Gender differences in work-life balance

Abstract

Work-life balance (WLB) is defined as the division of employees’ time between working and personal life, and this division has been observed to differ in genders. Such differences usually exist because of various factors, such as childcare, societal impact, age differences, and organizational practices. This thesis aims to shed light on work-life conflict and help to improve the work-life balance of employees by bringing more awareness to the topic. This is achieved by applying qualitative analysis to investigate WLB in a cross-cultural context between male and female immigrants with the help of semi-structured interview questions. The findings show that the main gender differences occur during childcare and that cultural background has a major effect on maintaining the balance.

Full text

Prague University of Economics and Business
Bachelor’s Thesis
2023 Kamran Aliyev

Prague University of Economics and Business
Faculty of Business Administration
Bachelor’s Field: Business Administration
Title of the Bachelor’s Thesis:
Gender differences in work-life balance
Author: Kamran Aliyev
Supervisor: prof. Ing. Aleš Kubíček, Ph.D.

D e c l a r a t i o n o f A u t h e n t i c i t y
I hereby declare that the Bachelor’s Thesis presented herein is my own
work, or fully and specifically acknowledged wherever adapted from
other sources. This work has not been published or submitted
elsewhere for the requirement of a degree programme.
Prague, November 30, 2023. Signature:

Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to thank my thesis supervisor, prof. Ing. Aleš Kubíček, Ph.D., for his
guidance and support throughout the writing process. Secondly, I am grateful to my parents for
giving me an opportunity to study abroad. In addition, I owe it to myself for continuously
pushing myself and never giving up. Finally, I would like to thank the participants for their
involvement in the study.

Abstract
Work-life balance (WLB) is defined as the division of employees’ time between working and
personal life, and this division has been observed to differ in genders. Such differences usually
exist because of various factors, such as childcare, societal impact, age differences, and
organizational practices. This thesis aims to shed light on work-life conflict and help to improve
the work-life balance of employees by bringing more awareness to the topic. This is achieved
by applying qualitative analysis to investigate WLB in a cross-cultural context between male
and female immigrants with the help of semi-structured interview questions. The findings show
that the main gender differences occur during childcare and that cultural background has a
major effect on maintaining the balance.
Key words: work-life balance, gender differences, cross-culture

Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 3
Economic evolution of gender roles ....................................................................................... 3
Parenthood and housework division ...................................................................................... 6
Cross-cultural context .......................................................................................................... 11
Western and Eastern views .............................................................................................. 12
Gender egalitarianism ...................................................................................................... 14
Company culture .............................................................................................................. 15
Advancement of organizational practices ............................................................................ 16
Allianz’s approach to work-life policies .......................................................................... 20
Unilever’s flexible working arrangements ....................................................................... 21
Methodology ............................................................................................................................ 23
Results ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Parenthood ............................................................................................................................ 27
Household care ..................................................................................................................... 28
Pay gap ................................................................................................................................. 28
Cultural attitudes .................................................................................................................. 29
Working arrangements ......................................................................................................... 31
Generational shift ................................................................................................................. 32
Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 33
Theoretical and practical implications ................................................................................. 33
Limitations and future study suggestions ............................................................................. 34
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 36
References ................................................................................................................................ 37
Appendices ............................................................................................................................... 51
Table of Figures
Figure 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3 .................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 4 .................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 5 .................................................................................................................................... 19
List of Tables
Table 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Table 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 25

1
Introduction
A good relationship between work and personal life is essential for everyone. Work-life
imbalance doesn’t only concern employees, but also employers, the state, and society. Work-
life balance (WLB) has multiple definitions throughout literature. The definition most accurate
for this paper is “satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home, with a minimum of
role conflict” (Clark 2000, p. 751). Nonetheless, “work” and “home” cannot fully be separated,
and responsibilities can fluctuate between the two roles. Therefore, WLB is determined by three
factors: (1) an equal amount of time dedicated to both roles; (2) the time consisting of an equal
amount of psychological involvement; (3) the time spent in both roles being equally satisfying
(Greenhaus et al., 2003). According to Whiston and Cinamon (2015), WLB positively affected
both work-related (e.g., career development) and non-work-related (e.g., family performance)
areas. And, the opposite resulted in health problems, such as anxiety and depression (Haar et
al., 2014). Reaching the balance between the two can be challenging and drastically affect both
aspects of life. Achieving it might differ for individuals based on numerous factors namely, the
life cycles, environment, work expectations, cultural backgrounds, etc. This thesis tries to
investigate such differences from a gender perspective.
As men and women go through different life cycles, their work-life relationship tends to differ.
Social assumptions frequently put an extra burden on women being the primary domestic care
(Bianchi et al., 2000). Some of these assumptions include tying women with attributes such as
‘caring’ while tying men with attributes such as ‘authoritative’. The difference gap is
significantly larger between working fathers and mothers too. Essentially, the first WLB
practices were offered primarily to mothers (Lockwood, 2003). Parenthood is not the only
factor contributing to gender differences. Challenges affiliated with career advancements (glass
ceilings) create disadvantages by pushing women to work overtime (Pace & Sciotto, 2021).
This is mainly due to a shift from a male breadwinner model to a dual-earner model. In other
words, the research showed that women had to work overtime to achieve career advancements,
while the same did not apply to men.
There have been multiple studies on the topic of work-life balance and differences in genders.
A qualitative study by Emslie and Hunt (2008) investigated the work-life relationship of men
and women in their mid-life. The results revealed that many women found it difficult to find a
balance when their children were younger, whereas one female participant, who did not have
any children, struggled less. Another study conducted in India investigated the effects of work-
life imbalance on health in genders (Doble & Supriya, 2010). 54 percent of men and 43 percent
of women felt that the work affected their health. There was a strong belief from both genders
that flexible working hours would improve the work-life balance. Kelliher, Richardson, &
Boiarintseva (2018) brought a different outlook on the perception of work-life balance. It stated
that work and life were separated in most studies, while the latest working arrangements showed
that they could easily be combined. Bloom (2016) proclaimed that the concept of balance is
controversial, as work is part of life and should not be separated. Overall, the majority of studies
supported the fact that the difference between genders regarding WLB is existent. This paper
digs into the research of factors creating such differences.

2
Although valuable studies clarified work-life balance issues in the past, there were some
research gaps. Firstly, most work-life balance studies from a gender perspective focused solely
on parenthood, casting a shadow on how gender plays a role in employees who do not have any
children. Some studies ignored the impact of work-life balance practices and the introduction
of more flexible working arrangements. Another gap was the lack of attention to the role of
cultural background. This research paper tries to fill these gaps by highlighting organizational
and cultural impact. The purpose of the paper is to decrease the work-life conflict and help to
improve the work-life balance in employment by bringing more awareness to the topic. The
paper tries to achieve this by looking into WLB in a cross-cultural context and investigating
such differences between male and female immigrants. The indicated brought up the main
research question: What are the underlying factors contributing to gender differences in work-
life balance in male and female immigrants, and how do these differences impact individuals'
satisfaction with work and personal life?
The thesis is separated into several parts. The literature review introduces how the role of gender
has evolved throughout work-life relationships. This is followed by a methodology part, where
qualitative analysis is applied for individually conducted research with the help of semi-
structured interview questions. Results and discussion parts report the findings of the research
and evaluate them to try to close some of the discovered research gaps. A summary of
arguments and results concludes the paper.

3
Literature Review
The major factor emphasizing the need for work/life relationship research is the valuation of
personal life and family (Lockwood, 2003). Variances such as marriage, childcare, and personal
relationships have serious implications on the workload. But, as mentioned above, these
variances fluctuate in men and women. Therefore, the emphasis on the necessity of review is
high to identify potential gaps in the topic to apply relevant empirical methodological tools.
The literature review tries to answer the following research question: What are the underlying
factors contributing to gender differences in work-life balance in male and female immigrants,
and how do these differences impact individuals' satisfaction with work and personal life?
Firstly, the review introduces an overview of how gender roles have changed throughout
history. This is followed by how age differences add up to existing gender differences. Later,
the focus shifts toward parenthood’s relationship with WLB. Cultural and societal impacts are
investigated, in addition. Lastly, the review explores the application of work-life balance
practices in organizations to reveal the current situation in work environments.
Economic evolution of gender roles
Behaviors toward men and women have faced shifts in different periods. As the research
focuses on gender differences, it is vital to consider how attitudes toward genders play a role.
Oakley (1972) defined gender as a social creation relying on biological differences. Gender
roles were habitually determined by societies’ expectations of men and women (Blackstone,
2003). These expectations were dependent on traits to which masculinity and femininity were
tied. For instance, many societies held a belief that women have more nurturing traits; this led
to many women taking care of their families. In opposition, men were believed to have more
leading traits; this belief resulted in men taking employment outside of their homes. Gender
roles did not only exist within families but were also observed in work environments. Many
tasks and job positions used to be categorized according to the expected roles of men and
women (Kanter, 1977). Examples of this can be the expectations of women to hold positions
such as secretaries and men to hold positions, such as managers and executives. A biological
perspective indicated that these roles were naturally affined, and a sociological perspective
stated that these roles were learned and could be unlearned. There was a close link between
these associations and gender stereotypes. Gender stereotypes are defined as a simplified
explanation of gender differences (Blackstone, 2003). Although, it could occasionally be used
to understand gender gaps better, it also could cause damage to their development and
restructuring.
Societal pressure has shaped the economy with men’s and women’s fixed places. Wood and
Eagly (2002) determined two causes associated with this placement: (1) gender roles based on
labor, where men are breadwinners and women are caretakers, and (2) the power inequality
between genders related to economic resources. Conforming to Boserup (1970), gender roles
based on labor were mainly determined by agriculture. The introduction of agricultural
technology required remarkable body strength, resulting in men taking the role of workers and
women taking the role of housemakers. The second main factor was the previously mentioned

4
feminine and masculine traits, where women were stereotyped as overly emotional and men as
rational (Blackstone, 2003). The factors adding up to the power inequality related to economic
sources started with patriarchy. Patriarchy refers to the system where men are in positions of
power without including women. Such environments made women more dependent on the male
members of the family. Another reason came from biological sex differences. Reproductive
processes, such as pregnancy and childcare challenged women’s participation in economic
activities (Wood & Eagly, 2002). The risk of losing a career was not at the same level as fathers.
This is explored more in-depth in the following chapter of the thesis related to parenthood.
Women have faced significant challenges throughout the economic development. The most
remarkable factor was the lack of access to education, which had a direct effect on employment
(Bennett, 1989). In 1930s, only less than 1 percent of all 18–24-year-old people enrolled in
higher education institutions were women (Yellen, 2020). Women needed to provide for
themselves and their families while most of their male family members were at war.
Fortunately, the situation has started to improve since. Labor force participation percentages in
women rose from 70 percent in 1986 to 81 percent in 2005 (Marshall, 2005). Married women
participated in paid labor significantly more, in comparison. On the contrary, men’s
participation in housework had increased by 15 percent, while women’s participation went
down (Marshall, 2005). This could be connected to a change in cultural norms: “It is likely
more acceptable for men to cook and clean, indeed, welcomed, for men to show competence at
making a home-cooked meal.” (Bianchi et al., 2000, p. 219). The number of dual earners had
increased since 1992, implying that men were not the main breadwinners in households
forthwith. Nevertheless, female labor participation remains low in many non-western countries
(Del Boca & Sauer, 2009).
Although women started joining the workforce, the challenges were still existent. Women were
found to earn 79 cents for every dollar a man earned (Schieder & Gould, 2016). The distinction
had been held up by factors, such as years of education and lack of experience. However,
Krooger, Cooke, and Gould (2016) found that women earned less than men in every education
level. Moreover, such difference was seen in women in the same positions as men (Scheider &
Gould, 2016). The actual reasons behind the gap are various. Firstly, gendered working roles
have left women in low-paid occupations and men in male-dominated industries (Schieder &
Gould, 2016). Secondly, previous stereotypes have created a belief that women’s fixed places
were not in the workplaces, and, hence, they did not deserve an equal salary (Khoreva, 2011).
This has been proven to result in excess stress and demotivation for women to not participate
in the workforce.
The evolution of gender roles has shaped the work-life balance progression. The term wasn’t
used until 1986 and companies started introducing work-life programs only in the 1980s
(Lockwood, 2003). Baby boomers faced challenges balancing the two due to this. Working
overtime was a form of the norm for them (Kohll, 2018). At first, the programs were solely
focused on working mothers. Later, the goal shifted to ensuring the efficiency of employees by
separating enough time for leisure. Organizations started to research the gap in the topics to
understand the concept better ever since (Raja & Stein, 2014). The history of the work-family

5
is thoroughly described in Figure 1. In the early years, the entire family used to move near their
working place. Subsequently, family and workplace got segregated. The introduction of
industrialization extended the separation between the two. Male breadwinner models dominated
workforce during the industrialization (Voydanoff, 2006). The cause of this was an
aforementioned need for body strength during work performance. Between the 1950s and early
1980s, gender division started to decrease as technological advancements were introduced
(Snooks, 1996). There wasn’t any stereotypical justification for the exclusion of female
workforce participation forthwith. This significantly affected the establishment of WLB
initiatives because they were mostly focused on female employees’ needs. Onwards, more
women continued joining the labor force, causing an improvement in work-life balance
programs.
Figure 1
Phases of work and family life spheres
Source: Naithani, 2010.
Nowadays, work-life integration is a globally known concept for every organization. HR
specialists currently focus on programs that benefit both male and female employees. Labor
participation had improved remarkably with most women joining in and the dual-earner model
started replacing male breadwinner models. Nonetheless, the challenges linked to women
attaining top executive positions and the pay gap are ongoing. The main problem attributed to

6
gender differences in work-life conflict was parenthood and house care. These two attributes
are discussed in the following section.
Parenthood and housework division
Men and women had been expected to marry and have children, where fathers took the
responsibility of economic support and mothers took the duties of taking care of the children’s
emotional needs (Featherstone, 2009). According to Purewal and van Den Akker (2007), some
parenthood ideologies were universal, and some were determined by other factors, such as
gender, age, and cultural background. Parenting was frequently seen as a sense of achievement
and fulfillment. On top of that, there could be cultural value tied to having children. Beck &
Beck-Gernsheim (1995) affirmed that being a parent could be more fulfilling and enriching
than having a career: “The child promises a tie which is more elemental, profound and durable
than any other in society” (p. 73). However, socioeconomic challenges complicated becoming
parents and taking care of children. As a result, some people felt the pressure to choose one
over another throughout the course of their lives. The ones who chose to become parents had
been seeking work-life balance that would allow a healthy relationship between them and their
children. 90 percent of working parents admitted that they faced work-family conflict and did
not have enough time to spend with their families (Lockwood, 2003). The burden fell on women
for the most part; as traditionally, fathers were seen as breadwinners of the house, while mothers
stayed at home and took care of the children (Moen & Yu, 2000). The fathers faced their own
challenges too: although they had been trying to increase their childcare responsibilities, most
of them faced assumptions related to their masculinity in the workplace (Holter, 2007). As the
focus of this thesis was on gender differences, it was essential to analyze how the role of
parenthood added up to these differences.
Maintaining a work-life balance has been particularly challenging for parents. Due to this, most
WLB studies were focused on parenthood. According to the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), many households had two breadwinners, where both
parents are working (OECD, 2017). Yet, the dual breadwinner model was not normalized until
the baby boomer generation (Beutell, 2013). Because of this shift, work-family conflict (WFC)
was evident more than ever. WFC was defined as “a form of inter-role conflict in which the
role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect”
(Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985, p. 77). Frone, Russell, & Cooper (1997) revealed that work-family
conflict could go in two directions: work-interfering-with-family (WIF) and family-interfering-
with-work (FIW). Both types of conflicts had previously resulted in stress. (Anderson et al.,
2002). There were three main causes of work-life conflict (Chan et al., 2015):
1. Time-based (work and family demands occurring simultaneously)
2. Strain-based (work demands “spilling over” to family demands)
3. Behavior-based (work and family demands creating challenges in switching to
one another)
For managing both work and life segments effectively, both employees and employers need to
understand how the imbalance occurs. Figure 2 shows a macro-level model of WLB defining

7
life and work segments. Both segments were divided by gender, and women had been solely
put in life segments (family, social). The segmentation referred to how easy or hard it was to
differentiate between the two. The phenomenon was similar to the previously introduced WIF
and FIW intrusions. On the other hand, integration showed the interference of both segments.
Although this interference was unavoidable, too much of it could damage WLB. Compensation
referred to how an individual attempts to compensate for the other segment during an
imbalance. For instance, a parent could financially contribute more to the family to reimburse
for the loss of time in the segment. The level of spillover and integration was found to be
surprisingly high in recent years, making it difficult for organizations to create assistance
services: “For many people, work has become cognitively intrusive.” (Dhas & Karthikeyan,
2015, p. 16). This explained that work-life imbalance was not only caused by the lack of
physical time; it was primarily caused by the “cognitive space” needed to process both
segments.
Figure 2
Work-family conflict model
Source: Naithani, 2010.
A rise in female employment changed the family dynamics (Hildebrandt & Littig, 2006). It was
generally believed that balancing work and family was more difficult for women, because of
the expectations they faced from both environments (Eby et al., 2005). Women were historically
associated with family-centered attitudes (Phillips & Imhoff, 1997). In other words, women’s
ideologies were more family-focused, and men’s were more work-focused (Vespa, 2009). It
was argued that the parenthood ideals of women were firmer, as well (Bagger et al., 2008).
Slaughter (2012) stated that having a balanced life was not a women’s issue but rather of all
employees. However, typically, a large part of the housework (childcare, care of the elderly,
etc.) fell on women’s behalf. This was linked to society’s views on women as being responsible
for caregiving (Swinkels et al., 2019). On top of that, it had been women’s responsibility to

8
make major household decisions (e.g., education, family formation) in most households (Burt
& Scott, 2002). Studies showed that mothers in dual breadwinner houses engaged in childcare
activities more and earned less than fathers holding equivalent positions (Bianchi et al., 2000;
Padavic & Reskin, 2002). Generally, women adjusted their work flexibility and childcare
availability to improve the work-life balance in the household (Doble & Supriya, 2010).
Radcliffe and Cassell (2014) found that women took additional parental responsibility
willingly, as they felt obligated to oversee the care tasks. To be able to separate enough time
for domestic work, most women held part-time jobs (OECD, 2021). The majority of women
saw the work as an additional responsibility; therefore, they gave up job opportunities if they
saw there was not enough time for personal duties (Guillaume & Pochic, 2009). “Women still
face a trade-off between career positions that are associated with power and influence and
emotional responsibilities and family life. Long-term career planning is partly hindered by
family planning, which affects successful career development.” (Schueller-Weidekamm &
Kautzky-Willer, 2012, p. 248). Most women found it easy to leave their careers behind without
organizational support (Zhao et al., 2011). Parental leave and flexible working hours proved to
strengthen the commitment to the organization (Grover & Crooker, 1995). When it came to
women’s opinions on whether it was possible to achieve a perfect work-life balance, they said
that it opposed today’s socio-economic state:
I still strongly believe that women can “have it all” (and that men can too). I believe that
we can “have it all at the same time.” But not today, not with the way America's
economy and society are currently structured. Millions of working women face difficult
life circumstances. Some are single mothers; many struggle to find any job; others
support husbands who cannot find jobs. Many cope with a work life in which good
daycare is either unavailable or very expensive; school schedules do not match work
schedules; and schools themselves are failing to educate their children. Many of these
women are worrying not about having it all, but rather about holding on to what they do
have. (Slaughter, 2012, p. 86)
It can be stated that managing WLB is not only a mother’s issue; fathers face similar challenges
too. While mothers’ roles were set as main caregivers, fathers’ roles were set as main
breadwinners. Therefore, fathers generally did not put as much emphasis on work-life balance
as mothers. The British working model was constructed for fathers to work full-time and
mothers to work part-time (Cousins & Tang, 2004). Additionally, there was a difference in
fathers’ job positions: non-managers had better access to organizational WLB offers than
managers, particularly due to workload with less pressure (Gregory & Milner, 2011).
Legislation in countries played a large role too; some countries like the United States did not
have paternity leave rules (Livingston & Thomas, 2019). Breadwinner models were being
reframed to establish fathers’ rights and responsibilities in households (Hobson & Martin,
2002). Zimmerman (2000) investigated non-traditional (stay-at-home) fathers. It was noticeable
that the majority of stay-at-home fathers were not much involved in communities and less
socialized with other parents. This stigma could be connected with the prejudice against non-
traditional parents. Although stay-at-home fathers felt the support of their spouses, they shared
feelings of disapproval from society (Zimmerman, 2000). Even so, it was also heavily

9
dependent on the organizations’ gendered perception of care. Organizational offers such as part-
time working and family emergency leave were represented as WLB practices for women
(Gregory & Milner, 2011). Fewer male employees used family leave offers during the birth of
a child (Berry & Rao, 1997). This phenomenon was referred to as the “invisible daddy track”
(Hall, 1990). It was shown that fathers could have better WLB with the right organizational
policies (Langvasbräten & Teigen, 2006).
There was evidence found that dual-earner families were emotionally and physically satisfied,
positively influencing their children (Haddock, 2001). However, women in dual-earner families
were more sensitive towards WFC than men (Martins et al., 2002). Guillaume and Pochic
(2009) suggested three options for a man and woman sharing a home life on how to protect the
balance: (1) Double-career model (they can lead two symmetrical careers at once); (2) Alternate
model (they can manage their careers alternatively, and one can momentarily disrupt their
career for the other one’s benefit); (3) Family-oriented model (they can prioritize their home
life, knowing that their career will suffer). Moreover, Somech and Drach-Zahavy (2007) found
that mothers and fathers used the following eight coping strategies for dealing with work-life
conflict:
1. Good enough at home (decreasing the performance of family responsibilities)
2. Super at home (prioritizing family duties)
3. Delegation at home (delegating some of the family duties to someone else)
4. Priorities at home (undertaking family duties with high priority only)
5. Good enough at work (decreasing work performance)
6. Super at work (prioritizing work responsibilities)
7. Delegation at work (delegating some of the work duties to someone else)
8. Priorities at work (undertaking work tasks with high priority only)
Single parenting added another layer to the challenges of protecting healthy relationships
between work and life. Single parents depended on their jobs more and had less time flexibility
compared to dual-earner households, leading to a worse work-life balance (Van den Eynde et
al., 2019). Poverty levels and financial problems were at high levels in lone-parent households
(Conroy & O’Leary, 2005). Although there were government incentives to assist single parents
in some countries, there still was a need for single parents to be employed to financially provide
for their families. And this arrangement left little time for childcare. Conforming to ILO (2005),
women were the heads of nine out of ten single-parent families in Europe. Research by Van
den Eynde, Anina, & Dimitri (2019) investigated if there was a difference in a work-family
conflict between married and divorced parents and between divorced fathers and mothers. They
used Work-Family Conflict Scale for the research, that had been developed for the International
Social Survey Program (ISSP) and included statements such as “I have arrived at work too tired
to function well because of the household work I had done” (Breyer & Bluemke, 2016, p. 7).
In divorced families, mothers’ employment situations changed more drastically compared to
fathers. It was discovered that having a partner had a greater impact on WIF for mothers and
FIW for fathers. Nevertheless, there were not any differences in WFC between married and
divorced fathers; but divorced mothers were more likely to experience WFC than married

10
mothers (Van den Eynde et al., 2019). Van Gasse and Mortelmans (2020) interviewed thirteen
single mothers on how they managed childcare and work. It was clear that most of them
struggled to balance the two on their own and felt the need to ask for the assistance of their
household members. The number of children had a correlation with the WLB too. Cooke and
Jing (2009) investigated one-child policies in China. This policy led to a decrease in childcare
and household work for parents. Although the proportion stayed the same: the responsibilities
at home still fell mostly on women. Because of this, women were at risk of being exposed to
WLC. As a solution, many Chinese women outsourced the help.
Another research investigated the generational differences in work-life relationships among
women with family needs (Roebuck et al., 2013). The study distinguished women in the
workforce from three following generations: baby boomers, Generation X, and Generation Y.
Compared to baby boomers, Generation X and Y put a stronger emphasis on their family needs.
Baby boomers were the first generation where men shared housework responsibilities, and
women started going to work, changing the work-life perspective (Beutell, 2013). A study
conducted by Roebuck, Smith, and Haddaoui focused on how generational and gender
differences correlated. Findings imply that work-life balance was an issue for women from all
three generations: Millennial women faced conflict in areas of hobby or vacation, whereas
Generation X and baby boomers saw it intervening with caregiving (Roebuck et al., 2013).
Furthermore, burnout of employees who tried to attain a work-life balance was observed, in
direct contrast to this balance itself (Kanwar et al., 2009). In addition to that, Baby boomer
women suffered from separating time between their children and aging parents. There were
negative comments toward younger generations’ work ethic: Baby boomers thought younger
generations did not work as hard as them and preferred their personal lives more. Millennials
stated that work was easier for them with the help of technology, and they did not need to work
extra hours like older generations.
An issue of class and ethnic differences in the comparison of parenthood’s role in WLB was
noted. Other than gender, parenthood ideologies were influenced by class and ethnicity too
(Taylor, 2011). It was important to note that some working-class families could afford childcare
services, while others could not. As an example, ethnic minority women had limited time for
their children while they cared for the children of women from the upper classes to earn money
(Taylor, 2011). Therefore, a tag-team decision (managing schedules that one parent carries on
working while the other one stays at home and engages in childcare) was a choice for well-paid
parents and a necessity for low-income ones (Boushey, 2006). Such issues did not receive
enough attention in previous literature.
The literary focus regarding parenthood and WLB was mainly on heterosexual parents, ignoring
other family types. Homosexual parents revealed that they did not feel supported by their
organization’s program offers while facing the same challenges as their colleagues: “I felt like
when they were using the word ‘family’, they weren’t including me.” (Sawyer et al., 2018). It
was revealed that their family type was less acceptable. Some LGBTQ employees felt the need
to suppress the information about their families because of their colleagues’ or supervisors’

11
reactions. Therefore, they could not benefit the same way heterosexual parents benefited from
WLB programs.
Delegation of housework was another factor in work-life conflicts; it was not only relevant to
parents but all employees. Household work is unpaid and is not considered part of the GDP, but
the economy cannot properly function without it (DeRock, 2019). Most individuals look at
housework as a time-wasting chore that meddles with their work and leisure time. These include
tasks like cleaning and cooking. Some of these tasks can be “outsourced” with the help of hiring
a service; nonetheless, it is not suitable for every household because of the costs (Bianchi et al.,
2000). Throughout history, the responsibility of housework mainly laid on women within the
families. The less the family was gender egalitarian (whether genders should determine
individuals’ roles), the more responsibility went to women for the house care (Davis. Et al,
2007). Average minutes spent per day for EU in market work added up to 270 minutes for men
and 170 minutes for women, whereas this number was 141 minutes for men and 257 minutes
for women in domestic work (Gianelli et al., 2012). Carriero and Todesco’s study (2018)
showed that one reason behind such differences in numbers was a belief that men were not as
good at housework as women. There was a relationship between earnings and housework:
men’s housework increased as their earnings decreased (Bittman et al., 2003). Meanwhile,
women’s housework decreased as their earnings increased. Household members felt less
obligated to do the housework when they were contributing more financially. In recent years,
the responsibility of domestic care was determined by the following three factors: time
availability perspective (the responsibility depends on the household member who has more
available time), relative resources perspective (the responsibility depends on the relationship of
the household members), and gender perspective (the responsibility depends traditionally on
women); (Bianchi et al., 2000). Naturally, the arrangement choice of the housework influences
the gender perspective of the work-life balance. Despite the delegation becoming more gender-
neutral, women still spend about 40 percent more of their time on unpaid domestic work
(OECD, 2023).
After investigating the parenthood and housework division, it was evident that the gender gap
was remarkably existent in both parts. Women got overburdened in finding balance compared
to men. Additionally, most studies solely focused on heterosexual parents (a father and a
mother), excluding other parent types (e.g., homosexual, single parent). A solution to this relied
on organizations’ working arrangements, which differed according to countries and cultures.
On account of this, the cultural context was analyzed in the next paragraphs of the literature
review.
Cross-cultural context
Work-life balance takes many shapes in different cultures and countries. Cultural background
impacts gender differences since there are multiple perceptions of gender roles. For instance,
male IT employees working from home in India were looked down on by their wives for not
going to the office and were assumed as unemployed (Rajan-Rankin, 2016). Another example
could be Pakistani women in the United Kingdom being expected to take on extra household
duties while carrying out work responsibilities (Khoker & Beauregard, 2014). Perceived stress

12
arising from work-life imbalance differ according to the cultures too. Acculturative stress is
defined as a kind of stress, which changes during the process of adaptation to a new culture
(Lee et al., 2019). This phenomenon has been mostly observed in immigrants. Such differences
cause difficulties in achieving WLB.
Western and Eastern views
There is a major contrast between Western and Eastern views on work-life relationships.
Throughout literature, Western culture was described as individualistic, where people had more
independent views of themselves; meanwhile, collectivism was characterized with Eastern
cultures, where people were more dependent on groups (Kitayama & Uskul, 2011).
Collectivistic cultures have been encouraging self-sacrifice in the interest of one’s group and
individualistic cultures have been focusing on self-fulfillment (Hofstede et al., 1991). As a
result, employees from Eastern Asia worked excessively in need of social approval, in contrast
to Western European employees who prioritized personal achievements (Chung, 1992). One of
the studies compared WLB and job satisfaction across seven cultures: Malaysian, New Zealand
Maori, New Zealand European, Spanish, Italian, French, and Chinese (Haar et al., 2014). The
hypotheses stated that WLB was positively related to job and life satisfaction and negatively
related to anxiety and depression across all mentioned cultures. Research took
individualism/collectivism (whether people view themselves as part of groups or independent)
and gender egalitarianism (GE) into account, as well. Results of the study showed high levels
of WLB in individualistic cultures compared to collectivistic ones. Furthermore, people in high
GE cultures (e.g., New Zealand) were more satisfied with their jobs and had better work-life
balance. GE cultures also correlated with a decrease in gender differences in WLB. It was
proven by previous studies that there were fewer gender role beliefs in GE cultures where both
men and women had equal opportunities (House et al., 2004).
When contrasting Western and Eastern views on WLB, the levels were different in accordance
with each country. For instance, American employees perceived work-life conflict not in the
same way as the European employees did. Merling and Buffie (2016) discovered that 69 percent
of employers worked 40 or more hours per week. Although, this number was only 56 percent
in EU countries. The term “American dream” had been a threshold for many Americans to
overwork and overachieve (Masciotra, 2013). American employees shared their experiences of
receiving low pay with high demand (Olen, 2021). This was noticed in working arrangements
too: The United States was the only country not providing any mandatory paid leaves for the
parents (Livingston & Thomas, 2019). In comparison, Estonia offered 86 weeks of mandatory
paid leave to all its workers. It can be presumed that the U.S. relied more on individual
organizations rather than government incentives; this was not the case in EU countries. Health
issues of burned-out U.S. employees cost an estimated $190 billion in healthcare spending per
year (Garton, 2017).
There were differences among European countries too. Crompton and Lyonette (2006)
compared the work-life conflict levels in Norway, Finland, the United Kingdom, and Portugal.
It was apparent that the Nordic welfare state had better policies (e.g., better childcare
infrastructure) in support of work-life balance. However, satisfaction differed between men and

13
women: Swedish women experienced WFC more than men (Van der Lippe et al., 2006).
Ruppanner and Huffman (2014) added to this by revealing that life-to-work conflict was higher
for men in Sweden. This contrasted with the previous findings that generally life-to-work
conflict is higher for women, and work-to-life conflict is higher for men (Van den Eynde et al.,
2019).
In addition to ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic differences significantly affected WLB.
Individuals from the lower working class had more financial hardships compared to other
classes, making them work extra hours and causing balance disturbance (Warren, 2016). With
the increase in economic inequalities, there was also an increase in social anxiety and work
competitiveness (Sánchez‐Rodríguez et al., 2019). Moreover, middle-class employees
experienced status anxiety (constant fear of having low socioeconomic status in society) in
comparison to their wealthier colleagues and worked longer hours, ignoring other parts of their
lives (Bowles & Park, 2005). In such cases, the focus on WLB was not crucial to employees as
their lives depended on their work. Sultanli and Guliyeva (2019) tested the relationship between
work-life balance and employee satisfaction in Azerbaijan. Additionally, whether views related
to WLB depended on variables like gender, marital status, and income level were investigated.
A survey of 143 participants showed that WLB and employee satisfaction were deeply
connected. Out of all variables, income level affected WLB perception most, showing that the
salary amount was the main issue in the country, surpassing the gender perceptions of the
culture.
Arising from the factors discussed earlier, levels of WLB were different in various parts of the
world. According to Figure 3, Sweden had the highest work-life balance score, while Mexico
had the lowest. The map was constructed according to how hardworking the country is. It was
not surprising that seven out of the top ten countries with the highest score were in Europe since
the Working Time Directive guaranteed proper vacation days for all employees (Your Europe,
2023). From the map, the following question arose: Was there a correlation between hard work
and wealth? The ranking suggested otherwise, since not a single “hard-working” country,
except the United States, fell into the top ten in terms of GDP (Mayer, 2022). It could be
affirmed that a proper WLB can lead to wealth more than hard work. The results were supported
by the number of working hours, as well. According to OECD (2022), Colombia had the highest
working hours with 2,405 annual hours per worker. In contrast, German employees had only
1,341 hours of work annually, after recently gaining the right to work 28 hours weekly. And,
as shown on the map, Colombia gained a much lower WLB score in comparison with Germany.
Figure 3
Work-life balance worldwide map

14
Source: Mayer, 2022.
Gender egalitarianism
It was previously noted that men and women were set to have different roles in society based
on where they lived. Mead’s studies (1934) supported the fact that the social roles of individuals
were not formulated from biological variations but were affected by cultural expectations. In
other words, there was cultural normality that related to what was naturally perceived and
expected from genders in certain cultures (Neculaesei, 2015). For instance, Pakistani culture
had a patricentric system, where men were the main breadwinners while women were taking
care of the home (Sather & Kazi, 1997). This system increased the levels of authority for men
and lowered it in women. In some literature, societies were considered either masculine or
feminine:
A society is considered a masculine one if the gender emotional roles differ clearly: men
should be authoritarian, harsh, and focused on material success, while women should be
modest, gentle and concerned with quality of life. A society is considered a feminine
one if the gender emotional roles overlap: both men and women must prove modesty,
gentleness, and concern for quality of life. (Hofstede et al., 1991, p. 141)
Furthermore, men have been associated with adjectives such as competitive and daring, while
women have been associated with having superior emotional intelligence and abstract thinking
in many cultures throughout history (Hofstede et al., 1991). Generally, for men, it was more
important what they did, while for women it was more important what they were. Specific tasks
have been labeled as either feminine (e.g., household chores) or masculine (e.g., outdoor
activities). Nevertheless, educational attainment influenced traditional gender roles: men’s
involvement in household tasks was positively connected with their education levels (Haddad,
1994). Some countries put a high emphasis on such differences, and some ignored them. Gender

15
empowerment on a country level seemed to reduce life-to-work conflict for women (Rupanner
& Huffman, 2014). Steiber (2009), with the use of data from the 2004 European Social Survey,
proved that the attitudes in gender-egalitarian societies related to high WFC. In spite of that,
having such differences doesn’t imply that one gender is superior to another in the work or life
environment.
Men and women have been separated into two groups according to Pleck’s (1977) gender role
theory: either traditional or egalitarian. And their work-life attitudes depended on which group
they belonged to. Traditional women have been attributed with overinvesting in family part and
prioritizing it. Such perception could result in them greatly detaching from work and increasing
levels of work-life conflict. On the other hand, traditional men have been putting more effort
into work part and end up with higher work hours, thereby increasing work-life conflict too
(Huffman et al., 2014).
Company culture
Culture impacted the organizational environment, as well. Organizational culture is defined as
a “pattern of shared basic assumptions that a given group has invented” (Schein 1984, p. 3).
Well-organized culture positively affects WLB of its employees. Xenikou and Furnham (1996)
came up with four types of organizational culture: (1) Innovation culture, where personal
achievements are supported; (2) Task-oriented culture, where there is a high focus on quality
and detail; (3) Bureaucratic culture, where employees strictly follow employers’ decisions; (4)
Competition culture, where high competition is prioritized. There is no organizational type that
is better than another; the type gets adjusted according to the employees and the industry it
functions in.
The cultural variety has been creating confusion for HR practices in organizations. Among
global firms, American companies foregrounded flexible working opportunities, while Indian
companies emphasized employee assistance programs (EAPs), which offered cultural and
educational services (Chandra, 2012). WLB practices were seen mostly as a luxury in
developing countries (Moen et al., 2013). Mohanty and Jena (2016) investigated WLB
perceptions in Indian workplaces. There was high job dissatisfaction affiliated with the work-
life conflict in Indian organizations. Employees, specifically women professionals, changed
their workplaces rapidly because of extra working hours (Mohanty & Jena, 2016). Abruptly,
Indian employees perceived a well-balanced work life where there was no negative effect on
their personal lives. Four-factor model was established by Rao and Mohan (2008), including
the following quality of work-life dimensions: supportive management and favorable work
environment; personal growth and autonomy; nature of the job; stimulating opportunities and
friendly co-workers.
Literature review on cultural impact supports the fact that there were major distinctions between
Western and Eastern views on gender roles. Organizations need to take such cultural varieties
into account while establishing WLB practices. Cultural varieties of gender roles add up to
already existing gender roles in WLB. This creates a need to see how organizations dealt with
such differences.

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Advancement of organizational practices
Many previous findings offered the application of work-life balance practices as a solution. Due
to this, organizations have been pressured to improve their work practices (Bailyn et al., 1997).
These practices included job sharing (sharing tasks among between two employees), flexible
working (e.g., flextime, working a set number of hours, where starting and finishing times are
chosen by the employee; compressed work week, where employees fit weekly working hours
in less than five workdays), family leave programs (e.g., parental leave) and working from
distance (Beauregard & Henry, 2009). It was found that WLB practices positively influenced
the firm and workplace performance (Guthrie, 2001). In Figure 4, qualitative and quantitative
benefits for both employers and employees are shown. The mentioned benefits are not only
economic but also social. As can be seen, such benefits are not only for employees. For instance,
the US industry had a loss of $150 billion in health-related costs (Golden & Jorgensen, 2002).
Consequently, it is in the organizations’ interest to invest in WLB practices.
Figure 4
Benefits of work-life balance initiatives
Source: Naithani, 2010.
Job demand in workplaces has been pushing workers to stay for extra hours at work. For
instance, a survey at Goldman Sachs showed that the average working time was 95 hours per
week and employees had a sleep of five hours per night (BBC News, 2021). All the survey
participants added that these working hours poorly affected their personal relationships.
Employers had been seeing the ideal worker as someone who was only devoted to the
organization, and who could be present 24/7 (Boris, 1994). Due to this outlook, employees
started pressuring themselves with workload. One reason for it was previously noted financial

17
pressure, especially during the approaching global recession (World Bank, 2022). A want for a
better lifestyle and higher social status had created a hustle culture, where employees were
continuously working more (Morgan, 2016). The pressure was higher on men, particularly on
fathers, due to having a role as main providers (Featherstone, 2009). Both the hustle culture and
self-pressure were factors in the creation of workaholism. Oates (1971) defined workaholism
as the uncontrollable urge to work. Workaholics were found to not have any boundaries
between work and life, continuing thoughts connected with work responsibilities during non-
working hours (Machlowitz, 1980).
Work-life imbalance can result in numerous consequences to health, relationships, and
performance. Overlap between work and family was found to be the main cause of stress
(Byron, 2005). Work characteristics such as the hours worked, and the work schedule played a
role in this cause (Victor & Thavakumar, 2011). The outcomes went two ways: organizational
and familial (Nayak & Pandey, 2015). Organizational outcomes included a decrease in
productivity, poor performance, high turnover, and low job satisfaction, while family outcomes
included strained family, health disorders, and lower family satisfaction. The main consequence
of imbalance was also burnout. Burnout is defined as a syndrome resulting from chronic
workplace stress that has not been successfully managed (WHO, 2019). People experiencing
burnout were characterized by feelings of exhaustion, cynicism towards their jobs, and low
organizational commitment.
WLB initiatives were categorized as follows (Darcy et al., 2012; Den Dulk et al., 2013): (1)
Flexible work arrangement practices: practices allowing employees control over the working
time (flexitime) and working place (flexplace); (2) Time-reduction practices: practices allowing
employees to have control over the number of hours they work; (3) Work-leave practices:
practices allowing employees to leave and return under certain circumstances. Some other
examples include childcare-focused services such as company childcare centers and vouchers
for childcare (Kalev & Dobbin, 2022). Although all these offers help to reduce work-life
conflict to some extent, flexible working arrangements were observed to contribute the most
(Beauregard and Henry, 2009). Besides the mentioned flexitime and flexiplace, such working
arrangements also include smart working (implementation of new technologies into the work
model), telecommuting (working outside of the working space), and homeworking (working
from home). Flexibility arrangements can assist employees in allocating their own time for their
individual needs by increasing their level of control (Anderson et al., 2002). Thus, it can lead
to higher WLB satisfaction (Chung and Van der Horst, 2018). Apart from an improvement in
WLB, these arrangements showed additional benefits. Higher creative performance was
correlated with flexible working arrangements (Dul & Ceylan, 2011). They also open the
possibility for more autonomous thinking by not getting influenced by the work environment.
On the other hand, overuse of flexible arrangements can result in poor relationships with
coworkers and low socializing (Russo et al., 2016). Nevertheless, it is important to note that not
all firms might have enough budget to implement such practices as they are costly (Bloom et
al., 2009).

18
Working arrangements changed in accordance with the occupations. For example, rankings
showed that medical specialists were among the professions with the worst work-life balance
(Loose, 2016). Since specialists could be called to work at any time for medical emergencies,
an intrusion could occur in their personal lives. Also, they had an additional work burden with
a high demand for medical services and a shortage of medical doctors (Abidin et al., 2010). The
importance of work was calculated to be about 30 percent in an individual’s life, while this
number rose to 62 percent in doctors’ lives (Orrom, 2008). Such high pressure affected work
performance and led to an increase in the number of medical errors (Michtalik et al., 2013).
Kaliannan, Perumal, and Dorasamy (2016) investigated whether doctors born prior to 1980 had
different levels of WLB compared to doctors born after 1980 to understand the generational
gap. Levels of WLB were determined according to four work-life characteristics: individual,
family, work, and culture. As a result, younger generations showed lower levels of WLB in
comparison. This was because the doctors were not required to work longer hours as their
medical experience increased. Lower salary amounts caused younger employees to work extra
time as well. The authors saw the fault in hospital employers for not applying for career
development programs as a tool to improve WLB and work satisfaction since it was discovered
that the organizations’ care for the well-being of employees positively influences overall
performance (Fischer et al., 2013). Moreover, most hospitals in the research offered certain
programs as a solution for balancing work and life, such as job sharing, unpaid family medical
leave, and part-time work. Further investigation was done to test the relationship between job
satisfaction and WLB: it was found that there was a positive and high relationship between the
two (Kaliannan et al., 2016). The doctors’ passion for their jobs played a dominant role in their
overall satisfaction.
Besides the organizational practices, individual coping strategies had been encouraged to be
applied (Kotteeswari & Sharief, 2014). Physical exercise methods such as jogging and
swimming were proven to overcome stress. To ease the mind, meditation has been
recommended to diminish burnout. For a better WLB, a transition between work and life is a
necessity. Therefore, the Work-Home Transition technique was advised to use at the end of
each working day for relaxation. For example, if there were any work responsibilities left, it
was recommended to note and prioritize them for the following day (Kotteeswari & Sharief,
2014). Communication with empathetic colleagues were added to the list of strategies too.
Lastly, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) assisted the employees to be aware of the effect
of events at work on their emotions.
A frequent issue related to WLB practices in companies was the lack of awareness. In a survey
of 945 employees, 50 percent of them were not aware that their organizations offered family-
friendly practices (Yeandle et al., 2002). Employees who were aware of the existence of such
practices were reluctant to use them. Employees’ perception of using WLB practices creates a
negative impact on their careers demotivated them from using them (Kodz et al., 2012). Bailyn
(1997) shared the following: “Putting in time – being visibly at work, often for long hours – is
seen as a sign of commitment, of loyalty, of competence and high potential, and in many cases
as an indicator, in and of itself, of productive output.” (p. 211). There was a general view of
managers that employees who did not give their maximum amount of time to the organization

19
were less productive and committed (Lewis, 1997). According to Rousseau (1995), it was
possible that employees felt an obligation to repay their organization for the use of practices
and increase their positive work attitudes. There was also a need to prove oneself for possible
career advancements. The relation was to the aforementioned gender differences in parental
leave, also known as the “invisible daddy track” (Hall, 1990). Wayne and Cordeiro (2003)
investigated how male and female employees who took family leave were perceived by others.
There was no difference in the perception of female employees, but men who took family leave
were rated as being less likely to be committed to the company than the men who did not
(Wayne & Cordeiro, 2003). When it came to usage frequency, women were found to use the
initiatives more often (Smith & Gardner, 2007).
Another issue related to the initiatives was regarding their structure. “People need different
things at different times of their lives.” (Dhas & Karthikeyan, 2015, p. 13). Set initiatives did
not benefit all employees: some needed parenthood initiatives, and some required support for
personal hobbies. The same initiatives could not fit employees from different sexualities or
cultural backgrounds, as well. Organizations considered how the investment in such initiatives
would affect them in the long term: there was an expectancy of employee commitment in return
for offers. Studies showed that the WLB program positively contributed to employee devotion
(Dhas & Karthikeyan, 2015). 60 percent of survey respondents disclosed that the emphasis on
balancing work and personal life in companies was highly important for them to remain there
(Dhas & Karthikeyan, 2015).
The effectiveness and importance of the WLB programs had been measured to determine how
beneficial they were. Frequently, the five key areas were considered by the HR specialists: (1)
employee time saved (hours saved after using assistance services); (2) employee turnover; (3)
improved motivation; (4) absenteeism; (5) decreased health-related issues (Dhas &
Karthikeyan, 2015). Some of these areas are described in Figure 4. Such performance measures
include profitability, employee turnover rate, and return on investment. Higher ROA (Return
on Assets) was connected with the availability of WLB programs too (Martinez-Leon et al.,
2019). Other methods to measure the effectiveness of WLB initiatives are pre- and post-
assessments (Corporate Wellness Magazine, 2023). Surveys can be gathered from employees
before and after the application of initiatives. Alongside the feedback, health metric measures
(e.g., blood pressure levels, heart rates) were suggested to gather data on health improvement.
Bloom, Kretschmer, and Van Reenen (2009) discovered a positive correlation between high
management quality and WLB practices. Perr-Smith and Blum (2000) discovered that flexible
work arrangements improved employee performance. The inability of the organizations to
effectively implement could create anxiety in their employees (Zheng et al., 2016). Due to this,
work and family stressors have been investigated (Ganiyu et al., 2020). In Figure 5, how work
and family stressors impact firms’ performance is described. In addition, how WLB strategies
can decrease this influence is also shown in the framework.
Figure 5
Work-life Balance measure framework

20
Source: Ganiyu et al., 2020.
The theoretical background on WLB initiatives showed that high WLB satisfaction depended
on how organizations implement their initiatives. However, it is important to consider that
theoretical frameworks and practical applications do not always match. Therefore, the next
paragraphs compare the WLB practices in two major European firms (Bayer and Unilever) and
investigate the gender differences in their implementation. The analyzed firms were chosen
from the same geographical continent and two different countries (Germany and the UK) for
the company culture comparison.
Allianz’s approach to work-life policies
Allianz is an international financial services provider, with headquarters located in Germany.
The company is one of the many German companies emphasizing the importance of WLB for
its employees. Allianz Deutschland was one of the winners of the “Germany’s Best Employers
2022” (Allianz, 2023).
To promote healthy work-life integration, Allianz offers flexitime and part-time working
models (Allianz, 2023). Hybrid mode is considered to be a new normal for Allianz. As long as
the working needs can be met through the work arrangements, employees are offered to work
from home at least 40 percent of their time (Allianz, 2023). The collective agreement in German
locations requires 38 hours per week (Allianz, 2023). In addition, all employees are allowed to
work abroad for 25 days per year. The new 4C+ concept gives the company’s employees a
chance to work in a location that best suits them.
Besides physical assistance for an improved WLB, Allianz puts mental well-being on top. Free
24/7 mental health support arranges breaks between meetings to find the balance for its
employees. There are certain “no meeting” days separated for individual self-care and dedicated
focus. All these efforts showed themselves in a positive employee experience: “One of the best

21
organizations to help you with your work-life balance as the company is very much employee
oriented.” (Glassdoor, 2023).
Allianz showed a great concern for working parents. Paid maternity leaves are offered in every
branch of the company, with paternity leaves being included in the majority of them (Allianz,
2023). Paid maternity leaves last for 16 weeks, while paternity leaves take up to 8 weeks
globally. However, this amount increases according to the location. For instance, Allianz France
offers 22 to 46 weeks of maternity leave (Allianz, 2023). There are also childcare facilities
provided for working parents to spend more time with their kids.
Unilever’s flexible working arrangements
Another corporation putting a high emphasis on work-life arrangements was Unilever, British
consumer goods company. Unilever’s working arrangements were investigated to find out how
they differed from Allianz, and how the cultural differences of these corporations added up to
these differences.
The HR specialists of the company understood that the current world’s dynamics changed the
traditional 40-hour employment system: younger generations were looking for jobs with higher
flexibility. Due to this, Unilever made a work-life balance one of Unilever’s Compass goals for
the future (Unilever, 2023). To reach this goal, U-Work was established. Employees in U-Work
do not have any fixed positions; instead, they get different assignments. Completing such
assignments is up to the individuals’ self-time-management and can be done from home.
Salaries are linked to each assignment with the benefits offered of regular employment type.
This type of arrangement helps people to travel or study while working. It was also beneficial
for people who wanted to decrease their working hours or spend more time with their families.
Susanna Speirs, a U-Work employee, stated the following: “I decided to leave Unilever to
pursue a new venture that would allow me to work from home during school hours so I could
spend more time with my children while they’re young. U-Work gives me some security of
income and keeps me connected to Unilever.” (Unilever, 2023). Additionally, Unilever offered
hybrid working arrangements: employees could spend 60 percent of their working time outside
the workplace.
When it came to parental leave arrangements, Unilever offered the same number of weeks
compared to Allianz. Global Maternal Wellbeing Standard set 16 weeks of paid leave for
mothers of newborn children (Unilever, 2017). Nevertheless, the numbers differed according
to the country. After the return to work, they could have the option to continue part-time or
benefit from job sharing. Additional breaks and facilities are available to nursing mothers, as
well. The gendered division of these arrangements was existent, as fathers got only eight weeks
of paid leave.
WLB practices in both companies were alike, in spite of the fact that they were established on
different countries. The sole difference that could be distinguished was Unilever’s efforts in
parental offers to its employees. Furthermore, there was not enough research put into Unilever’s
flexible arrangements to test whether they made a difference or not. Although the company’s

22
goal to bring better WLB by 2030 seemed encouraging. It is the organizations’ responsibility
to understand how the workers can achieve a better work-life balance and in practice, most
solutions include parental leave only. This is not nearly enough to solve the work-life conflict.
Fortunately, the introduction of flexible working arrangements increased post-COVID. Such
arrangements were observed to be the ones satisfying the employees the most.
In conclusion of the literature review, the essential factors affecting the gender gap in WLB
were analyzed. Most women still face more challenges than men in balancing their life and
work (Slaughter, 2012). However, the situation has improved throughout economic history
(Naithani, 2009). Mothers suffered from stress due to mixing childcare and housework too
(Moen & Yu, 2000). Non-gender egalitarian cultures expanded these challenges (Haar et al.,
2014). The situation in healthy company environments was better in comparison with the need
for more research (Bloom et al., 2009). When it comes to the literature gaps, an investigation is
needed to find out whether there are any WLB differences between parents and employees
without any children. Later, the organizations’ offer of WLB practices on the differences needs
to be researched more. Most importantly, there has not been research done correlating gender
differences with cultural context. All the gaps were used to structure the interview questions for
the methodology part.

23
Methodology
The methodology section of the paper describes further investigation of previously discussed
topics. The paper aims to build on the existing research linked with the gender gap in WLB and
answer the following research question: What are the underlying factors contributing to gender
differences in work-life balance in male and female immigrants, and how do these differences
impact individuals' satisfaction with work and personal life? The study is centered around the
immigrants working outside of their origin countries to bring more clarity on the effect of
cultural differences on the gender gap. In addition, the study aims to learn how parenthood
influence such differences. Lastly, the research tries to investigate how organizations support
employees’ commitments outside of the workplace.
The main gap arising from the literature review reveals that cultural differences are not
generally considered while investigating the gender differences in WLB. Thus, the
methodology focuses on the cultural context, while investigating other factors contributing to
work-life imbalance. To discover the employees’ points of view more clearly, qualitative
research is applied. The study method includes a semi-structured interview with eight questions
relating to the topics covered. Questions are categorized according to the four main groups: (A)
individual perspective, (B) cultural role, (C) parenthood, and (D) organizational structure. The
questions are asked to twelve male and female immigrants working in Germany. Twelve
interviews had been proven to be sufficient to gather enough information during purposive
sampling (Guest et al., 2006).
The qualitative study allows the flexibility for the participants to share their personal
experiences, which cannot be described through numbers (Berkwits & Inui, 1998). This type of
research is more applicable to investigating gender and cultural differences, as such topics are
conveyed in values and feelings. In addition, the majority of previous literature on WLB also
applied qualitative research methods for investigation. Specifically, the semi-structured
interview method is chosen to emphasize the key issues on the topic and give participants the
space for expansion. The eight questions are structured according to the previous qualitative
studies on the topic and cover all the discussed factors throughout the literature review without
taking too much time from the interviewees.
Twelve participants were recruited with purposive sampling. Participants were recruited
through social media platforms (e.g., Linkedin, Facebook). The requirements included six male
and six female immigrants (people residing outside of their native countries) who were
employed in Germany, as the study focuses on gender differences and gender-egalitarian
cultures. Germany was chosen as a research country due to having one of the best WLB rates
and shortest working hours (OECD, 2022). Another requirement was being over the age of 18.
No additional requirements were noted.
Interviews took place in an online meeting platform through video calls. Each participant
received a consent form (Appendix 1) before the start of the interview. In addition, a short
demographic questionnaire (Appendix 2) was asked to be filled out beforehand. Eight
structured questions were asked during the interview, and follow-up probes were added if

24
needed (Appendix 3). The questions were formulated according to the perception of work-life
balance, gender differences on the topic, cultural perspective, effects of work-life conflict, the
influence of parenthood, and organizational support. The interviews were conducted fully in
English language as the participants were from various countries. All the interviews were
recorded to prepare a transcript (Appendix 4).
Conducted data is analyzed according to the findings of a literature review. Qualitative coding
is applied to identify the main factors contributing to the gender difference. This method of
coding has been proven to be helpful in decreasing the bias and increasing the validity through
the delivery (Ryan & Bernard, 2003). The results of the interviews are compared with the
literature findings for interpretation. To explore the existing gender differences more, the
responses of the female participants are weighted up with their male counterparts’ responses.

25
Results
The results section of the paper describes the responses arising from interviewees. Interviewees
were labeled as A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, and L for confidentiality reasons. Six of the
interviewees were male, while the rest six were female for equal comparison. Only two of the
interviewees were parents. All the participants worked full-time. The ages of participants
ranged from 24 to 51, covering three generations: Generation Z, Generation Y, and Generation
X. Majority of the interviewees worked in the ICT sector. Their countries of origin were the
following: Poland, Brazil, India, Syria, Turkiye, Azerbaijan, and the USA. Only one of the
participants, participant L, worked part-time. Participants’ full demographic background is
described in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Demographic background of the interviewees
Interviewee
Gender
Age
Work occupation
Country of
origin
Parent
A
male
41
HR Generalist
Poland
no
B
male
30
Marketing Analyst
Brazil
no
C
female
26
Data Ontologist
India
no
D
male
28
Software Developer
Syria
no
E
female
49
Marketing Manager
Turkiye
yes
F
female
24
Geo-data Scientist
India
no
G
female
33
Software Developer
India
no
H
male
27
Development Engineer
Syria
no
I
female
51
HR Professional
India
yes
J
female
30
IT Banking Consultant
Azerbaijan
no
K
male
27
Technology Consultant
USA
no
L
male
27
Engineer
India
no
Source: Aliyev, 2023.
The results of the interviews are presented with the help of qualitative coding. The following
themes were discovered after the conducted interviewees: parenthood, household care, pay gap,
cultural background, working arrangements, and generational shift. Each theme is described
with the introduction of evidence through the interview responses. Full qualitative coding is
described in Table 2 below.
Table 2

26
Identified themes from the interviews
Themes
Description
Evidence
Parenthood
This code describes how
parenthood increased
work-life conflict between
men and women.
Interviewee E: “You do not have much time
for the social aspect anymore. So, it is either
the kid or the work.”
Interviewee I: “I think the male colleagues
do not get calls from home. Also, somehow,
they don’t have to come back to the guilt of
juggling work-life balance.”
Household care
This code describes the
share of household care
between men and women.
Interviewee C: “Women have more
responsibilities on the household side in
India. Compared to here (Germany), I can
see male counterparts contributing to
household responsibilities.”
Interviewee E: “It is within my
responsibilities that there is food at home,
groceries are done, and it (the house) is
clean.”
Pay gap
This code describes the
gender pay gap
contributing to WLB
differences.
Interviewee G: “For a better work-life
situation, there is a need to work on the
salary gap.”
Cultural
attitudes
This code describes how
cultural origins of
participants affected their
WLB.
Interviewee A: “Work and life balance in
Poland puts more stress on work rather than
life.”
Interviewee I: “You work longer hours in my
country of origin (India). The work-life
balance is comparatively better here (in
Germany).”
Working
arrangements
This code describes the
support of organizations
for a better WLB.
Interviewee A: “We do not have to work
fixed number of hours per day, we just have
to spread them out.”
Interviewee E: “I am happy and very lucky
to be in an organization that respects work-
life balance. For example, if I need to take
my son to the doctor during working hours,

27
I have the opportunity to make it happen
without taking a day off. “
Generational
shift
This code describes how
generational shift affected
work-life integration.
Interviewee H: “I think the 40 hours a week
was made for men who had wives at home
who would do all the housework for them.”
Source: Aliyev, 2023.
Parenthood
According to the results of the interview, it was evident that parenthood played a key role in
gender differences in WLB. Two of the interviewees were parents and shared their experiences
regarding the topic. Both were female participants.
The interviewed parents noticed an intrusion into their personal life increase after the birth of
their child. They experienced both WIF (work intervening with family) and FIW (family
intervening with work), as sometimes their attention was needed for work responsibilities
during family time. It was revealed that the only gender difference affiliated with the balance
was in parenting, and the other factors were not that relevant:
Kids make it tricky. I see a difference between people, especially women, with kids and
all the others. When you do not have kids, it is kind of a shared responsibility between
man and woman. … It is taken for granted that women should be taking care of the kids.
(Interviewee E)
As working mothers, participants were forced to give up their social time because of childcare.
They had to make a choice between their social and work responsibilities:
You do not have much time for the social aspect anymore. So, it is either the kid or the
work. I think, being a working parent in a multinational setting forces you to drop your
social relationships. Because you have to make a choice. You cannot be social and work
aggressively and have a kid, all at the same time. (Interviewee E)
Lack of time for social responsibilities was observed in responses too: “I would have more time
for me [if I did not have a child]: more time to pursue your hobbies, etc. There is less ‘me time’
as a whole.” (Interviewee I). It was confirmed that there were higher expectations from women
when it came to being a working parent. In comparison with working mothers, working fathers
focused more on work and less on childcare:
I think the male colleagues do not get calls from home that often. Also, somehow, they
don’t have to come back to the guilt of juggling work-life balance. They focus too much
on the work and perhaps feel less guilt at not being able to give enough attention on the
home front. Whereas for female employees, there is a little bit of an expectation on both
parts. (Interviewee I)

28
The participants who were not parents addressed their concerns about work-life conflict for the
future possibilities of having children. As immigrants, they felt an additional burden of not
having the external support of their families:
We do not have any support around. I am an expat and I do not have my parents or
family members in Germany. … So, when we do have children, we will not have these
external support systems around us. (Interviewee J)
Household care
Childcare was not the only factor in work-life conflict for parents, increased household work
also created difficulties. A high proportion of household work mostly fell on women:
It is within my responsibilities that there is food at home, groceries are done, and it [the
house] is clean. … I think, for women, it is not that easy to be fully dedicated to
professional life, because you always have some other part you are responsible for, or
you are being held responsible for. (Interviewee E)
On a positive note, there was a mention of outsourcing help for household care to decrease the
responsibilities: “I never clean the house myself, but at the same time I am responsible for
getting it coordinated that the house is clean, for whoever does it.” (Interviewee E). In addition,
there was an association between cultural context and household work:
Maybe it is the Eastern culture. Maybe it is so different in Germany, I do not know. My
family is nothing like Eastern or Oriental culture, but still, as part of our culture, the
woman is the one who is responsible for taking care of the house. (Interviewee E)
Gender was noted to play the main role in this association:
There is a difference, especially for women. Women have more responsibilities on the
household side in India. Compared to here [Germany], I can see male counterparts
contributing to household responsibilities. (Interviewee C)
Extra burden on household work manifested itself in challenging career advancements for
women:
The woman goes to work and takes care of the household chores, so that becomes more
challenging for them to take care of everything. If you do not put in extra hours, it is
more difficult for you to climb up the chain in the industry. Sometimes, they [women]
face more difficulties than men in the [job] growth aspect. (Interviewee L)
None of the male interviewees shared their experiences or concerns connected with the
delegation of housework.
Pay gap

29
Another factor contributing to gender differences was revealed to be a gender pay gap. The
salary gap affected the work-life balance and overall motivation to work. One of the
interviewees witnessed that the male colleagues who had the same or less competencies than
her received higher wages. This was the case for all the women in the company and not only
for her. However, there was a silent treatment corresponding to this topic in the company:
As a woman, I am not getting paid enough compared to my male counterparts. And
everyone in the company knows about it. For a better work-life situation, there is a need
to work on the salary gap. Because after some amount of time, it creates a psychological
difference. Sometimes, I don’t feel motivated enough to work because I know there is
someone with similar or even fewer skills getting a higher salary. (Interviewee G)
Due to this, she did not feel motivated to work, as she knew she was not being valued by her
organization. None of the male interviewees reported their concerns about their salaries.
Cultural attitudes
The cultural backgrounds of the participants had a significant impact on the work-life balance
perception and the gender gap connected with it. Majority of the participants’ home countries
were in the East and were compared with the Western context (Germany). Most of the
interviewees agreed that WLB was better in Western countries compared to Eastern.
Female participants shared their experiences on how their cultures viewed women’s roles in
society: childcare and household work were fully expected from them. This was not the case in
a Western context, where every family member was responsible for their own household work.
Germany, the targeted research country, had a gender-egalitarian culture, while the participants’
home countries did not; this eventually showed up in societal views. Generally, parental leaves
and time off were limited as a result:
In many families in India, women have to go to work and take care of the family, while
male counterparts don’t do anything in the house. If the woman doesn’t meet the
expectations of the family, she will be criticized [by the family] and sometimes even
forced to quit the job. (Interviewee G)
Such a mindset affected the company cultures in participants’ native countries: they failed to
ease the challenges of working women: “When the woman becomes a mother, most of the time
she will quit the job because even the companies are not supportive towards working mothers
in India.” (Interviewee G). Job security for working mothers was risky in Eastern companies
too:
I had a female colleague on my team who became a mother. She was demoted one level
because she took three months of extra leave due to postpartum problems. The company
can fire the mother as well if it decides so. This is still common in India, which I have
never seen in Germany. (Interviewee G)

30
There were notable differences in working arrangements too. Eastern companies were less
prone to offer flexible arrangements:
You work longer hours in my country of origin [India]. The work-life balance is
comparatively better here [in Germany]. In my home country, we did not have so much
working from home, and I needed to go [to the office] more often. (Interviewee I)
It was brought to attention how general cultural influence was irrelevant and the most
influencing factor was in the mindset of the social circle:
It depends on the mindset I would say, not on the country. The mindset of the people
you work with, or you are married to, or you are in a social circle. I have always been
lucky enough to be in a civilized setting related to work, my family, and my husband. I
do not think that there are major differences based on the country. (Interviewee E)
Male participants pointed out that it was normal to work longer hours in their home countries.
The reason for this was the competitive market, which selected the employees according to how
“hardworking” they were. Meanwhile, Western organizations focused more on well-being
rather than hard work:
Work and life culture in the East is a bit behind than Western context. Work and life
balance in Poland puts more stress on work rather than life. And where I am working at
the moment [in Germany] there is more focus on mental well-being. (Interviewee A)
Moreover, the working environments in the East constantly encouraged overworking
environments:
In Brazil, people are extremely workaholic. If you leave before 7 PM, although you
arrive at 7 AM, people will be talking about you leaving so early. Every time there is an
extra work, it does not count to anything. (Interviewee B)
It was apparent from the findings that work, and life were heavily separated in Western
countries, and they were more integrated in Eastern countries:
In Germany, work and personal life are heavily separated. … Sometimes, the
relationship is too professional with the colleagues, and it is harder to connect and work
with them properly. Whereas in Syria, for example, relationships are formed more easily
but also could be used in a toxic way. Management could demand more from the
employees because they are trying to blend both family and work. (Interviewee D)
However, the differences existed within the Western countries themselves: “The work is
something that you need to do to survive and have a healthy family [in the USA]. As opposed
to here [Germany], people work for their time off.” (Interviewee K). These differences were
explained to happen due to the government subsidies or lack thereof, as healthcare and
education costs were minimal in contrast to the USA:

31
For example, health insurance here [in Germany] is publicized, and it is not profit-
centralized. I think there are a lot of things that are profit-centralized in America, which
drives that strong hustle culture and pushes people to make more money. (Interviewee
K)
Generally, female participants saw the key cultural differences in societal views on women’s
roles, stressing household responsibilities. Male participants, on the other hand, mostly noted it
in the levels of hard work and market competitiveness.
Working arrangements
All the interviewees were asked to share their experiences of the flexible working arrangements
their organizations offered. The most offered WLB arrangements were found to be remote work
and flexitime:
The first one is distant working. We are allowed to work from home 3 days per week.
The second one is flexi time. We do not have to work a fixed number of hours per day,
we just have to spread them out. (Interviewee A)
Working mothers benefited from such arrangements the most. They could give attention to their
children’s needs whenever and continue their work later. Qualitative benefits for working
mothers included a happier life at work and home and more time for life outside work:
I am happy and very lucky to be in an organization that respects work-life balance. For
example, if I need to take my son to the doctor during working hours, I have the
opportunity to make it happen without taking a day off. (Interviewee E)
Access to flexi-hours was positively associated with high organizational satisfaction:
They allow me to work from home, and I need to go to the office when I am needed. I
have flexi hours which allows me a work-life integration to an extent. I can step out in
between and finish my work later. (Interviewee I)
Although none of the female participants worked part-time, there was an observation of
working mother colleagues needing to work part-time to manage their responsibilities at home.
Apart from parental offers, there weren’t any gender differences in working arrangements
noted: “There is a higher proportion of women working part-time and it has to do with family
duties such as picking up the children from kindergarten or school. There is a gender imbalance
when it comes to this.” (Interviewee A).
Furthermore, the working offer was not the only positive factor, the supervisors played a role
in attributing: “At the same time, in my opinion, or based on my experience, it is your manager
or the immediate of the organization you are in which makes a big difference.” (Interviewee E).
Another interviewee supported this by adding: “Somehow the female managers were [the ones]
trying to make you feel comfortable, especially when you are new [to the company]. Maybe
there is a higher sense of empathy that I could feel in female supervisors.” (Interviewee F).

32
Besides the managerial role, a well-established company culture increased work-life balance:
“If the company has a healthy culture, based on respect, based on solid values, based on
diversity, and based on family, that is the solution. Then, it goes automatically that work-life
balance is in place.” (Interviewee E).
Most of the interviewed employees were content with their organizations’ flexible working
arrangements. Still, interviewees admitted that the offered arrangements could be improved.
For the improvement, there was a need for more work-life integration rather than balance, as
work and life continuously overlapped:
I think it should be more work-life integration than balance. It should be up to me if I
choose to work longer or shorter hours. Maybe I want to work on the weekends and take
time off during the weekdays. But it is not really something that gets considered at all.
(Interviewee I)
Generational shift
Although generational differences were not being investigated, it had been noted how the
addition of female employers into the workforce created a need for new working models:
I believe the working hours we have right now were made for a lifestyle in the ‘80s. I
think the 40 hours a week was made for men who had wives at home who would do all
the housework for them. (Interviewee H)
Furthermore, there was a difference among workers from different generations. Participants
who belonged to younger generations had stricter work boundaries compared to the ones from
older generations:
The younger generations keep in mind that they are not obliged to overwork. They are
not shy to say “I do not want to do this. It is too much, and I am going home.” Compared
with older colleagues, they would do over hours for the simplest reasons. (Interviewee
H)
A shift was observed in younger participants’ responses. Older participants were more likely to
be parents, while younger participants did not have any children. Thus, it affected the proportion
of their personal time and extension of gender differences. The participants from younger
generations needed more personal time for the improvement of relationships rather than
childcare:
When you are working a full-time job, that does not give you enough time to meet new
people. Usually, the time on the weekends goes for meeting with friends, and I do not
have enough time left for dating, which is the thing that requires the most energy from
me. (Interviewee H)

33
Discussion
The discussion section of the paper explores the results of the interviews and provides them
with an interpretation. The answers were compared with the findings of the literature review.
Later, all the findings were summarized. Study limitations and future study suggestions were
added, as well.
Theoretical and practical implications
Following six themes related to the cause of gender indifferences in WLB were identified
throughout the interviews: parenthood, household care, pay gap, cultural attitudes, working
arrangements, and generational shift. Each theme was identified according to the comparison
of male and female participants’ responses. All these themes found their grounds in the
literature review. Next paragraphs reflect the conducted research findings with literature
review.
Both female participants who were working mothers expressed how they did not have enough
time for themselves, proving that mothers couldn’t have it “all” (Slaughter, 2012). This showed
that the working mothers had to give up one of the following two: work life or social life. The
findings about how gender egalitarian families affected childcare linked with the emphasis on
family cultures (Davis et al., 2007). Moreover, the observation on the lack of proportion of
childcare aligns with Somech and Drach-Zahavy’s (2007) “good enough at home” and “super
at work” WLB methods for fathers. It can be implied from the findings that the male and female
employees who were not parents did not have major gender differences in WLB. This explains
the reason behind the majority of WLB studies being focused on parenthood.
EU’s high numbers of household work for women aligns with the experience of female
participants in carrying the main responsibility of housework (Gianelli et al., 2012). On top of
that, outsourcing help for household care has been observed previously in households (Bianchi
et al., 2000). Family being gender egalitarian had a connection with being part of the relative
resources’ perspective (Davis et al., 2007; Bianchi et al., 2000).
The pay gap was found to be another factor in gender differences in WLB. The gap issue was
not given enough attention in previous literature linked with work-life. One of the interviewees
mentioned demotivation to work knowing the pay gap existed in her workplace as found in
Kharov’s description of the pay gap outcomes (2011). Assumptions like lack of experience
behind the pay gap were irrelevant, as it was mentioned that her male counterparts had the same
(and in some cases, even less) level of expertise. These responses match Pace and Sciotto’s
(2021) findings on how glass ceilings added up to already existing challenges for women. The
actual reason behind the salary gap could be the interviewee working in a male-dominated
industry (ICT sector) conforming to the Gender Equality Index (EIGE, 2020).
All the participants shared their experiences on how their cultures viewed the work-life. Female
participants were more concerned with how women’s roles in society were perceived: childcare
and household work were fully expected from them, as found before (Swinkels et al., 2019).

34
On the other hand, male participants were more concerned with the overwork culture connected
with their home countries. The majority of male interviewees shared how extra work was
required from the employees and was considered the standard. However, this was proven to
negatively relate to high earnings and “success” (Mayer, 2022). Both male and female
interviewees agreed that WLB was better in Western countries compared to Eastern, matching
Kitayama and Uskul’s findings (2011). It is important to note that, this paper investigated the
differences between Germany (Western context) and most participants’ home countries
(Eastern context). Findings may not be applied to all Western countries, as each country has its
own cultural point of view regarding WLB. One of the participants who was from the USA
noted the pressure of hustle culture in the USA, associated with Masciotra’s findings (2013).
All participants were satisfied with their organizations’ working arrangements. Many of these
experiences support previously discovered findings on the benefits of the working arrangements
(Naithiani, 2009). However, some stated that there was still room for improvement. Dhas and
Karthikeyan’s findings (2015) on how working arrangements do not fit every employee link
with this. Findings that the WLB practices had a positive association with employee devotion
emphasize the importance of such arrangements for employers (Dhas & Karthikeyan, 2015).
Furthermore,
Views on generational perception align with Lockwood’s findings (2003) on how work-life
programs were not used until the 1980s and the term “work-life balance” itself was not
introduced until 1986. One of the participants also mentioned the older generations struggling
with work boundaries, which lines up with the preceding investigation on generational
differences (Kohll, 2018).
The conducted study can help to better understand gender and cultural issues on the topic of
work-life balance. This can be essentially helpful to HR managers for proper WLB application,
as well as employees in need of higher work-life satisfaction. Additionally, scholars can use the
findings for further studies on the topic.
Limitations and future study suggestions
Although valuable findings were discovered, there were certain limitations to the study. The
first limitation was the limited scope. As the research could not focus on everything at once,
certain variables (e.g., position level) were excluded from the investigation. The second
limitation was the difficulties in finding the necessary study participants for the study, which
was also connected to the time constraints. The inclusion of male participants who were parents
could bring a closer insight into how being a parent increased the differences in WLB for both
men and women. For instance, there was not any participant who was a working father for a
comparison. Besides, limitations also prevented finding interviewees from more diverse
backgrounds. There were limited study participants who had a country of origin of another
Western country for comparison. Lastly, there could be a perception bias in participants’
responses related to their own genders and countries.

35
Future studies can apply quantitative research for investigating larger sample sizes and testing
hypotheses, which could not be done due to time constraints. Later, as mentioned before, more
participants from various countries of origin can be added. Another suggestion is focusing on
the age differences of the participants as a key factor contributing to gender differences on the
topic. Finally, the diversity of the participants can be increased with the inclusion of different
parenting types with the number of children added to childcare work.

36
Conclusion
The major aim of the thesis was to bring clarity on WLB to employees by addressing how
gender differences stimulated the work-life balance within different cultures. For the
investigation, the following research question was asked: What are the underlying factors
contributing to gender differences in work-life balance in male and female immigrants, and how
do these differences impact individuals' satisfaction with work and personal life? Qualitative
research with the help of semi-structured interviews was used to answer this question.
The findings of the conducted qualitative study identified six factors contributing to gender
differences in work-life balance: parenthood, household care, pay gap, cultural attitudes,
working arrangements, and generational shift. The main gender difference was noted in
parenthood, as the greater part of childcare fell on women’s behalf. The gender differences were
not significant in participants who did not have any children. Additional factors included
increased household work for women and the gender pay gap challenging career advancements
for female colleagues. Another major gender difference was observed in comparison of gender
egalitarian and non-gender egalitarian cultures: household responsibilities were more fairly
shared in gender-egalitarian cultures. Moreover, Western environments (with the exception of
the USA) emphasized WLB more, putting less pressure on overworking of men. On top of that,
the company’s support influenced such differences. Unexpected findings were related to how
generations and the pay gap played a role in the investigation. Overall, employees were satisfied
with their work-life integration when there was supportive company environment.
All the findings were in support of the literature review. In addition, literature gaps linked with
cultural differences and WLB of non-parents were diminished after the research. The majority
of previous literature on WLB focused solely on parenthood and housework (Slaughter, 2012;
Gianelli et al., 2012), connecting with the research findings pointing to childcare causing the
main work-life conflict. Regarding the cultural context, all the interviewees agreed that WLB
was better in Western countries compared to the East, similar to the previous findings
(Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). A healthy company culture showed strength in employee devotion
(Dhas & Karthikeyan, 2015), which was observed in the participants’ responses too.
Predominantly, positive organizational culture is essential for a decrease in gender differences
for WLB. This can be achieved through the introduction of social policies protecting employee
rights. Furthermore, the personal environment setting (e.g., family, culture) adds up to the levels
of work-life conflict for individuals. Conducted research can be useful to HR managers and
recent employees joining to the workforce for proper WLB application. Although, it is
important to note that there were certain limitations such as finding necessary participants for
the research. The future studies can apply quantitative methods for the investigation of larger
sample sizes.

37
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Appendices
Appendix 1. Consent form
Summary: The research study will investigate the work-life balance differences between men
and women.
Confidentiality: All information from this study will be kept from disclosure to outside parties
(with the exception of the supervisor involved).
Right to withdraw: You are free to discontinue your participation at any time. In addition, you
may skip any questions that make you feel uncomfortable.

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Time commitment: If you agree to participate in the study, it may take up to 20 minutes of
interviewing.
Researcher Contact Information: This research study is being conducted by Aliyev Kamran.
If you have questions about participation, you may contact the researcher at alik02@vse.cz or
kamran1903@gmail.com.
Results of the Study: You may receive information regarding the outcome of the study at the
end of December 2023 by contacting the researcher listed above.
Verification of Age and Consent: By clicking “I agree” below, you confirm that you are at
least 18 years old and have consented to participate in the research study.
o I agree
Appendix 2. Demographic questionnaire
Your Gender:
• Male
• Female
Your Age: _________
The country of your origin: _________
Your work occupation: _________
Do you work part-time or full-time?
• Part-time
• Full-time
Do you have any children?
• Yes
• No
• Expecting
Appendix 3. Interview protocol
Interviewee (Title and Name): _________
Survey Section used: Demographic questionnaire
Gender Differences in Work-Life Balance Interview
Introductory Protocol
Before starting the meeting, I would like to ask you to sign the consent form and respond to the
demographic’s questionnaire. Additionally, I would like to record our meeting for study
purposes. For your information, your confidentiality will be protected and the information you

53
share will not be disclosed to anyone except the researcher. This interview is planned to last no
longer than 20 minutes. Thank you for your agreement to participate.
Introduction
You have been selected for this study because you fit into a requirement as an immigrant
employed in Germany. The research focuses on gender differences in work-life balance, with
particular interest in the role of cultural backgrounds. The aim of the study is to bring more
clarity on work-life balance and existing gender differences for a new generation of employees.
You are asked to share your personal experiences and opinions throughout the interview.
A. Individual perspective
1. Was there a moment during your employment when your personal and professional life
overlapped (work intervening with life or life intervening with work)?
2. What part (or parts) of your personal life (e.g., family, relationships, health, education,
hobbies) gets affected the most by your professional life?
3. Have you ever felt pressured to work overtime by external factors (e.g., job demand, financial
improvement, a need for promotion)?
4. What do you personally see as a solution to achieving a better work-life balance?
B. Cultural role
1. How is work-life balance perceived in your culture and how does it differ from working in
your current country?
Probes: Why do you think such differences exist? Do you think work-life balance is perceived
better in your home or current country? What are the views on gender roles in your culture in
terms of work-life balance? How does working in a foreign country affect your work-life
balance?
C. Parenthood
1. Does being/not being a parent alter your work-life balance in any respect?
Probe: How would your work-life balance change if you had / did not have a child?
D. Organizational structure
1. How has the organization for which you have worked helped you to balance work and life
commitments?
Probe: What kind of arrangements do they offer?

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2. Have you witnessed any differences in the use of working arrangements between your male
and female colleagues?
Post Interview Comments and/or Observations:
Appendix 4. Interview transcript (Interviewee E)
Researcher: Was there a moment during your employment when your personal and professional
life overlapped?
Interviewee E: Of course, giving birth to my son. I was also at a multinational (company) back
then. And I was also giving birth to a kid. So, I think you can consider it overlapping.
Researcher: What part (or parts) of your personal life gets affected the most by your
professional life? It can be family, relationships, health, etc.
Interviewee E: In my opinion, maybe especially for women, family gets impacted. Because the
woman gives birth to the kids and is kind of responsible (for childcare and housework). I never
clean the house myself, but at the same time I am responsible for getting it coordinated that the
house is clean, for whoever does it. It is within my responsibilities that there is food at home,
groceries are done, and it (the house) is clean. Certain measures are taken. I think, for women,
it is not that easy to be fully dedicated to the professional life, because you always have some
other part you are responsible for, or you are being held responsible for. I mean, I am Turkish.
Maybe it is the Eastern culture. Maybe it is so different in Germany, I do not know. My family
is nothing like Eastern or Oriental culture, but still, as part of our culture, the woman is the one
who is responsible for taking care of the house. So yes, I think the family gets mostly impacted.
Researcher: Have you ever felt pressured to work overtime by external factors?
Interviewee E: When I was young, before the family thing, I was working like 18 hours a day.
And I had to, to be able to survive in such a setting. And I did not really question it, it was just
taken for a granted, the way we work. I will not be able to do it now, in my opinion, with the
kids and everything. I did not care that much back then, because I was 25 and I had the time. I
did not mind. I would mind now if I have to work 18 hours per day now.
Researcher: What do you personally see as a solution to achieving a better work-life balance?
Or it can be multiple solutions, as well.
Interviewee E: I think it is the culture. So, the company culture. There is the country culture,
the society culture, but there is also the company culture, which plays an instrumental role. If
the company has a healthy culture, based on respect, based on solid values, based on diversity,
and based on the family, that is the solution. Then, it goes automatically that work-life balance
is in place. I think the company needs to have very solid values and a very healthy culture, and
not on the paper only. It should be adopted by leadership and should be socialized by executives.

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Researcher: How is work-life balance perceived in your culture and how does it affect working
in your current country? If you witnessed any key differences between Turkiye and Germany?
Interviewee E: It depends on the mindset, I would say, not on the country. Mindset of the people
you work with, or you are married to, or you are in social circle. I have always been lucky
enough to be in a civilized setting related to work, my family, and my husband. I do not think
that there are major differences based on the country. There might be major differences based
on the culture you are in. Either you live in Turkiye or Germany, does not really make a
difference. Maybe the neighbors, but that is like distanced people. It is really the mindset of the
people you are circled with that makes the difference.
Researcher: Does being a parent alter your work-life balance in any respect? How would your
work-life balance change if you did not have a child, for example?
Interviewee E: Before my son, he is almost 14 by the way, it still altered my work and life
balance because I was working for a very aggressive multinational (company). Back then, it
was impacting my work-life balance, but pretty much in a way of social life and work. And
after the kid, it impacted the work and the kid life. Because, you do not have much time for the
social aspect anymore. So, it is either the kid or the work. I think, being a working parent in a
multinational setting forces you to drop your social relationships. Because you have to make a
choice. You cannot be social and work aggressively and have a kid, all at the same time. You
just choose. This is how I experienced it, at least. So, I had to give up my social life, shortly.
Researcher: How has the organization for which you have worked helped you to balance work
and life commitments? And, if they offer any kind of arrangements, what kind of arrangements
do they offer?
Interviewee E: To be honest, I believe the organization plays a very important role. And I am
lucky to be in one which puts a lot of importance on work-life balance, and we have values. It
is the company culture that respects the work-life balance. At the same time, in my opinion, or
based on my experience, it is your manager or the immediate of the organization you are in,
which makes a big difference. Because it is the organization’s approach to work-life balance
that helps a lot. I am happy and very lucky to be in an organization that respects work-life
balance. For example, if I need to take my son to the doctor during working hours, I have the
opportunity to make it happen without taking a day off. And then, I can work during the
evening, or I can double work the next day, as long as I get the work done. It is not really that
I am online from 9 to 5. It is like you take care of things and you also take care of your personal
life, which is a luxury I would say. So, it is flexibility.
Researcher: Have you witnessed any differences in the use of working arrangements between
your male and female colleagues? Or between yourself and your male counterparts?
Interviewee E: Well, yes, of course. Especially with kids. Kids make it tricky. I see a difference
between people, especially women, with kids and all the others. When you do not have kids, it
is kind of a shared responsibility between man and woman. But when the kids are involved, it
becomes the woman’s assigned responsibility. So, when the kid is ill, it is your responsibility.

56
Or when the kid cannot sleep during the night, although, you have to wake up the next day and
go to work with your husband, it is the mother’s responsibility. Men are doing a favor staying
up. It is taken for granted that women should be taking care of the kids. So, I think, it is more
women with the kids.