characterization show that the ecological charcoal
based on charred Eichhornia crassipes has an average volatile matter rate of 26.87 ± 1.55%, a low average fixed carbon rate of
86.73 ± 2.67% and an average ash content 2.69 ± 0.33% while ecological coal based on decomposed Eichhornia crassipes has an
average volatile matter rate of 22.059 ± 1.298%, an average fixed carbon rate of 74.496 ± 1.716 % and an average ash content of
1.97 ±0.72%. The Improved Culinary Furnace test, charred Eichhornia crassipes charcoal bonded to clay lasts in the fire longer
time average, 46 minutes 10 seconds, when burning emitting 6.72±1.49 grams of ash average with 93.02±0.91% as mass loss
average while the decomposed Eichhornia crassipes charcoal has a low burning time, 43 minutes 33 seconds, emitting 12.01±0.09
grams as ash average with 90.05±0.95% as mass loss average.
Keywords: Eichhornia crassipes, ecological charcoal, charcoal briquette
Introduction
Eichhornia crassipes is a free-floating aquatic plant on
water’s surface. Native to the Amazon basin in South
America, this macrophyte aquatic plant, of the
Pontederiaceae family and whose name Eichhornia is derived
from the well-known 19th century Prussian politician, J.A.F.
Eichhorn, is the most difficult to control in the world
[1,2,3,4]. Widespread throughout the world in the late 19th
and early 20th century, today this tropical plant is well known
for its rapid reproductive capacity whose population can
double in just twelve days [5, 6 and 7]. Eichhornia crassipes
proliferation’s makes it an invasive plant, raising it to the
same level as weeds. Its germination and spread are rapid
when environmental and ecological conditions are met.
Ecological damage then ensues, such as: the obstruction of
navigation routes; the disappearance of certain aquatic
species; the disappearance of fishing areas and the
appearance of certain waterborne diseases such as malaria.
During their period of proliferation, whatever the mitigation
methods applied, Eichhornia crassipes disappears in one
place to resurface just as quickly in another place [8].
However, although it is possible to control it biologically and
naturally, the persistence of favorable environment to their
reproduction, such as that the abundance of space and
nutrients doubled at a good medium temperature cause this
plant to spread so prolifically that it covers water’s surfaces
in record time with a floating mat-like cover [9,10] .
Considered as an ornamental plant by gardeners and
botanists, because of its pretty purplish blue flowers and its
round and oval leaves, Eichhornia crassipes was propagated
in many countries such as Latin America, the Caribbean,
Africa, Southeast Asia and the Pacific more than a century
ago because it was highly prized [9, 10, 11 and 12].
Eichhornia crassipes seeds hibernate over a dormant period
of 15 to 20 years. Eichhornia crassipes contains
lignocellulose (60% cellulose, 8% hemicellulose and 17%
lignin) and a good part of carbon nitrate, which gives it
characteristics of an alternative directly usable as renewable
energy source [14, 15]
Rising prices of fossil energy and the problem of global
warming have led to a major effort to promote renewable
energies. This has intensified the search for alternatives to
fossil fuels to facing modernization and industrialization [9].
Exacerbated by soaring energy costs, water hyacinth holds
great promise in this regard for the biofuels industry of the
21st century [16]. The production methods developed by [9]
made it possible to produce ecological coal of high value. The
pyrolysis (or carbonization) method between [400-800] °C
converts raw materials into carbon by minimizing the volatile
matter content and increasing the carbon content of the
material. In this study, the objective is to produce ecological
charcoal based on Eichhornia crassipes to contribute to the
fight against the invasion of Lake Chad water’s surfaces.
TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4 || www.tijer.org
TIJER2404062
TIJER - INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org
a428
1. Materials and Methods
1.1. Study zone
This study was carried out in five districts around Lake Chad
on the Cameroon side. Villages crossed by this lake
experience the invasion of Lake Chad water’s surfaces by
Eichhornia crassipes. These areas have been represented in
the following table:
Figure 1: Map of the study area
1.2. Eichhornia crassipes briquette manufacturing
process
a) Preparation of the raw material
The overall preparation process was carried out according to
the following scheme:
Figure 2: Raw material preparation scheme
b) Carbonization process
The carbonization was carried out following the methodology
developed by [28]. It consisted in carbonizing the dry
biomass in a carbonizer at a temperature between 400-600°C.
Figure 3: Scheme of production of ecological charcoal based
on Eichhornia crassipes
During the carbonization, biochar is produced, of blackish
color which, crushed, sieved and mixed with the binder, can
be molded through a manually operated compaction and
extrusion system to obtain ecological charcoal/ecological
briquettes.
c) Semi-decomposition process
During semi-decomposition, the methodology developed by
[9] consisted of decomposing the biomass in a hermetically
sealed plastic bag. The materials used are: Biomass: chopped
and dried stem of Eichhornia crassipes, Polyethylene
decomposition bags (plastic bag with a thickness of more than
60µm, microorganism decomposition solution (EM1
solution) to accelerate the decomposition activity of
microorganisms on the stem of chopped and dried Eichhornia
crassipes. The process of semi-decomposition lasts about 14
± 03 days with reversals after every 07 ± 02 days.
1.3. Hygro-calorific characterization of Eichhornia
crassipes’s charcoal
1.3.1. Moisture content
Determination of the moisture content was inspired by the
methodological measurement procedures developed by [17].
Moisture content expresses the water content and has a strong
influence on the calorific value and the ignition capacity of
charcoal briquettes. Moisture content is obtained by the
following formula:
(1)
With: W: moisture content; M wet: mass of the sample; M dry: mass
obtained after heating at 105°C in an oven.
1.3.2. Calorific value
[20] method and the MA protocol, 108-P.Cal. 1.0 helped
measure and calculate calorific value. The heat capacity of
the bomb and the tank was calculated from a test made with
benzoic acid. The calorific value of samples is measured by
the following equation:
(2)
Where P.C.: calorific value of the sample (kJ/kg); T°f: maximum
final temperature of the water in the tank after firing (°C)
1.4. Chemical characterization of Eichhornia crassipes’s
charcoal
1.4.1. Volatile matter rate
BS EN 14,774-1 protocol for determination of volatile matter
of fuel consists in weighing the dry sample heating under
nitrogen, between 890° and 910°C temperature for 7 minutes
in a crucible with lid and weigh again. The formula developed
by the standard method [18] is used to calculate the volatile
matter content:
(3)
With: MOV: Volatile matter content, M895°C: Mass obtained after heating to
895°C, M899°C: mass obtained after heating to 899°C
1.4.2. Ash content
Ash content is the quantity of very small mineral matter
contained in a fuel and released after complete combustion,
under the effect of heat at high temperatures. The result is
obtained by applying the formula developed by the standard
methods [19] and [20]:
(4)
With: A, M 850°C: mass of the powder obtained after incineration at
850°C, M dry: dry mass of the sample.
1.4.3. Fixed carbon content
To determine fixed carbon, BS EN 14.774-1 protocol was
used. Two parts of combustible briquettes, each weighing 1
gram, were made, then they were introduced into an oven for
calcination. One part was calcined for 10 minutes at 550°C,
while other part was calcined for 10 minutes at 850°C. The
fixed carbon content developed by the standard method [20]
allows to calculate using the following formula:
(5)
1.5. Combustion tests
Combustion test allowed us to determine: Burning time of
each combustible briquette; post-combustion mass (ash) and
the loss mass.
TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4 || www.tijer.org
TIJER2404062
TIJER - INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org
a429
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
2.1. Eichhornia crassipes briquette manufacturing
process
2.1.1. Preparation of raw material by carbonization
Preparation of Eichhornia crassipes raw’s material by
carbonization gave the following results:
Table 1: Eichhornia crassipes raw material prepared by
carbonization
Raw material
Quantities
(gram)
Binder
(0.5mm)
Particle
size (mm)
Leaf and branch
300
Kaolin
clay
0.5 to 1
Stem, branch
and root
300
0.5 to 1
Stem and
branch
300
0.5 to 1
Whole plant
300
0.5 to 1
2.1.3. Preparation of raw material semi-decomposition
Preparation of Eichhornia crassipes raw’s material by semi-
decomposition gave, after 14 days, the following results:
Table 2: Eichhornia crassipes raw material prepared by
semi-decomposition
Raw material
Quantities
(gram)
Binder
(0.5mm)
Particle
size (mm)
Leaf and branch
500
Kaolin
clay
0.5 to 1
Stem, branch
and root
500
0.5 to 1
Stem and
branch
500
0.5 to 1
Whole plant
500
0.5 to 1
4.1 Hygro-calorific characterization of Eichhornia
crassipes’s charcoal
Clay-bound charred Eichhornia crassipes charcoal (98-02%)
has a lower calorific value average of 14.67±2.01 MJ/Kg
while clay-bound charred Eichhornia crassipes
charcoal_Wood chips (70-28-02%) has 27.442±5.26 MJ/Kg
calorific value average. Among these samples, clay-bound
carbonized Eichhornia crassipes leaf charcoal (98-02%) has
the highest calorific value, 17.656± 0.097 MJ/Kg, while
charcoal from carbonized Eichhornia crassipes stem bound
clay (98-02%) and/or the whole plant of carbonized
Eichhornia crassipes bound to clay (98-02%) have the same
calorific value 13.472 ± 0.012 MJ/Kg. It is found that among
Eichhornia crassipes carbonized charcoal _Wood chips,
charcoal from the leaves of Eichhornia crassipes
carbonized_woodchips bound with clay (70-28-02%) has the
bigger calorific value 33.137± 0.054 MJ/Kg while whole
plant charcoal_woodchip _Clay-bound (70-28-02%) has the
smallest calorific value 22.015± 0.017 MJ/Kg.
Charcoal from decomposed Eichhornia crassipes bound to
clay (98-02%) has an average calorific value 12.755±1.703
MJ/Kg while charcoal from decomposed Eichhornia
crassipes _Chips wood bound to clay (70- 28-02%) has a
calorific value of 22.895±9.466 MJ/Kg. Among these
samples, charcoal from leaves and branches of Eichhornia
crassipes decomposed _ wood chips bound to clay (70-28-
02%) has the highest calorific value of 31.336± 0.017 MJ/Kg
while charcoal from stems and branch of decomposed
Eichhornia crassipes bound to clay (98-02%) has the smallest
calorific value 11.012± 0.042 MJ/Kg.
Overall, it appears that among the charred Eichhornia
crassipes charcoal briquettes has the highest average calorific
value of 21.05±7.76MJ/Kg while the decomposed
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal has the lowest average
calorific value which is 17.825±8.308 MJ/Kg.
Graph 1: Calorific value of samples of ecological charcoal based on Eichhornia crassipes
These results corroborate those found by [20, 9] who found
that charcoal from Eichhornia crassipes_wood chips
produced greater heat intensity while being cleaner, more
convenient and took up less space when stored.
Ecological charcoal made from decomposed Eichhornia
crassipes has moisture content (4.401±0.972%) while
Ecological charcoal made from charred Eichhornia crassipes
has moisture content of 3.79±1.05%. Charcoal from whole
plant Eichhornia crassipes_wood chips has the highest
moisture content 5.85±0.12% while charcoal from charred
Eichhornia crassipes leaves and branches has the lowest
moisture content 2.71 ±0.43%. This state of humidity is
higher in the briquettes resulting from the semi-
decomposition than those resulting from the carbonization
process because carbonized Eichhornia crassipes was able to
release the excess free water by dry dehydration, during
carbonization.
15.07 12.73 11.01 12.21
31.33
19.13
11.27
29.85
17.65
14.09 13.47 13.47
33.13
24.05
30.58
22.01
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Leaf and branch Root Stem and branch Whole plant Leaf and
branch_Wood chip
Root_Wood chip Stem and
branch_Wood chip
Whole plant_Wood
chip
Calorific value
Samples of ecological charcoal
Calculated calorific value for Charcoal from decomposed Eichhornia crassipes (MJ/Kg) Calculated calorific value for Charcoal from Eichhornia crassipes charred
TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4 || www.tijer.org
TIJER2404062
TIJER - INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org
a430
Graph 2: Plot of moisture content trends against calorific value
There is an inverse relationship between calorific value and
moisture content (Graph 2). The plot of the trends of the
moisture content of ecological charcoal based on Eichhornia
crassipes shows that the linear calorific value is ascending
when that of the moisture content is descending. Ecological
charcoal made by using Eichhornia crassipes from the semi-
decomposition method has a higher dry moisture content than
Ecological charcoal by using Eichhornia crassipes from the
carbonization method. Overall, following the trend lines,
when the humidity increases, it causes a decrease in its
calorific value and vice versa. This confirms the results of
[22] which indicate that the calorific value is influenced by
the moisture content. The range of moisture content in the dry
state does not lead to remarkable energy loss during the
vaporization of the moisture present and their stability during
storage is considerable [23]. Ecological charcoal made from
Eichhornia crassipes have good characteristic because their
dry relative moisture content is between 2.71% and 5.85%,
lower than that of wood charcoal 6% [24].
4.2 Chemical characterization of Eichhornia crassipes’s
charcoal
4.2.1. Volatile matter content
Ecological charcoal based on carbonized Eichhornia
crassipes has an volatile matter content average of
26.87±1.55% while that of ecological charcoal based on
decomposed Eichhornia crassipes is 22.059±1.298%, in
accordance with the conclusions of [24], but contrary to those
of [25] who insist that woody biomasses have higher levels
of volatile matter than other biomasses. Charcoal from clay-
bound carbonized Eichhornia crassipes stems (98-02%) has
the highest volatile matter content of 28.59±0.87%, possibly
due to the process of carbonization of the structure stems of
Eichhornia crassipes which helps it to retain a high level of
volatile matter in the carbonized material, better than by the
process of semi-decomposition. Charcoal from the leaves and
branches of Eichhornia crassipes semi-decomposed_wood
chips has the lowest volatile matter content (20.14±0.18%).
4.2.2. Ash content
Ash content average of charred Eichhornia crassipes
charcoal is 2.69±0.33% (with respectively 2.912±0.097% for
charred Eichhornia crassipes charcoal_woodchips and
2.477±0.343% for charred Eichhornia crassipes charcoal),
while charcoal from decomposed Eichhornia crassipes has
1.972±0.719% ash content (with respectively
2.615±0.2456% for charcoal from Eichhornia
crassipes_wood chips decomposed and 1.33±0.21% for
anthrax from decomposed Eichhornia crassipes). Our results,
concerning decomposed Eichhornia crassipes charcoal, are
close to those concluded by [26] which indicate that the ash
content of woody biomass is between 0.08% and 2.3%.
Decomposed Eichhornia crassipes charcoal has a lower
average ash content, possibly due to the addition of woodchip
(which would be a non-woody vegetable) and clay binder
which would act as a filler, thus contributing to a higher ash
content and possibly also due to their low carbon binding
capacity [27, 9].
4.2.3. Fixed carbon content
Carbonized Eichhornia crassipes charcoal has a low fixed
carbon content (86.73±2.67%) (With 89.035±0.905% for
charred Eichhornia crassipes_woodchips and 84.43±1.29%
for charcoal carbonized Eichhornia crassipes) compared to
their decomposed counterparts which has 74.496±1.716%
(with 73.707±0.444% for decomposed Eichhornia crassipes
charcoal and 75.285±2.241% for Eichhornia crassipes
charcoal_woodchips).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Leaf and branch
Root
Stem and branch
Whole plant
Leaf and branch_Wood chip
Root_Wood chip
Stem and branch_Wood chip
Whole plant_Wood chip
Leaf and branch
Root
Stem and branch
Whole plant
Leaf and branch_Wood chip
Root_Wood chip
Stem and branch_Wood chip
Whole plant_Wood chip
Charcoal from decomposed Eichhornia crassipes Charcoal from Eichhornia crassipes charred Leaf and branch
Calorific value
Moisture content
Moisture content (%) Calculated calorific value (MJ/Kg) Linear (Moisture content (%)) Linear (Calculated calorific value (MJ/Kg))
TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4 || www.tijer.org
TIJER2404062
TIJER - INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org
a431
Graph 3: Chemical characteristics of Eichhornia crassipes fuel samples
4.3.6 Combustion/cooking test
Charcoal cooking test of charred Eichhornia crassipes with a
cooking stove improved made it possible to boil 01 liter of
water in 15 minutes 20 seconds and 250 grams of rice in 25
minutes 46 seconds. The average burning time of charred
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal is 44 minutes 52 seconds with
post-combustion mass (ash) of 14.36±0.22
milligrams/Kilogram of Ecological charcoal and an average
mass loss of 86.75± 0.01%
charred Eichhornia crassipes charcoal Clay bound lasts on
average longer in the fire (46 minutes 10 seconds) when
burning while decomposed Eichhornia crassipes charcoal
has a low burn time (43 minutes 33 seconds) (Table 3)
Table 3: Cooking test with samples of Eichhornia crassipes briquettes
Samples
Burning time (s)
Mass of post-
combustion fuel (gr)
Mass loss
(%)
Carbonized Eichhornia crassipes charcoal
2208±3.81
08.59±0.91
75±0.5
Charcoal from Eichhornia crassipes_Charred woodchips
3276±3.81
24.85±0.43
91±0.8
Decomposed Eichhornia crassipes smut
2204±1.53
02.51±0.15
87±0.3
Charcoal from Eichhornia crassipes_decomposed
woodchips
2996±4.39
21.49±0.29
94±0.9
After 60 minutes of combustion, carbonized Eichhornia
crassipes charcoal emits an average of 6.72±1.49 grams of
ash with an average mass loss of 93±0.9%, while decomposed
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal emits an average of 12.01±0.09
grams of ash with an average mass loss of 90.05±0.95%.
Conclusion
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of
green charcoal production processes on their performance as
cooking energy. Overall, it appears that carbonized
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal briquettes perform better than
decomposed Eichhornia crassipes charcoal briquettes.
Indeed, on the hygro-calorific level, ecological coal based on
decomposed Eichhornia crassipes has a moisture content of
4.401 ± 0.972% with a low calorific value average (17.825 ±
8.308 MJ / Kg) while ecological coal based of carbonized
Eichhornia crassipes has a low moisture content of
3.79±1.05% with a high average calorific value of
21.05±7.76MJ/Kg.
Chemical characterization show that the ecological charcoal
based on charred Eichhornia crassipes has volatile matter
average rate ( 26.87±1.55%) and low fixed carbon average
(86.73±2.67%) and ash content average (2.69 ± 0.33%) while
ecological charcoal based on decomposed Eichhornia
crassipes has volatile matter content average (22.059 ±
1.298%), and fixed carbon content average (74.496 ±
1.716%) and ash content average (1.97 ±0.72%).
In terms of improved cook stove applicability, charred
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal bounded to clay lasts on
average longer in the fire (46 minutes 10 seconds) during
combustion emitting an average of 6.72±1, 49 grams of ash
with an average mass loss of 93.02±0.91% while decomposed
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal has a low burn time (43
minutes 33 seconds), emitting an average of 12.01±0, 09
grams of ash with an average mass loss of 90.05 ± 0.95%.
From the point of view of cooking energy, charred
Eichhornia crassipes charcoal_woodchip bound with clay
has a better efficiency in the stove. In the case where one
would like to proceed by decomposition of the biomass, the
decomposed Eichhornia crassipes charcoal_woodchips and
bound to the clay would be just as interesting.
Bibliographic reference
[1] Amonrada S., Servann H., Decha D., Chanoknan
I., Pasit P., Sulawan K., Chanchana T., Maria-Magdalena
T., and Laemthong C., 2019, Green and sustainable zero-
waste conversion of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
into superior magnetic carbon composite adsorbents and
supercapacitor electrodes. The Royal Society of Chemistry %
RSC Adv., 2019, 9, 24248–24258. DOI:
10.1039/c9ra03873f.
https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2019/ra/c9ra03873
f
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Leaf and branch
Root
Stem and branch
Whole plant
Leaf and branch_Wood chip
Root_Wood chip
Stem and branch_Wood chip
Whole plant_Wood chip
Leaf and branch
Root
Stem and branch
Whole plant
Leaf and branch_Wood chip
Root_Wood chip
Stem and branch_Wood chip
Whole plant_Wood chip
Charcoal from charred Eichhornia crassipes Charcoal from decomposed Eichhornia crassipes
Ash content
Volatile matter and Fixed Carbon
Volatile matter content (%) Fixed carbon content (%) Ash content (%)
TIJER || ISSN 2349-9249 || © April 2024, Volume 11, Issue 4 || www.tijer.org
TIJER2404062
TIJER - INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL www.tijer.org
a432
[2] Aquatics. (2005). Aquatics. Retrieved July
20th, 2011, from Aquatics:
http://www.pss.uvm.edu/pss123/aquatics.html.
[3] Reddy, K., & Sutton, D. (1984). Water Hyacinth for
Water Quality Improvement and Biomass Production. J.
Environ. quality, 13, pp. 1-8
[4] Penfound, W., & Earl e, T. (1948). the Bio lo gy of
Wa te r Hya cin th. The E co lo gi c al Monographs, 18,
447-472.
[5] Wilson, J., Holst, N., & Rees, M. (2005). Determinants
and Patterns of Population Growth in Water Hyacinth.
Aquatic Botany, 81, 51 - 67.
[6] APIRIS. (2005). Invasive Nonindigenous Plants in
Florida. Retrieved November 2011, from
https://www.plants.ifas.ufl.edu.hyacin2.html
[7] Cassabianca, M., & Laugier, T. (1995). Eichhornia
Crassipes Production on Petroliferous wastewater: Effects of
Salinity. Bioreource Technology 54, 39-43.
[8] Lubovich, K. (2009). Working paper No. 5. Managing
Transboundary Water Resources in the Lake Victoria Region.
[9] Anthony J. R., Martin O. O., Patrick O
H.,
Walter A.,
Daniel K., Isaiah
M., 2014,
Converting Water Hyacinth to
Briquettes: A Beach Community Based Approach,
International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied
Research (IJSBAR) (2014) Volume 15, No 1, pp 358-
378,http://gssrr.org/index.php?journal=JournalOfBasicAnd
Applied.
[10] Julien, M., & Orapa, W. (1999). Successful Biological
Control of Water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes) in Papua
New Guinea by the Weevils Neochetinabruchi and
Neochetina Eichhorniae (Coleoptera: Curculinidae)). In N.R.,
Spencer (ed.), Proceedings of the X International Symposium
on Biological Control of Weeds, (p. 1027). Bozeman,
Monatana, USA: Montana State University.
[11]Anjanabha, B., & Kumar, P. (2010). Water Hyacinth as
a Potential Biofuel Crop. Electronic Journal of
Environmental, Agriculture and Food Chemistry
(EJEAFCHE), 9(1), 112-122.
[12] United Na ti ons. (2000). Fig ht ing W at er Wee ds
in We s t A fr ic a . Food and Ag ri cu lt ur e Organization
of the United Nations.
[13] Labrada, R., Charudattan, R., & Center, T. (1995).
Startegies to Control Water Hyacinth. Report of a Panel of
Experts Meeting in Fort Laudadale 11th -14th September
1995. Florida, USA.
[14] Abdel-Aal E A, El-Midany A A and El-Shall H 2008
Material Chemistry and Physics 112 202-207.
[15] Njogu P, Kinyua R, Muthoni P and Nemoto Y, 2015.
Energy and Power Engineering 7 209-216.
[16] Paepatung, Nompharatana, & Sonkasiri. (2009). Bio
Methane Potential of Biological solid Materials and
Agricultural wastes. As.J.Energy Env. 2009, 10(01), 19-27.
[17] Tobiasson, W. et Coll., 1991. « New wetting curves for
common roof insulation », Proceedings of the international
symposium on roofing technology, NRCA.
[18] ASTMD3175-17, 2017. Standard Test Method for
Volatile Matter in the Analysis Sample of Coal and Coke.
[19] ASTMD5142-02, 2002. Standard Test Methods for
Proximate Analysis of the analysis Sample of Coal and Coke
by Instrumental Procedures, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2002 www.astm.org.
[20] ASTME711-87, 2004.Standard Test Method for Gross
Calorific Value of Refuse-Derived Fuel by the Bomb
Calorimeter, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
2004 1987 www.astm.org.
[21] Wamukonya, L., & Jenkins, B. (1995). Durability and
Relaxation of sawdust and wheat straw briquettes as possible
fuels in Kenya. Biomass and Bioenergy Vol. 8(3), 175-179.
[22] Chittick, J. (2002). Wood waste Amount of the Port
Mcnail Area: For the Community Futures Development of
corporation of Mount Waddington District.
[23] Aina, O., Adetogun, A., & Iyiola, K. (2009). Heat
Energy from Value - added Sawdust Briquettes of Albizia
Zygia. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and
management, Vol 2 No. 1 2009.
[24] NF 444_NF, 2019. Biocombustibles solides,
Prescriptions Techniques – Charbon de bois - DQ Cert 18-
354, F.C.B.A_Institut Technologique, 10, rue Galilée 77420
Champs-sur-Marne .2019. 11p. www.fcba.fr.
[25] Hakkila. (1993). Puun ja puutavaran ominaisuuksia,
Tapion Taskukirja. Painos Helsinki, 19.
[26] Nurmi. (1993). Heating Values of Whole- Tree
Biomass in Young Forests in Finland. Acta Forestalia
Fennica 236. Tampere.
[27] Cook, J. (1990). Origin Autoecology and spread of
some of the World's Most Troublesome Aquatic Weeds. In
Pieterse, A., Murphy, K. (Eds.), Aquatic Weeds: The Ecology
and Mangement of Nuisance Aquatic Vegetation. Oxford,
UK: Oxford Unirsity Press.
[28] Wenny M., Rani K., Zakiyah R., Supriyadi, Artoto A.,
Lutfi R. and Endhah P., 2019, Carbonization Process of
Water Hyacinth as an Alternative Renewable Energy
Material for Biomass Cook Stoves Applications, IOP Conf.
Series: Earth and Environmental Science 239 (2019) 012035,
doi:10.1088/1755-1315/239/1/012035, Pp 08
