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Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
Available online 26 June 2024
0145-2134/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Silent suffering: The hidden challenges confronting
unaccompanied refugee children through the eyes of
social workers
Sara Taha
a
,
*
, Manal Anabtawi
b
, Tamara Al Wreidat
c
a
University of Melbourne, Australia
b
University of Jordan, Jordan
c
Clinical Social Worker at King Hussein Cancer Center, Jordan
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Unaccompanied children
Refugees
Social work
Psychological disorders
Challenges
Violence
ABSTRACT
Background: Unaccompanied refugee children are one of the most vulnerable categories within
the refugee population. They face inexhaustible risks from the start of their journey until its
conclusion; being exposed to various forms of violence, assault, and exploitation during the
transit phase.
Objective: This study was aimed to discern the challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee chil-
dren in Jordan, as perceived by social workers. Additionally, to uncover the role of the social
work profession in helping these children in confronting and alleviating these challenges.
Participants and Setting.
Ten social workers working with unaccompanied refugee children in the International Medical
Corps in Jordan were selected to take part in the study.
Methods: The study adopted a qualitative research approach to achieve its aims. Semi-structured
interviews served as the primary method for data collection. Data analysis used inductive the-
matic analysis, and ethical considerations were consistently observed throughout the study
process.
Results: The study revealed signicant social challenges, including strained alternative familial
relationships and difculties in social integration. Psychological struggles were clear in enduring
loss, separation, and suicidal thoughts. Economic hardships manifested in meeting basic needs
and child labor. School dropouts appeared as a prominent educational issue. Social workers are
primarily engaged in case management, providing psychosocial support, and easing referrals.
Conclusions: Adverse living conditions profoundly affect children, affecting their psychological,
physical, and social development. This leads to the emergence of deep psychological traits such as
sadness, hostility, anxiety, and behavioral disintegration. Consequently, many children experi-
ence social disconnection and struggle to adapt to their environment effectively.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sarah98.taha@gmail.com (S. Taha).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Child Abuse & Neglect
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/chiabuneg
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2024.106868
Received 5 December 2023; Received in revised form 27 April 2024; Accepted 22 May 2024
Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
2
1. Introduction
Jordan, like other nations, boasts of a rich history of hosting refugees throughout the decades, rooted in a rm foundation of
heritage and generosity towards refugees (UNHCR, 2021). The initial focus was on Palestinian refugees from 1948 and later in 1967
(Francis, 2015). Subsequently, Jordan extended its hospitality to a substantial number of Iraqi brethren in 2003. Over the past decade,
the country witnessed an unprecedented inux of Syrian refugees, triggered by the onset of the Syrian crisis in 2011 (Al-Makhamreh &
Hutchinson, 2018). Presently, Jordan shelters 760,063 registered refugees with the UNHCR, with children constituting nearly half at
46.8% (UNHCR, 2021). (See Fig. 1).
In recent times, there has been a signicant increase in the number of children among international migration and refugee pro-
cesses, making them an integral part of the global migration landscape (International Organization for Migration, 2011). This
demography represents over half of the world's refugee population (University of Oxford, 2017). Consequently, the international
community, including governments and organizations, has intensied efforts to ensure a safe environment for migrant and refugee
children, protecting them from surrounding risks during their journey and even after settling in their destination countries (The
Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017).
At the forefront of child protection in refugee crises, a distinct group has appeared—unaccompanied refugee children. These are
children compelled by their circumstances to leave their homes alone, without the presence of their caregivers, seeking protection from
violence, persecution, and war in their places of residence (University of Oxford, 2016). The Committee on the Rights of the Child
denes these children as those “deprived of parental care and not being cared for by a close relative” (Committee on the Rights of the
Child, 2005, p. 5).
Jordan, like other countries, has hosted substantial numbers of these children during various refugee waves over the past century.
However, their visibility became pronounced with the onset of the Syrian crisis in 2011 (UNHCR, 2021). The inux of Syrian refugees,
particularly in the initial years, led to approximately 4640 unaccompanied and separated children by the end of 2015 (UNHCR, 2015).
Their numbers gradually decreased due to the Jordanian government's restrictive measures and efforts to reunite them with their
families (Al-Makhamreh & Hutchinson, 2018). By the end of 2017, there were approximately 2645 unaccompanied and separated
children, with Syrians forming the majority with 2093 (UNHCR, 2017). The latest statistics in early 2022 reported 2143 unaccom-
panied and separated refugee children, primarily Syrian; with 2031 Syrian children, 78 Iraqi children, and 34 children from other
nationalities (UNHCR, 2022).
Unaccompanied refugee children face challenging and complex living conditions in host countries. These conditions arise from
their refugee experience and the absence of caregivers. These children meet numerous challenges during their stay in host countries,
becoming victims of various forms of violence, abuse, and exploitation. These painful experiences pose a threat to their psychological
well-being, leading to emotional and behavioral problems (Derluyn & Broekaert, 2008). This study aims to elucidate the signicant
challenges confronted by unaccompanied refugee children in alternative care settings in Jordan, as perceived by social workers
engaged in their care. Additionally, it tries to understand the role of social workers in supporting these children as they navigate
through this arduous and distressing context. The pursuit of these goals will be facilitated by addressing the following inquiries:
What obstacles do unaccompanied refugee children encounter within alternative care settings?
How do social workers contribute to the well-being and integration of unaccompanied refugee children?
2. Background
2.1. Refugee status in Jordan
Despite its reputation as a hospitable haven for refugees, Jordan runs without being tethered to any international commitments in
this regard. Notably, it refrained from signing the 1951 Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol (UNHCR, 2020). Instead, Jordan's
obligations are narrowly conned to upholding the non-Refoulement principle, a crucial element in international law preventing the
forced return of refugees to their home countries if such return jeopardizes their lives or freedoms (Qarbaa & Mashaqba, 2019).
Recognizing the escalating challenges posed by a surge in refugee numbers, the UNHCR found it imperative to establish collaboration
with the Jordanian government.
In 1998, a memorandum of understanding was signed between the Jordanian government and the UNHCR to address the sub-
stantial increase in refugee inux during that period. This agreement, forming fourteen articles, commenced with a comprehensive
denition of refugees. It subsequently outlined mutual rights and responsibilities between refugees and the Jordanian government.
Specic articles delved into the coordination mechanisms between the UNHCR ofce and the government, shedding light on the
intricacies of asylum processes. In line with this cooperative framework, the Jordanian government and the UNHCR laid the
groundwork for a resolute UNHCR ofce in Jordan, emphasizing a collective commitment to addressing refugee concerns (Memo-
randum of Understanding between the Government of Jordan and UNHCR, 1998).
Within the humanitarian landscape of Jordan, the formidable challenge faced by refugees inside refugee camps is evident. The
complex conditions are highlighted by overcrowding and resource scarcity, leading to exacerbated difculties and challenges.
Moreover, bureaucratic obstacles tied to refugee status can create formidable barriers to accessing essential services. Procedural
complexities may result in delays or difculties in obtaining ofcial recognition, thereby affecting the eligibility of refugees for
necessary support. The plight of refugee children, both as a general group and particularly those unaccompanied, is of considerable
concern. Resources available to this vulnerable population, including educational facilities, healthcare services, and psychological and
social support, remain constrained, presenting substantial challenges to their well-being. It is crucial to acknowledge that Jordan, with
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Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
3
its substantial refugee population, grapples with ongoing humanitarian issues. The hardships experienced by refugees, especially
children, underscore the urgent need for increased support and resources to address their unique needs within the country (The
Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017).
Jordan has become a signatory to numerous agreements supporting children's rights. Moreover, the Jordanian government has
meticulously outlined a comprehensive plan to address the needs of unaccompanied refugee children from their entry into the country
until their resettlement in the most suitable alternative care. This plan, named the Standard Operating Procedures to Respond to
Unaccompanied and Separated Refugee Children in Jordan, serves as the cornerstone, unifying efforts across various entities to ensure
the delivery of best services to these children. The team includes governmental entities such as the Ministry of Social Development, the
Ministry of Justice, and the Family Protection Directorate. Additionally, United Nations agencies like UNHCR, The United Nations
Children's Fund - UNICEF, and The United Nations Relief and Works Agency - UNRWA, as well as international non-governmental
organizations such as the International Medical Corps and the International Rescue Committee, play a crucial role. Local in-
stitutions like the Noor Al-Hussein Foundation and the Jordan River Foundation are also involved. The tasks of the unaccompanied
refugee children's team are divided into two main aspects: the preventive side, which focuses on attempting to prevent the separation
of children from their families in emergency situations within Jordanian territory, and the intervention side, which is associated with
actively assisting children found alone without guardians on the Jordanian borders or within the country (The Alliance for Child
Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017).
Despite the concerted efforts by the Jordanian government, in collaboration with international organizations, to protect this
vulnerable group of children, numerous challenges hinder the realization of optimal protection for them. Noteworthy among these
challenges are gaps in the registration and documentation processes for children, deciencies in traceability operations to nd their
biological families, and an increase in rates of child detention, early marriage, school dropout, and child labor. (Achilli et al., 2017).
The study conducted by Taha and Anabtawi in 2024 provided a comprehensive depiction of the living conditions of unaccompanied
refugee children in Jordan. The results highlighted three primary forms of caregiving for these children in Jordan: foster families,
supervised groups, and institutional care. Signicantly, the study underscored that foster families appeared as the most favorable,
while institutional care was found to be the least conducive to the healthy and holistic development of the children. Furthermore, the
study's ndings illuminated that unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan are subjected to various forms of violence and abuse, not
only from their caregivers but also within the surrounding community. Additionally, the study pointed out that nancial incentives
allocated to foster families were the primary motivation for choosing to foster an unaccompanied child in most cases. These nancial
considerations were identied as a signicant factor inuencing the decision-making process for caregivers.
2.2. The forces driving children to leave home alone
There are several reasons that compel unaccompanied refugee children to leave their countries, with wars and conicts being
among the most signicant. Political events force children to ee the threats of murder, arrest, and torture, seeking a safe place to live.
Poverty, neglect, and violence also contribute at times to the migration of children without guardians, driven by their desire for a better
life. Additionally, natural disasters in some countries have also contributed to the increased prevalence of this phenomenon (Global
Movement for Children, 2010).
2.3. Unveiling perils: Unaccompanied refugee children confronting multifaceted risks
Unaccompanied refugee children face a myriad of perils during their migratory journey and even after settling in their destination
countries. They fall victim to human trafcking, assault, psychological and verbal violence, harassment, and sexual abuse (The
Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017). Early marriage and child labor are considered among the most detri-
mental coping mechanisms adopted by children to confront the challenges inherent in this perilous journey (Global Movement for
Children, 2010). Unaccompanied refugee children are also susceptible to the peril of the involuntary involvement or conscription of
unaccompanied refugee children into armed forces or groups, either shortly before or during their journey of migration. This
vulnerability is not conned to the risk of recruitment alone; in some instances, they may nd themselves detained and apprehended
by the authorities in host countries. This results from their frequent resort to unconventional means to adapt to the challenging living
conditions they meet (Human Rights Watch, 2016). These distressing experiences serve as a foundational factor in the manifestation of
severe psychological disorders and the emergence of complex social issues among these children (Groark et al., 2010). Considering the
various risks that unaccompanied refugee children may meet during this challenging journey, the international community deemed it
essential to ensure their protection on a global scale.
2.4. The psychological challenges facing unaccompanied refugee children
Findings from the study conducted by Huemer et al. (2009) elucidate that unaccompanied refugee children experience a higher
level of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms compared to accompanied refugee children. The study further indicates that
females are more signicantly affected by these symptoms. Additionally, a study by Derluyn and Broekaert (2007) revealed that 37 %
to 47 % of unaccompanied refugee minors suffer from symptoms of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress. It was noted that
girls show a higher susceptibility to the development of these emotional problems. Furthermore, results from Vervliet et al. (2014)
study underscore high levels of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder among unaccompanied refugee children. The following
ndings afrm that the distressing experiences and pressures faced by these children directly contribute to elevated levels of anxiety,
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Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
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depression, and post-traumatic stress symptoms.
The study by Dehnel et al. (2022) highlights that the traumatic experiences faced by refugee children during their journey and after
settling in destination countries signicantly affect their mental health. Symptoms of depression in these children often lead to serious
contemplation of suicide. Results show an inverse association between resilience and the severity of depressive symptoms. Notably,
general relational support appears as the most protective and impactful factor in mitigating the exacerbation and escalation of
depression symptoms among these children.
Unaccompanied refugee children lack familial and environmental resilience and relational support that could help alleviate their
psychological disorders. In support of this, Norredam et al. (2018) pointed out that unaccompanied refugee children are more sus-
ceptible to psychological and neurological disorders compared to other refugee children. Bean et al. (2007) concurred with these
ndings, indicating that unaccompanied refugee children face signicantly more psychological and behavioral issues and painful
events than their accompanied counterparts. A similar trend was observed in the study by Müller et al. (2019), revealing that despite
both accompanied and unaccompanied refugee children reporting high levels of distress and exposure to traumatic events, the
prevalence of these challenging conditions is much higher among unaccompanied children.
2.5. Violence directed towards unaccompanied refugee children
In a study conducted by Rip et al. (2020), it was revealed that 66 % of unaccompanied refugee children living in reception facilities
in the Netherlands have experienced various forms of violence. These forms encompass physical, institutional, emotional violence, and
neglect. Similarly, Jensen et al. (2015) found analogous results about violence against unaccompanied refugee children, with 63 % of
the children being subjected to violence. Furthermore, Jakobsen et al.'s (2014) study highlighted that 78 % of participating unac-
companied refugee children have experienced sexual abuse.
2.6. Alternative care for unaccompanied refugee children
The alternative care for unaccompanied refugee children in destination countries encompasses various forms, including kinship
care, temporary hosting, formal sponsorship, supervised groups, and institutional care (Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian
Action, 2016). The type of care form for children is decided based on their specic circumstances and psychological, social, and health
needs (United Nations General Assembly, 2010). In Jordan, the Family Integration Program, a collaboration between the UNHCR and
the Ministry of Social Development, plays a crucial role in providing proper care for children, alongside institutional care (Ministry of
Social Development, 2017). Standard practices involve the formal integration of unaccompanied children into foster families or su-
pervised groups overseen by a caregiver. In instances where these options are impractical, children are placed in care and protection of
institutions (Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017).
The process of providing alternative care in Jordan for these children unfolds in multiple stages. Initially, the child's social status is
determined. If the child is in an informal care arrangement, a thorough assessment of the child's best interests and the family envi-
ronment is conducted. If considered suitable, the family is referred to the Sharia court for formalizing the caregiving arrangement. The
Sharia court typically manages various family matters in Jordan, including marital disputes, child custody, and other family-related
lawsuits.
However, if the evaluation team notes potential danger or an unstable family environment, or if the child is found alone, a
determination of the child's best interests is essential to nd the most suitable choice. In the second stage, unaccompanied refugee
children are temporarily placed in foster families for a maximum of three weeks. If the child stays in foster care beyond this period, the
arrangement is ofcially transferred to a formal alternative care setting (Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017).
Multiple alternate care options are considered for unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan. Alternative family care places a child
in a substitute family temporarily or, in some cases, on a long-term basis due to specic circumstances. For unaccompanied refugee
children, placement with foster or alternative families is preferred when family reunication is impractical. The foster family, ideally
from the same refugee community, offers a stable environment, resembling that of the biological family, promoting the child's
development and rights. The selection process emphasizes the family's genuine desire to care for the child, ensuring a stable and
suitable environment, and considers cultural and social differences (Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2017).
The nancial implications of refugee families hosting unaccompanied refugee children are signicant and multifaceted. When
refugee families take on the responsibility of fostering, they often face additional nancial burdens. These families, already coping with
their own challenges, may nd it challenging to meet the increased expenses associated with providing care for an added child. The
nancial incentives provided to foster families aim to alleviate some of these burdens. However, these incentives may not always be
sufcient, given the complex economic circumstances refugees often nd themselves in.
In Jordan, nancial incentives for foster families vary, but they typically include support for basic needs such as food, clothing, and
schooling. Despite these incentives, the economic strain on refugee families may persist, potentially affecting the quality of care
provided to unaccompanied refugee children. Moreover, the reliance on nancial incentives alone may create unintended conse-
quences, such as fostering nancial gain rather than genuine commitment to the child's well-being. This dynamic can lead to sub-
optimal care settings and may undermine the overall effectiveness of the foster care system for unaccompanied refugee children.
Supervised groups are the second-best form of alternative care for unaccompanied refugee children when family care is not feasible
(Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2016). This care involves providing a home for a small group of children over
the age of fteen, overseen by a caregiver responsible for their well-being (Uganda Child Protection Sub Working Group, 2018).
Adolescents often prefer this form of care for the autonomy and freedom it provides compared to other alternative care options
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(UNHCR, 2014). Groups must not exceed three children, and caregivers should live nearby for daily monitoring, while social workers
continuously oversee their well-being to safeguard them from potential risks (Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action,
2017).
Residential care, considered a last resort, is provided for unaccompanied refugee children in state-run institutions like orphanages.
This choice is pursued when alternative family care is not possible. These facilities, differing signicantly from natural family envi-
ronments, impact the child's future development (Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action, 2016). United Nations
guidelines stress that institutional care should be a last resort, providing specic principles for ensuring a safe and nurturing envi-
ronment for children (United Nations General Assembly, 2010).
In assessing the protection and care services for unaccompanied refugee children, Al-Bashir's study (2017) evaluated the forms of
protection provided to unaccompanied and separated children in the Shagarab camp in Sudan. The results highlighted deciencies in
the educational aspect, with children in the camp lacking formal education and suitable classrooms for learning. On the healthcare
front, services were relatively good, but challenges persisted, especially concerning psychological and social support (Al-Bashir, 2017).
However, Seidel and James (2019) showed several challenges in Sweden that hindered its ability to care for unaccompanied refugee
children according to global standards. The increasing numbers of these children, the constant turnover of team members working
with them, and a lack of adequate psychological and social support services were among the key challenges outlined in the study.
Sweden's government has demonstrated a distinct commitment to providing protection and care for refugees, particularly unac-
companied children, aligning with international standards. Their specialized system ensures access to rights equivalent to Swedish
children, including healthcare, education, social support, protection from violence and discrimination, and family reunication when
in the child's best interests (Migrationseveket, 2021).
2.7. Social work with unaccompanied refugee children
The social worker is considered a crucial member of the team working with unaccompanied refugee children, and various studies
have delved into the roles played by social workers with this group of children. Zwebathu's study (2018) found that the roles of social
workers with unaccompanied refugee children vary depending on the organization they work for. Social workers may function as case
managers in social services, integration agents in shelters and accommodation centers, or as guides and counselors in schools. The
study also highlighted the challenges social workers face, such as interactive relationship issues with children, including the child's
resistance to their decisions or instances of violence. Challenges with colleagues and limitations in budget and resources were also
noted, along with constraints related to policies and legislation that restrict their work. Moreover, social workers also meet difculties
when dealing with children scheduled for repatriation, especially when tasked with informing children about the rejection of their
asylum requests. In these situations, social workers often feel a sense of frustration and helplessness due to their limited impact on
government decisions regarding asylum requests. Sundquist et al.'s study (2015) supported this nding when investigating the mental
health correlation with working with forcibly repatriated unaccompanied refugee children in Sweden. The study showed a close
connection between deteriorating mental health and working with these children, particularly for social workers.
The existing literature addressed various issues related to unaccompanied refugee children, predominantly focusing on Western
societies. Remarkably, none of the prior studies delved into unaccompanied refugee children as a specic research topic. What sets this
study apart is its pioneering exploration of the challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee children and the risks surrounding them
through an examination of the experiences of professionals working with them. Additionally, it stands out as the rst of its kind locally
and regionally, aiming to understand the contributions of the social work profession in this domain.
The study conducted by Taha and Anabtawi (2024) marked the rst examination of this subject in Jordan. It unveiled the living
conditions of unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan and shed light on the forms of alternative care provided to them along with
the methods of its implementation. Building upon the ndings of this study, the present research delves deeper into the intricacies of
the challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee children. It does so by exploring the experiences of professionals working with them,
with a specic focus on understanding the role of social workers in helping these children in overcoming these challenges.
3. Theoretical framework
Role theory is a sociological concept that explores how individuals' behaviors, expectations, and identities are shaped by the roles
they occupy in society. According to role theory, each person plays various roles in different social contexts, such as family, work, and
community. Each role comes with specic expectations and social norms, inuencing the individual's behavior, and shaping their sense
of identity. Roles are not static; they evolve over time, and individuals may experience role conict when the expectations associated
with one role contradict those of another (Munson & Balgopal, 1978).
Role theory provides a valuable theoretical framework for understanding social interactions and the roles individuals occupy
within society. In the context of the challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee children, role theory can contribute signicantly to
guiding our analysis and comprehension of the social phenomena they encounter. This theory also aids in understanding the role of
unaccompanied refugee children within the new society and how it inuences their experiences. For instance, it helps understand how
they shape their social and cultural identities under these new circumstances and how their roles within their families and commu-
nities may undergo changes due to displacement and resettlement. Furthermore, role theory facilitates exploration of the expectations
placed upon unaccompanied refugee children by various social actors such as host communities, aid organizations, and governmental
agencies. Understanding these expectations sheds light on the challenges they face in fullling their roles and integrating into their
new environments. Moreover, role theory aids in analyzing interactions between unaccompanied refugee children and social
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Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
6
institutions such as schools, healthcare systems, and legal authorities. It helps in nding how these institutions assign roles to these
children and how they navigate these roles to access resources and support.
Another important point is the role of specialists such as social workers or case managers becomes pivotal in this context. Specialists
undertake roles that extend beyond traditional caregiving by addressing the unique challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee
children. Through the lens of role theory, exploration of how specialists negotiate their roles, manage potential conicts, and
contribute to the social integration and psychological well-being of these children is possible. Thus, the theory becomes a lens through
which researchers can analyze the interaction between roles, expectations, and experiences of both unaccompanied refugee children
and the specialists supporting them.
In general, role theory provides a comprehensive framework for studying the challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee children
from the perspective of social workers, facilitating a deeper understanding of their experiences and needs.
4. Methodology
The study employed a qualitative research approach due to its inherent exibility, allowing for a nuanced exploration of the
challenges confronting unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan. This method was deliberately selected to delve into a particularly
sensitive and underexplored domain, aiming to unveil the intricacies of children's lives and the challenges they meet, as perceived by
social workers. The decision to opt for a qualitative approach was driven by the need to capture the richness and depth of the par-
ticipants' narratives. The qualitative research design provides a platform for open-ended questions, real-time interactions, and an in-
depth understanding of the subject matter. This approach allows for a holistic exploration of the social workers' perspectives,
contributing to a comprehensive and contextually grounded analysis. While qualitative research offers valuable insights, it is essential
to acknowledge its potential limitations, such as time-consuming data collection and analysis processes, as well as the associated costs.
The study recognizes the trade-off between depth and breadth inherent in qualitative research, choosing to prioritize the depth of
understanding over a broad sample size. By focusing on quality over quantity, the research aims to provide a rich and meaningful
exploration of the experiences of social workers working with unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan (Al-Mahmoudi, 2019).
Building upon the qualitative research approach, this study drew specic principles and methodologies from seminal works in the
eld, namely Creswell and Poth (2016) “Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design” and Patton (2014) “Qualitative Research &
Evaluation Methods”. From Creswell & Poth's work, our study adopted principles focused on the in-depth exploration of social phe-
nomena and the analysis of participants' perspectives within their contextual framework. Methodologically, we used multiple data
collection techniques, including interviews and observations, coupled with iterative data analysis processes such as coding and theme
development. Furthermore, Patton's text guided our study by emphasizing the importance of understanding participants' experiences
and ensuring the credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability of ndings. Methodologically, we employed interviews
as a main qualitative data collection method, supplemented by strategies to ensure trustworthiness such as member checking and
triangulation of data sources. By integrating these principles and methodologies into our study, we aimed to enhance the rigor and
validity of our qualitative approach, providing a comprehensive exploration of the experiences of social workers working with un-
accompanied refugee children in Jordan.
Language considerations were thoughtfully addressed in the method, acknowledging that both the authors and participants are
native Arabic speakers. The interviews were conducted in Arabic to ensure effective communication and capture the nuances of
participants' experiences. The interviewers, being native Arabic speakers, were procient in both spoken and written Arabic.
All coders involved in the analysis were also native Arabic speakers, ensuring a deep understanding of the linguistic and cultural
subtleties embedded in the data. As the interviews were conducted in Arabic, translation was not needed during the data collection
phase. At the nal stage, the manuscript had undergone a thorough linguistic review by a specialized language editor to ensure
consistency and appropriateness.
4.1. Access to the eld
Accessing the eld for this research presented formidable challenges due to the secrecy surrounding unaccompanied children's
locations and the conceptual overlap with separated children. The process involved reaching out to refugee organizations in Jordan to
identify unaccompanied children and the responsible entity, aided by academic experts. Key organizations, including UNHCR, IMC,
IRC, Save the Children, and JRF, offered crucial insights. At the conclusion, it became clear that the International Medical Corps (IMC)
was the sole ofcial entity responsible for directly working with unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan within the Alternative Care
project. Despite rst rejection from IMC, approval was eventually secured after a year-long effort, contingent on ethical approval from
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Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
7
the University of Jordan's IRB. Ten social workers were interviewed in IMC ofces in Zaatari and Azraq camps and host communities.
Interviews followed by a vetted guide, ensuring participant condentiality and anonymity through pseudonyms. Handwritten notes
were taken to respect participants' preferences against recording, and immediate transcription minimized data loss.
4.2. Sample
It was claried by the IMC administration that the common and exclusive job title for practitioners of social work in the organi-
zation, particularly with unaccompanied refugee children, is Case Manager. Consequently, the study community included all social
workers working under the title of Case Managers in the International Medical Corps (IMC), totaling sixty individuals. A simple random
sampling technique was employed to select ten participants for in-depth interviews. The selection of a simple random sample, con-
sisting of 10 Case Managers from the larger pool, aims to capture a representative subset of the social workers at IMC. This method
ensures a diverse and unbiased representation of experiences and perspectives within the study population. The utilization of a random
sampling approach enhances the generalizability of the ndings, allowing for insights that are reective of the broader social work
community within IMC.
Each of the selected 10 Case Managers were approached for individual interviews, providing an in-depth exploration of their
experiences. The random sampling strategy ensures that the study's ndings are not skewed towards specic characteristics or ex-
periences, contributing to the robustness and validity of the research outcomes.
4.3. Data collection
The use of individual interviews with social workers working under the designation of “Case Managers” was imperative for delving
into the intricacies of their experiences and encounters with unaccompanied refugee children, particularly those exposed to high levels
of vulnerability. This method allowed the researcher to gather a substantial amount of information pertinent to the study's problem,
easing the acquisition of nuanced details that might be elusive when employing alternative data collection tools. The interview in-
strument, characterized by its exibility, enabled the researcher to interact with participants, engage in open discussions, and assess
the credibility of their responses by observing non-verbal cues such as facial expressions and body language (Al-Khayyat, 2010).
Individual interviews were also used for more reasons: the sensitivity and condentiality of the study's subject matter and the
logistical challenge of convening social workers in one location simultaneously due to their tight schedules and geographical
dispersion across various work regions. A comprehensive interview guide was meticulously prepared and conrmed by both academics
and professionals in the eld to ensure its alignment with the study's aims and inquiries (Appendix 1). Social workers declined audio
recording of the interviews, prompting reliance on note taking during the interviews and immediate transcription post-interview to
mitigate the risk of memory lapses.
These interviews were conducted at IMC ofces strategically distributed in areas with a signicant presence of refugees. Some
interviews took place in the host communities, while others occurred at the Azraq and Zaatari refugee camps.
The rst author conducted the interviews, leading the discussions with participants and taking some notes, while the co-author was
present to diligently document all observations. Following the completion of each interview, both researchers promptly reviewed the
interview draft before leaving the location. It is worth noting that participants were aware of the research assistant's presence spe-
cically for note-taking purposes during the interviews. This meticulous process helped mitigate any potential data loss, ensuring the
capture of every spoken word and non-verbal expression as stated in the study.
4.4. Data analysis
Following the conclusion of data collection, individual interviews were transcribed into separate transcripts. A comprehensive
understanding of each transcript was ensured through multiple readings. The process of identifying common and distinct themes in the
participants' experiences and perspectives was initiated, with the goal of extracting the fundamental ideas that surfaced from the
study's ndings.
The data analysis employed inductive thematic analysis, a highly regarded method for its ability to uncover the experiences,
opinions, and insights of sample individuals about study-related matters (Patton, 2014). Distinguished as the predominant approach
within qualitative data analysis methodologies, inductive thematic analysis stands out due to its notable exibility, allowing appli-
cation across various theoretical frameworks and research inquiries (Creswell & Poth, 2016). It emphasizes active engagement with
data by meticulously and exceptionally examining it, facilitating deep and detailed text comprehension. Beyond deep and detailed data
understanding, this analytical approach extends to encompass the context from which it originated, making it adaptable to both
conclusive and exploratory research methodologies (Mortensen, 2021).
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The characteristics of this analytical approach played a pivotal role in the study's decision to adopt it for the analysis of its collected
data. Additionally, it looks to describe and analyze qualitative data by categorizing it into specic themes and topics based on points of
convergence and similarity. Subsequently, it explores the relationships between these categories to provide interpretations that
address the study's questions. The goal is to transition data from a state of chaos to an organized map of the prominent themes covered
by the data. This transition is not a one-time occurrence but involves continuous back-and-forth movement between the data until
reaching conclusive results (Creswell & Poth, 2016).
The deliberate choice of the inductive thematic analysis method aims to systematically examine the data obtained from the par-
ticipants in the samples. This approach involves an organized process of identifying, classifying, and interpreting recurring patterns
and themes within the data. The identication of themes relied on open coding and methodical review of texts for recurrent words and
concepts summarizing the essence of participants' experiences and perspectives. It is worth noting that the analysis was conducted
manually, without the use of specialized software tools, ensuring precise and comprehensive handling of the data.
In terms of transcription, strict adherence to set up standards was maintained to uphold the accuracy and consistency of interview
transcripts. Verbatim transcription captures every spoken word by case managers, including non-verbal expressions. A uniform
formatting approach was applied, incorporating clear headings, standardized font styles, and well-formatted paragraphs to enhance
readability and ensure text accessibility. Linguistic proofreading was meticulously conducted to align written statements precisely
with the case managers' spoken words. To preserve condentiality and ensure participant safety, pseudonyms were employed, and any
sensitive information revealing their identities was redacted.
4.5. Ethical considerations
Ethical considerations played a pivotal role in shaping the methodology of this research. Paramount among these considerations
was the assurance of condentiality and privacy for all participants involved. Informed consent, diligently obtained from each
participant, underscored the commitment to transparency and voluntary participation. Participants were explicitly briefed on their
unequivocal right to refuse involvement without facing any adverse consequences from their organizations. Moreover, participants
were informed of their autonomy to withdraw from the study or abstain from answering specic questions without the necessity of
providing justications. To align with their preferences and adhere to ethical standards, no audio recordings were made during in-
terviews. Instead, meticulous notes were taken to capture the essence of the discussions while respecting the participants' wishes.
A professional relationship built on trust was cultivated throughout the research process. The principles of privacy and con-
dentiality were consistently emphasized, and pseudonyms were employed to shield the identities of the participants. In an additional
layer of protection, access to interview drafts was strictly prohibited, further fortifying the condentiality measures in place.
4.6. Data validity and reliability
A comprehensive and meticulous data verication process was undertaken to preserve the integrity and ensure the reliability of the
collected data. A series of stringent measures were strictly implemented to guarantee the credibility of the data, employing a quali-
tative approach through semi-structured interviews with social workers. This approach facilitated an in-depth exploration of the roles
and experiences of social workers with unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan.
The research was conducted strategically using open-ended questioning methods, contributing to the enhancement of data quality
and credibility. A secure environment was provided for research participants to encourage candid disclosure of their feelings and
experiences, accompanied by stringent measures to safeguard their identity and keep the condentiality of their names. Member
checking procedures were employed to enhance data reliability, involving a thorough verication of analyzed interviews against
participants' statements. This step aimed to ensure the accurate reection of participants' experiences and emotions, thereby improving
data consistency and credibility.
In the realm of data analysis, the study adhered precisely to established accuracy standards, including methodical data coding and
meticulous identication of recurring themes. The transparent application of these methodological principles not only bolstered the
accuracy of data analysis but also augmented the overall validity of the study results.
5. Results
The study's ndings elucidate various social and psychological characteristics that distinguish unaccompanied refugee children.
Furthermore, they shed light on the challenges these children encounter across all facets of their lives in the host country. Subse-
quently, exploration of the role of social workers in aiding them throughout their arduous journey. The section concludes with rec-
ommendations proposed by participants to ameliorate the circumstances of unaccompanied refugee children in host countries.
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Fig. 1. Obstacles facing unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan and the role of the social workers supporting them.
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5.1. Psychological and Social characteristics of unaccompanied refugee children
The arduous journey of unaccompanied refugee children signicantly and profoundly impacts their psychological and social
development, posing risks and challenges that surpass their capacities and skills. Social workers, drawing on their experience working
with these children, have attempted to encapsulate the key changes in the psychological and social development of unaccompanied
refugee children.
5.2. Psychological and social factors inuencing the developmental changes
The negative experiences and traumatic events endured by unaccompanied refugee children leave profound effects on various
aspects of their personalities. The psychological and social dimensions are particularly susceptible, with increased pressure and
suffering leading to weakened psychological foundations and a subsequent reection in their social interactions. Mona emphasized the
detrimental impact of poor living conditions, stating, “Their poor living conditions cause both psychological and social harm, affecting
their personalities.” Ayah concurred, noting, “The psychological conditions of these children are extremely poor, leading them to
prefer isolation. The reason for all these incidents is the traumatic experiences they have been through.”
Participants like Ahmed and Noor highlighted the instability of the psychological well-being of these children, noting their lack of
balance and stability in emotions and thoughts. Ahmed said, “This specic group of children often has an unstable psychological state.
They are usually not settled, and their emotions and thoughts are often imbalanced and unstable.” Ghassan attributed this instability to
the absence of support from their biological families during challenging asylum conditions, stating, “Their personalities and tem-
peraments change completely because of their difcult circumstances. They face these challenges alone, without any family or rel-
atives to support and be with them.” Soha added, “When someone is separated from their family, friends, and entire community, what
can you expect? Of course, their mental and social well-being will be affected.”
5.3. Psychological transformations in destination countries
The psychological characteristics of unaccompanied refugee children in destination countries manifest in deep sadness, hostility,
separation anxiety, and fear, and insomnia, behavioral and moral deterioration. Ghassan described their prevailing sorrow and violent
behavior, stating, “These children are overwhelmed by deep and constant sadness. Their behavior is consistently aggressive, and they
experience sleep and eating problems.” Soha added, “These children often develop separation anxiety, fearing to get attached to
anyone because they are afraid of being left alone. This is exacerbated when they move between different families due to circum-
stances.” In conjunction with the previously mentioned traits, Nour highlighted a pivotal psychological characteristic that sets these
children apart – namely, low self-esteem. She articulated, “They typically lack condence in themselves.” A substantial portion of these
children often grapple with various psychological disorders, like depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Ghassan further
corroborated this, stating, “A signicant proportion of unaccompanied children manifest a spectrum of psychological disorders,
notably post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and disruptions in sleep and eating patterns.”
5.4. Social transitions for refugee children: between isolation and weak communication skills
Regarding social characteristics, participants unanimously agreed that isolation and introversion are prevalent among most un-
accompanied refugee children. Ayah expressed this, stating, “Most of them don't like to interact with people or form relationships; they
prefer solitude and isolation.” Some participants attributed this to the loss of trust these children experienced in their families, friends,
and community, making it challenging for them to rebuild this trust with strangers. Soha explained, “Certainly, they won't be sociable.
The disappointment they experienced from their families and community makes them avoid trusting people and interacting with
them.”
Moreover, participants concurred that unaccompanied refugee children lack effective communication and social skills. They also
lack prociency in forging social connections, articulate communication, and decisive decision-making. Encumbered by substantial
challenges, they grapple with profound difculty in accepting their surroundings and adapting to new developments in their lives.
Lana remarked, “Their communication skills are weak, and their social relationships are limited.” Noor emphasized the difculty these
children face in forming relationships, asserting, “They have difculty forming relationships; they are mostly introverted and struggle
to accept others, facing challenges in adapting to new events in their lives.” Soha added, “You can feel that they don't know how to
engage in basic things, such as communicating properly or making simple decisions; they face difculties in various aspects.”
The psychological and social characteristics of unaccompanied refugee children emerge as complex and multi-faceted, shaped by
their challenging journey and painful experiences.
5.5. Multifaceted challenges encountered by unaccompanied refugee children
The participants emphasized a range of challenges that cut across different facets of the unaccompanied refugee children's lives
within the context of alternative care. These challenges encompass social, psychological, economic, educational, and health
dimensions.
Remarkably, the participants highlighted the striking lack of attention this specic group has received from researchers and
practitioners. Marah articulated this observation, stating, “No one has ever delved into their study or shown genuine concern, despite
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their substantial numbers. I've never witnessed anyone actively seeking to understand their situation.” Echoing this sentiment, Lana
emphasized, “Despite my extensive experience in this camp with these children, no one has ever taken the initiative to study or inquire
about them. It's quite perplexing.” Soha, expressing disbelief, questioned the researcher's ability to interview the children, stating,
“How did they permit you to meet them? It is strictly forbidden for anyone, except the staff, to interact with or gather information from
them. It is highly unusual that they allowed you!”
These expressions collectively underscore the profound lack of attention and recognition afforded to unaccompanied refugee
children in both research and practical interventions. The participants stressed the scarcity of dedicated studies aimed at compre-
hending the intricate challenges faced by this vulnerable population.
5.6. Social challenges
The social challenges have taken center stage among all these difculties. Lana expressed, “The social challenges and problems that
children face without their family and social relationships have the most signicant impact. Because being with one's own people and
family alleviates their troubles and issues, so imagine if one is deprived of that. That's exactly what's happening with these kids.” Most
participants concurred with Lana on the substantial negative impact of social challenges on the lives of children within alternative care
arrangements in the host country.
Impact of Forced Separation on Social Integration: The rst of these challenges lies in the mere act of children leaving their
home country and coming to Jordan as a host country, effectively erasing their social standing. Mona explained, “Suddenly, they found
themselves without anyone, literally without anyone. No family, no relatives, no friends.” Children who lost both parents and had no
acquaintances or relatives in Jordan suffered the same fate. Ghassan described their situation, saying, “Even the children who entered
with their families, later their parents left and traveled, or died, and they had no other people here. They faced problems and became
alone and without parental care.” This separation signicantly impacted their trust in others, reduced their sociability, and diminished
their love for interaction and communication with people. Ahmed highlighted this, stating, “Their separation from their parents,
friends, and homeland affected their social qualities. Even those children whose parents left them and traveled without asking about
them suffered from a series of separations, whether from their families or their original community. Some of them have been separated
from caregivers several times, moving from one family to another. All of this has had a signicant impact on their social personality,
leading them towards isolation, resentment towards people, and a lack of trust in them.”
Tensions in Family Relationships within Alternative Care for Unaccompanied Refugee Children: Regarding family re-
lationships between the child and the caregiver in all forms of alternative care, most participants expressed that the relationship
between caregivers and unaccompanied refugee children is generally tense. As Nour stated, “The relationship between them is usually
not good, but it's always tense,” and most participants agreed with her. This tension arises from several reasons, with Soha justifying it
by the child's lack of a sense of belonging to the family, they often feel like burdens, as she explained: “The child feels like a stranger
burdening the family, and more often than not, it's the family itself that instills this feeling in him.” Ahmed, Nour, Aya, and Marah all
agreed with Soha's perspective. However, Mohammed and Mona attributed the strained relationship between the unaccompanied
child and the caregiver to the motives behind providing this care. Some individuals aim to care for unaccompanied refugee children to
derive nancial returns from the alternative care project. Mona stated, “Their goal in caregiving is to get money from the project. They
do not care if the child lives or dies, whether at home or on the street. This creates a barrier in their relationship and distances it from a
parental relationship.” This view was also held by most participants.
Others seek to care for these children to exploit them by employing them in various projects, either legal or illegal, to get income.
Mohammed highlighted this: “They take the children and start employing them to bring them money. They engage them in projects,
legal or illegal.”
Most participants claried that the relationship between unaccompanied refugee children and the biological children of the foster
family is also signicantly tense. This tension arises mainly due to the clear distinction made by caregivers between them. Mohammed
stated, “When foster parents differentiate between their biological children and the unaccompanied child, it creates tension in their
relationship, spreading hatred and animosity.” Sometimes, this tension is accompanied by violence and abuse, as Aya added: “There is
often violence between the biological children and the children under foster family care. Usually, the biological children are the ones in
control.” This tension is not limited to the caregiver-child relationship but extends to the broader social context.
Continuous Child Relocation within Alternative Care: The frequent relocation of children among alternative foster families
poses numerous social challenges, primarily manifested in the constriction of their social relationships. This phenomenon is attributed
to two main factors: the continuous change of living environments, resulting in the constant disruption of their connections with
friends and neighbors. As expressed by Soha, “Poor child, every time he starts adapting to a particular family, forming friendships and
relationships, his living situation changes again, resetting his social connections to ground zero.” The second factor involves a
diminished inclination of children to establish new relationships with unfamiliar individuals, as a means of avoiding the pain of
separation once more. Ahmed articulated this sentiment, stating, “They know they will eventually face separation again, so they
refrain from forming new relationships to avoid the pain of separation once more.” This recurring cycle of relocation consequently
hinders the children's ability to forge stable and enduring social bonds, emphasizing the profound impact of continuous child relo-
cation within alternative care settings.
The societal acceptance of unaccompanied refugee children: All participants unanimously concurred that an exploitative
perspective held by some members of society, coupled with a tendency towards criticism rather than support, in addition to children's
lack of effective communication skills and a diminished trust in others, collectively contribute to the constriction of their social
networks. This situation leads children to adopt a defensive stance and exhibit hostility towards others. Ahmed emphasized the
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detrimental impact of society's exploitative view towards unaccompanied children, stating: “The exploitative perspective of society
towards unaccompanied children, viewing them as solitary entities and exploiting them rather than providing support, has weakened
the child's relationships and led them to behave aggressively towards others.” Ahmed also shed light on a crucial aspect, stating,
“Cultures vary, and this constitutes a signicant social barrier. Moreover, the child is unaware of his social roles. All of this limits
people's acceptance of him and reduces their interaction with him.” Here, Ahmed claried that cultural differences and the child's
ignorance of expected social roles, such as being a child, a friend, a student, among others, coupled with an inability to fulll these
roles, signicantly impact his social life and the extent of his relationships. These factors serve as criteria inuencing the acceptance of
the child by others.
The Impact of Institutional Care on the Social Well-being of Unaccompanied Refugee Children: Institutional care is rife with
challenges, presenting a heightened array of social obstacles for children placed in such facilities. All participants emphasized that the
prolonged stay of children within institutional care equals the concept of isolating them from society. Lana articulated this sentiment,
stating, “The child's presence in the institution means cutting him off from people; it's almost like being in prison, but improved.” She
further elaborated, “They learn bad behaviors from other children there.” As children are present in these centers, it sometimes
contributes to them acquiring negative and unethical behaviors, which adversely impact their social lives.
The Ramications of Recurrent Separation: The discourse shifted towards the responsibilities of professionals engaged with this
demographic, highlighting a unanimous perspective among participants. They emphasized that deciencies in guidance, counseling,
and support signicantly impact unaccompanied refugee children, resulting in the depletion of their social capital and, subsequently,
inuencing various facets of their lives. Mohammed emphasized this perspective, asserting, “Without proper support to navigate
challenges and lacking guidance in life situations, these children will be adrift, losing a substantial portion of their social connections.”
The consensus among participants was that the frequent turnover of case managers dealing with unaccompanied refugee children,
driven by institutional work policies, poses numerous challenges for these children. This dynamic proves particularly formidable on
both social and psychological fronts, making it arduous for the children to acclimate to new case managers, establish trust, and even
more daunting when confronted with separation after establishing a professional and trusting relationship. Mona articulated, “These
children have spent their life getting to know people, becoming accustomed to them, and then separating from them. This will impact
their self-condence and trust in others, rendering their feeling rejected and undesirable anywhere or by anyone.” Soha highlighted the
potential of this occurrence to sever the child's social relationships and trigger his collapse. She observed, “Changing caregivers,
repeatedly separating from the caregiver—these things can break him, shake him, and might lead him to sever all his social re-
lationships at once due to a perpetual fear of people leaving him throughout his life. He won't interact with new individuals, fearing a
recurrence of the experience.”
In conclusion, the repetitiveness of such separations adds an additional layer of difculty, causing the child to sever all social ties,
fostering a fear of abandonment throughout their life. Consequently, they may refrain from interacting with new individuals, fearing a
recurrence of past experiences. The repercussions of these actions are profound, as such movements can fracture the child's social
connections, leading to potential psychological breakdowns and reinforcing a sense of alienation and undesirability.
5.7. Psychological challenges
Psychological disorders: The psychological hurdles encountered by unaccompanied refugee children manifest through various
disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, insomnia, eating disorders, and a signicant decit in con-
centration. These challenges stem from the intense pressures these children have faced and continue to grapple with, as articulated by
Mohammed: “The hardships, pains, and adversities experienced by unaccompanied children, whether in their home countries or upon
arriving here, have subjected them to substantial psychological strain. Each day brings forth new challenges, taking a toll on them
mentally. This imbalance results in a loss of equilibrium, diminished concentration, disruptions in their eating and sleeping routines,
with some persisting in experiencing unsettling dreams.” Aya further elucidated, noting, “Some develop depression, post-traumatic
stress disorder, or severe isolation.” The consensus among most participants aligned with Mohammed and Aya's observations.
Separation Pain and Nostalgic Yearning: Suha emphasized the recurring retrieval of memories, coupled with the ache of sep-
aration from family and homeland, impeding these children from navigating their lives effectively. She underscored, “The child
grapples with the pain of being separated from family, homeland, environment, relatives, and friends. They continue to revisit past
memories and their previous life with family, contributing to setbacks and hindering their ability to lead a fullling life.” Ahmed
concurred, stating, “They are indeed victims of past pains and memories.”
In essence, the psychological challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee children are intricate and multifaceted, stemming from a
conuence of traumatic experiences, ongoing stressors, and the emotional toll of separation. The participants underscored the pro-
found impact on the mental well-being of these children, underscoring the imperative for targeted interventions to address these
complex psychological issues.
5.8. Economic challenges
Most participants emphasized a paramount challenge faced by unaccompanied refugee children, which revolves around the
daunting economic conditions. This challenge gives rise to a myriad of social, educational, and health-related obstacles. Ahmed
succinctly expressed this sentiment, stating, “The dire economic situation is the most signicant problem and challenge for the
children, to the extent that it generates secondary issues related to their education, health, and social relationships.”
Financial Struggles of Foster Families: Foster families, often composed of refugees themselves, grapple with severe nancial
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constraints, a well-known predicament among refugee households. Nour emphasized this reality, stating, “Foster families or care-
givers, in general, are also refugees, and you can't overlook the dire situation of refugees in this country; they are barely making ends
meet.”
Additionally, foster families or caregivers are not obligated to cover the child's expenses. Their responsibility is limited to providing
care and protection. Soha claried this, stating, “Foster families and caregivers are responsible for providing care and supervision to
the children, but they are not nancially obligated to cover their expenses and material needs.”
Deciencies in Meeting Basic Needs: Another set of economic challenges perceived by social workers includes clear deciencies
in meeting the basic needs of these children, coupled with a scarcity in addressing their non-essential needs. Lana pointed out, “There is
a signicant shortage in the services provided to them and a glaring gap in meeting their needs.” Ahmed echoed this sentiment, stating,
“Their basic needs are not adequately met, let alone the luxuries and comforts!” Moreover, several participants highlighted that the
living conditions of the children are somewhat substandard, and the quality of food is not up to par, often leading to health issues. Aya
exemplied this concern, stating, “The living conditions of the houses where a substantial number of children reside are poor, causing
illnesses. Moreover, the quality of food is barely satisfactory, affecting their health.”
Furthermore, unaccompanied children face the risk of exploitation by employers when their difcult circumstances force them into
the labor market. They receive meager wages and are susceptible to violence and abuse in the workplace. Ahmed elucidated on this
harsh reality, stating, “Unaccompanied children are compelled to work, entering the vicious cycle of child labor. Not only are they
exploited by employers, but they are also subjected to violence and paid a meager sum for extensive working hours.”
5.9. Educational challenges
School dropout among unaccompanied refugee children: The educational challenges faced by children are complex and deeply
rooted in their unique circumstances. Economic hardship, lack of ofcial documents during their early arrival, illnesses, and war-
related injuries contribute to hindering a child's ability to pursue education, often resulting in discontinuation. Lana emphasized
this by stating, “Poverty forces the child to work, causing them to leave school.” Mona added, “Difcult circumstances and a lack of
ofcial documents lead to children dropping out of school for several years; some eventually return, while others cannot.”
Frequent transitions between different forms of care or from one family to another emerge as a signicant factor contributing to
school dropout. Mohammed explained, “The child keeps moving from one family to another, from family care to institutional care and
vice versa. All these factors affect his commitment to school, causing interruptions and dropout.”
Academic underachievement among unaccompanied refugee children: Psychological and social pressures, bullying, exploi-
tation, physical and verbal abuse, and discrimination exert a powerful inuence on a child's academic achievement and abilities. These
challenges can arise within or outside foster families. Noor pointed out this harsh reality, stating, “If the child is not psychologically
comfortable or faces difcult life circumstances, experiences bullying or discrimination at school, how can we expect him to excel
academically? It's unrealistic given his circumstances.” The impact of such adversities on a child's well-being and educational
attainment is a clear testament to the pervasive challenges they encounter in their pursuit of education.
5.10. Healthcare challenges
All participants highlighted that limited healthcare services provided to unaccompanied refugee children, coupled with their lack
of distinctive advantages compared to others, constitute major health challenges. Noor expressed concern, stating, “The absence of
health insurance for children outside the camps is a disaster. Without it, they cannot receive treatment, and the caregiver cannot afford
their medical care.” Suhad reiterated this sentiment, saying, “Many children struggle because they lack health insurance other than
Caritas. Caritas services are scarce, and during the COVID-19 pandemic, they have become extremely rare. It's no longer able to keep
up with cases, so the children can't nd a way to receive the necessary treatment.”
Most participants pointed out that the living conditions of these children are insufcient to accommodate them, with Ghassan
remarking, “Living in caravans means cold in winter, excessive heat in summer, and poor living conditions that cause illness.”
Additionally, inadequacies in meeting their basic needs lead to the onset of diseases, as Ahmed stated, “The quality of food, clothing,
and other basic needs all impact health. The shortage of these necessities leads to illness.”
5.11. Perils and assaults encountered by unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan
Origins of Attacks on Unaccompanied Refugee Children: Participants shed light on the pervasive maltreatment and assaults
suffered by unaccompanied refugee children placed in various forms of alternative care. Whether within foster families or institutional
settings, these children often fall victim to abuse, inicted by foster parents, their own foster siblings, or caregivers. Marah emphasized
this point, stating, “I've come across many cases where violence and exploitation occur within foster families, either initiated by the
children or perpetrated by the foster parents.” She added, “In institutional settings, children are frequently subjected to violence and
assaults, mainly at the hands of caregivers or facility staff.”
Beyond these immediate environments, unaccompanied refugee children also face violence from relatives of foster families, friends
in the neighborhood or school, neighbors, and even strangers who are aware of their vulnerable circumstances. Ghassan remarked,
“These children are vulnerable to all forms of violence, whether from close or distant acquaintances.” Lana further highlighted,
“Relatives of foster families, friends at school, or anyone aware of their situation might engage in violent and harmful behavior without
facing any consequences.” Participants overwhelmingly attributed the heightened exposure of these children to violence to their
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unique circumstances. Some also pointed out the apathy towards these children, contributing to a lack of consequences for those
harming them. Ahmed emphasized this, stating, “They are marginalized, and no one seems to care about these children. Consequently,
they are beaten, exploited, and assaulted without fear of consequences.”
Patterns of Assaults on Unaccompanied Refugee Children: Participants elucidated that unaccompanied refugee children are
susceptible to various forms of violence, abuse, and neglect. Ahmed underscored this vulnerability, stating, “These children are
exposed to any danger imaginable, facing all kinds of mistreatment.” Mona shared her experiences dealing with numerous unac-
companied refugee children who endure violence and exploitation, revealing, “I've encountered a signicant number of children who
have been physically abused, beaten, assaulted, or even raped by caregivers or people unfamiliar with their situation.” The mani-
festations of violence and abuse span physical, sexual, verbal, and emotional dimensions, extending to include human trafcking,
sexual exploitation, prostitution, forced begging, and illicit activities. Soha emphasized, “Human trafcking and sexual exploitation
are widespread among these children, especially those not yet discovered or reported in the country or even before reaching the
country while still in their country of origin.” Nor afrmed this, stating, “Assault, rape, harassment, and underage marriages are
prevalent issues faced by this group of children, especially upon their initial arrival and before nding proper support from relevant
authorities.” Mohammed highlighted another facet of exploitation, discussing how children are coerced by caregivers to leave school
and engage in work for their own and the entire foster family's nancial support, remarking, “Many families force children to work, and
the problem is when the work is not legitimate, like prostitution or begging,” With Ahmed adding, “Begging is widespread.”
Exploitation or abuse is not limited to compelling them to work; entering a new and unregulated labor environment exposes these
children to further violence and exploitation from employers. Aya further elucidated on the challenges faced by unaccompanied
refugee children in the realm of employment, emphasizing, “Just to secure a job, even if the work is not prohibited, employers set their
own rules. They know that these children are on their own, with no one advocating for them. Consequently, they begin subjecting them
to verbal abuse and physical assaults, and in certain instances, cases of harassment and sexual exploitation arise.” Marah added a
critical perspective, noting, “Some employers not only provide these children with meager wages but, in some instances, do not
compensate them at all.” These testimonials underscore the harsh realities that unaccompanied refugee children encounter in the labor
market, where their vulnerability is exploited, necessitating urgent intervention and protective measures to safeguard their rights and
well-being.
5.12. Social work role with unaccompanied refugee children amidst their challenging and perilous lives in Jordan
Based on the accounts of participants, unaccompanied refugee children confront a challenging and complex reality in their
destination countries. From the moment of displacement from their homelands to their settlement in host nations, these children face
pervasive challenges, assaults, and violations. Consequently, all participants strongly emphasize that psychological and social support,
profound social interventions, and psychological therapy are crucial cornerstones for assisting these children in navigating this
arduous reality. Illuminated by Noor, underscores this idea, stating, “These children require continuous support and assistance.”
Ahmed emphatically supports this perspective, afrming, “Unaccompanied refugee children represent the most vulnerable category
necessitating psychological interventions and social support, demanding meticulous monitoring of every facet of their lives.” Some
participants go further to suggest that support for this refugee cohort should extend beyond childhood, as Aya articulates, “We
continue to follow a signicant number of them even after they reach 18 years old. Given what they have witnessed and continue to
experience, we persist in providing psychological and social assistance, even as they transition into adulthood.”
5.13. Determinants of social work practice with unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan
The social worker emerges as a pivotal gure in the team working with unaccompanied refugee children under the position “Case
Manager”. All study participants unanimously contend that practicing social work with high prociency and mastery of skills is the
primary and essential means of aiding these children in adapting to their new lives, confronting challenges, and shielding them from
surrounding risks. Lina emphasizes, “Social work, with its skills, principles, and ethics, forms the foundation for working with un-
accompanied refugee children.” Ahmed adds, “Social work is the profession for those marginalized groups grappling with life-long
issues.”
However, there are several determinants for the role of social work in this domain. All participants unequivocally asserted that the
practice of social work with unaccompanied refugee children is narrowly conned to case management, rather than expanding into
other areas, in accordance with the policies of organizations operating in the eld. To corroborate this, participants claried that there
is a glaring absence of clinical social interventions specically tailored for this group of children. Lana provided clarity, stating,
“Within our professional realm, there is no designation specically denoting a social worker in the eld working with these children.
Our roles are encapsulated by the title ‘case manager.’“ Mona also highlighted this, afrming, “The social worker is essentially the case
manager.” Mohammed elucidated the limited role of the social worker, stating, “Our responsibilities are conned to case management
and organizing the child's daily affairs. We abstain from direct involvement in psychological disruptions, promptly referring such cases
to our psychologists. We do not have a position called a social worker; our designation is exclusively that of a case manager. Our
customary practice involves identifying the children's needs and harmonizing their fulllment with various external entities.”
Participants believe that if the opportunity were provided to them and others to engage in the full spectrum of social work skills and
methodologies with unaccompanied refugee children, free from numerous constraints related to job titles and available authorities, the
psychosocial reality of these children would vastly improve. Ghassan expressed his viewpoint, stating, “If we are allowed to practice
the profession in a profound manner, I anticipate its impact on these children's lives to be signicantly enhanced,” and he continued,
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adding, “We would be able to contribute effectively to their social situation with greater efciency.” Soha alluded to a comprehensive
approach when she remarked, “I believe that having specialized social workers conducting both macro and clinical social interventions
would greatly improve the children's situation.”
Consequently, based on participants' statements, there is a clear absence of the professional term “social worker” in the reality of
unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan. Social services are typically provided by individuals holding the title of case managers,
symbolizing the prevailing profession of social work in this context within Jordan.
5.14. The main roles with unaccompanied refugee children
Participants unanimously highlighted the crucial role of case managers in the lives of unaccompanied refugee children, operating
on two essential fronts. Firstly, they play a signicant role in directly engaging with the children, and secondly, they navigate their
responsibilities within foster families and caregiving contexts.
Direct interaction with unaccompanied refugee children: In direct engagement, all participants agreed that social workers or
case managers assume a primary and pivotal responsibility for unaccompanied refugee children. Their duties encompass a compre-
hensive evaluation of the children's circumstances, a nuanced understanding of their needs, and the facilitation of necessary pro-
visions. Furthermore, they actively support the children in adapting to the dynamic changes in their lives. The case manager acts as a
steadfast companion, guiding the child through every phase of their asylum journey. Their relentless efforts aim to streamline the
fulllment of the children's needs, ensuring the provision of a secure and risk-free environment. Mona passionately declared, “These
children are exposed to peril at every juncture, and thus, we never abandon them. Our mission revolves around shielding them from
surrounding hazards, fullling their essential needs, and maintaining an unwavering presence from their initial arrival until they reach
18, and often beyond.” Expanding on this, she added, “For instance, I initiated work with certain children when they were merely 3
years old. Currently, some are 14, and others are 18, yet their les remain under my ongoing supervision.”
Aya eloquently described her role, stating, “These children become our responsibility, akin to our own offspring. In the same
meticulous manner, we strive to meet the needs of our biological children and enhance their quality of life while ensuring protection;
we extend these efforts to unaccompanied refugee children. Our duty lies in crafting detailed plans that guarantee the provision of
appropriate care and protection for them.” Ahmed shared a poignant experience, recounting, “I worked with a child at the tender age of
two. Abandoned by his family who traveled, he remained in Jordan. Now, at the age of eighteen, I continue to oversee his progress. To
me, he is like a son.”
Ahmed claried the responsibilities of the case manager, explaining, “They are in charge of keeping an eye on the living conditions
of the child in the foster family or the overseeing institution.” Mohammed provided additional details about these responsibilities,
stating, “The case manager is responsible for offering initial psychosocial support and referring them to a psychological specialist if the
situation is complex. They also continue to monitor the child's progress in therapy.” Elaborating further, he added, “We conduct a
comprehensive assessment of their situation upon arrival, covering all aspects of their lives. We identify their needs, devise plans to
address them, and simultaneously work diligently to educate them about their rights and responsibilities.” Based on the insights shared
by Ahmed, Mohammed, and other study participants, the case manager takes on a multifaceted role, overseeing all aspects of the lives
of unaccompanied refugee children. They tirelessly work to facilitate their stay in Jordan, ensuring access to resources that fulll their
needs and protect them from surrounding risks and assaults.
Most participants emphasized the importance of referrals as a key aspect of their responsibilities in this domain, viewing it as a
critical means of addressing the diverse needs of unaccompanied children. Lana succinctly expressed, “We assist children in living their
lives and strive to meet their needs. As a result, we refer them to the appropriate specialists, such as a psychologist for mental disorders
or a doctor for physical ailments.” Additionally, Aya highlighted the use of referrals in situations where a child faces danger, stating,
“We refer children in cases of harassment, assault, or sexual exploitation.”
The realm of social work extends beyond meeting basic needs and providing protection; it strives to uplift children in Maslow's
hierarchy to fulll their belonging and needs. The participants acknowledged this role, with Suha emphasizing the social dimension of
the unaccompanied child. When questioned about the social worker's tasks, she highlighted, “Our role is also to assist the child in
integrating into their living environment, forming friendships, and engaging with people. We aim to prevent isolation and must teach
them how to navigate social interactions effectively.” Suha's statement underscores the social worker's responsibility in assimilating
children into their new social surroundings, encouraging them to develop positive social relationships in school and the community. By
aiding in the enhancement of their social and communication skills, social workers play a crucial role in helping children adapt more
quickly, easing the challenges of asylum, and mitigating the pain of losing their families and friends in their home countries. Mona
emphasized the signicance of this role in facilitating the child's swift adaptation, expressing “The social aspect is vital for the child.
That is why we prioritize it, enabling the child to connect with others, alleviate feelings of loneliness, and attempt to adjust to their new
life, even if it means gradually letting go of their family, friends, and old life.”
Direct interaction with foster families: In the realm of social work involving foster families and caregivers, participants
emphasized their responsibility in selecting suitable families to care for children, evaluating their readiness, and suitability for this
task. Their role extends to educating and preparing selected foster families on effective childcare and interaction. Moreover, they are
responsible for facilitating the child's adaptation to the foster family, identifying potential challenges and obstacles, and developing
comprehensive plans to address them. Their duties also encompass ongoing and thorough monitoring of the child and the foster family
throughout the child's stay, providing guidance, counsel, and assistance in overcoming challenges, ensuring the care process aligns
with the planned objectives.
Nour claried this role, stating, “We conduct assessments on foster families, evaluating various aspects such as the suitability and
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safety of the environment where the child will live. We assess the economic and social situation and the parents' relationship. The
evaluation is staged until we are certain that it is a suitable family and the best choice for the child's well-being.” She added, “We assist
them in managing their relationships, striving to minimize differences, and putting in every effort for the child to adapt to the family
and for the family to accept the child fully.” Suha expressed, “Our concern is to facilitate their lives together, break down barriers
between them, and help the child adapt to the family and vice versa.”
Mona highlighted the importance of ongoing monitoring, stating, “We never leave them; even after ensuring they are a suitable
family, our periodic follow-ups and continuous evaluations are indispensable. We must ensure the safety of our children.” Lana
addressed the role of separating the child from the foster family or caregiver in cases of suspected danger or abuse, emphasizing their
commitment to nding a better-suited family for the child's care: “If we notice any deviation or breach of our agreement with the foster
family, such as danger, violence, or assault, we immediately withdraw the child. If the situation is conrmed, we reintegrate the child
into a new, suitable family.”
Therefore, the study results underscore the crucial role of social workers with unaccompanied refugee children at all stages of their
lives, from the decision to leave their home country to their settlement in various forms of alternative care in the destination countries.
Their role encompasses working directly with the children, ensuring the fulllment of their basic, psychological, and social needs, as
well as their sense of belonging. Additionally, social workers play a vital role in collaborating with caregivers, aiming to provide a
secure and stable environment for the children's growth and to monitor their lives more effectively.
However, despite these roles, numerous challenges persist in the lives of these children in Jordan. Participants attributed this to
several factors, with policies being a primary concern. Participant Nour remarked, “Our roles are conned by laws and work policies;
they dictate how we practice our profession.” Moreover, Aya and Ahmed pointed out that limited resources and logistical complexities
are signicant obstacles hindering their effective and desired professional practice. Participant Ahmed stated, “There are not enough
resources, and the work complications are many, along with bureaucracy. All these factors impede effective work.”
5.15. Enhancing living conditions for unaccompanied refugee children: social workers' perspectives and recommendations
The social workers have suggested forth insightful recommendations to enhance the living conditions of unaccompanied refugee
children in Jordan, drawing from their wealth of practical experiences. A unanimous focal point among them revolves around the
imperative need to ameliorate the nancial circumstances for both the children and their caregivers. Ensuring access to essential
resources for the children is perceived as a preventive measure, discouraging them from abandoning school for work, shielding them
from exploitation and abuse, and ensuring a life of dignity free from psychological pressures. Nour eloquently articulated this
perspective, asserting, “A regular stipend should be allocated for these children, enabling them to lead a dignied life, fulll their
needs, attend school, and refrain from resorting to undesirable means for nancial gain. This not only prevents them from falling
victim to exploitation but also alleviates the burden on the foster family or caregiver, fostering a positive environment that strengthens
their relationship.” Soha echoed these sentiments, emphasizing the necessity for a consistent income for each child, stating, “There
must be a steady and continuous income for each child among these children.” Ahmed emphasized that the responsibility of the
caregiver revolves around nurturing the child rather than bearing the nancial burden. Given that most foster families belong to the
same refugee community and thus face challenging economic conditions, providing nancial assistance to meet the child's needs is
crucial. Ahmed stated, “Families are not responsible for spending on these children; their task is to raise and care for them. They are
refugees facing difcult circumstances and in need of assistance. Providing a nancial allowance for each child helps the foster family
to focus more effectively on caring for the child, rather than grappling with the expenses of feeding and supporting them.” Continuing
his remarks, he added, “There must be a nancial allocation for each child, allowing the family to dedicate itself to the child's care,
instead of bearing the burden of their sustenance and expenses.”
The study participants unanimously underscored the imperative of engaging proactively with foster families and caregivers to
capacitate them comprehensively in the nuanced task of caring for unaccompanied refugee children. This entails augmenting their
parental aptitude and communicative prociency, instilling cognizance regarding the psychological and social idiosyncrasies inherent
in these children and providing sagacious guidance on effective modalities of interaction. Moreover, they advocated for a sustained
provision of psychosocial support coupled with regular convocations dedicated to the discourse of pertinent updates, challenges,
plausible solutions, and salient proposals. Marah emphatically contended, “Mandating instructional modules for caregivers aimed at
fortifying their parental dexterity and elevating their communicative prowess is indubitably imperative, thereby rening their modus
operandi when interfacing with this group of children.” Aya concurred, articulating, “The dissemination of cognizance amidst foster
families pertaining to the rights and concomitant responsibilities they shoulder in the context of childcare constitutes an indispensable
stride towards the efcacious instantiation of the foster care paradigm. The dearth of such cognizance contributes intricacy and
augments the complexity of the caregiving milieu.” The cadre of social workers not only proffered guidance but vehemently advocated
for unambiguous protocols in the event of transgressions against agreed-upon foster care policies or the contravention of children's
inviolable rights. Concomitantly, they emphasized the inexorable exigency of stringent scrutiny and accountability mechanisms
applicable to caregivers within both institutional and foster familial milieus. The rigorous imposition of these measures, they con-
tended, is indispensable in obviating any potential laxity or permissiveness that may inadvertently foment infringements upon the
rights and well-being of the children under alternative care. Mohammed expounded, “The linchpin for the fortication of children
living within alternative care lies in the unswerving enforcement of vigilance over both institutional bastions and foster familial
domains.” Mona lent credence to this assertion, afrming, “A systematic regimen of periodic surveillance delving into the myriad
facets of transpiring events within the precincts of foster households and institutional redoubts is sine qua non.” In a categorical
delineation of specicity, Soha articulated, “There exists an inexorable necessity to implement an exacting oversight regimen vis-`
a-vis
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orphanages, calibrated to rectify any deviations from the prescribed code of conduct in the care of unaccompanied children.”
Considering the study's ndings, all participants underscored the glaring deciencies in the educational and healthcare services
earmarked for unaccompanied refugee children. In offering solutions, Nora lamented the stark scarcity of educational opportunities,
particularly as children face intricate bureaucratic processes or are compelled to forgo school and enter the workforce for nancial
sustainability. Nour underscored, “Current educational opportunities for these children are exceedingly limited. Many are not
attending school due to complex administrative procedures or the necessity to work to support themselves.” Additionally, Nour
pointed out the inadequacies in healthcare services, characterizing them as notably feeble and limited. Subsequently, proposed so-
lutions aimed at addressing these challenges by advocating for free education and healthcare, with Ghassan emphasizing the necessity
of improving socio-economic conditions to enable these children's access to education. Ghassan asserted, “Education should be made
free for refugee children at all levels, coupled with initiatives to enhance their socio-economic conditions, ultimately facilitating their
enrollment in educational institutions.”
The prevailing sentiment among most participants emphasized the urgent need to strengthen available educational services.
Regarding healthcare, the proposal underlined the importance of establishing a comprehensive health insurance system within pro-
cient medical facilities, ensuring the well-being of every unaccompanied refugee child in their host country. Ahmed stressed the vital
importance of establishing such a healthcare provision, particularly for unaccompanied children residing with foster families, who lack
the health security provided within the camps and outside them, stating “Children in the camps have health security from the UNHCR,
while unaccompanied children living with foster families in the host society lack assurance. It is essential to implement a compre-
hensive healthcare provision for every unaccompanied refugee child in Jordan.”
Several Participants emphasized the imperative of heightening local community awareness regarding their responsibility in caring
for unaccompanied refugee children, framing it as a crucial social obligation. They argued that such endeavors would effectively
mitigate instances of rejection and bullying directed towards these vulnerable children. Marah underscored this perspective, articu-
lating, “Collaboration with the local community is indispensable for elevating their consciousness and steering them towards
recognizing the vital importance of nurturing, supporting, and refraining from rejecting, bullying, or exploiting this demographic.” She
further stated, “It is integral to their national identity—a duty that cannot be overlooked, necessitating enlightenment.” In addition,
Ghassan advocated for more stringent penalties, asserting, “There must be heightened consequences for anyone audacious enough to
exploit or inict harm upon these children. Ensuring their protection from those who seek to exploit their vulnerability is paramount.”
Nour proposed the integration of children into comprehensive training programs aimed at equipping them with the skills necessary
for social interaction, fostering their social skills, and aiding their integration and adaptation to the unfamiliar environment. She
emphasized, “It is imperative to provide children with training on effective social interaction, relationship-building, and empower
them to respond assertively in the face of threats or harassment. Specialized training programs tailored for children are an absolute
necessity.” Furthermore, the consensus among participants leaned towards acknowledging the necessity of training and preparing all
personnel, endowing them with the requisite skills, expertise, and competencies to adeptly manage the unique needs of this specic
group of children. Ahmed lent support to this perspective, stating, “Preparation of qualied staff, encompassing both academic and
practical dimensions, is essential for effectively addressing the distinctive requirements of these groups.”
In summation, participants proposed a comprehensive set of measures derived from extensive eld experience, aimed at
ameliorating the living conditions of unaccompanied refugee children. Their emphasis encompassed both theoretical and practical
facets of engaging with these children, underscoring the need for skill development and strict adherence to ethical principles. The
proposed initiatives emanate from direct engagement and protracted experience with these children, intending to positively impact
their adjustment to new life circumstances.
6. Discussion
The results explore the challenges faced by unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan, focusing on their psychosocial traits,
encountered challenges, and the role of social workers. Findings reveal profound psychological distress among these children,
impacting their social integration. Despite previous studies highlighting adaptability, this research emphasizes social isolation. Social
workers play a role in navigating these complexities, advocating for the children's comprehensive well-being. However, challenges
persist, necessitating policy reforms and enhanced support mechanisms. Insights and recommendations provided by social workers
underscore the urgent need for concerted efforts to improve the plight of unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan, ensuring their
rights and well-being are upheld.
6.1. The psychosocial traits of unaccompanied refugee children
The ndings of this study underscore the profound psychological and social repercussions experienced by unaccompanied refugee
children because of their harrowing and adverse experiences. Participants emphasize that the pressures and challenges these children
face have a detrimental impact on their psychological development, leading to a deterioration of mental health that signicantly
manifests in their social integration and interactions within the broader community. Among the psychological characteristics observed
in unaccompanied refugee children are profound sorrow, hostility, separation anxiety, fear, insomnia, eating disorders, and behavioral
and ethical disintegration. Notably, social loss and ineffective adaptation to their surroundings and new challenges emerge as pre-
dominant psychological features governing their behavior and social engagement.
Within the connes of these challenging circumstances, unaccompanied refugee children lack essential social skills and effective
communication, impeding their ability to forge connections with others and resulting in difculties adapting to their unfamiliar
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environment and daily challenges. Some exhibit animosity and resentment towards others, while others grapple with a sense of guilt
towards unfamiliar individuals, shouldering the responsibility for their care and meeting their basic needs.
Thus, it is evident that the psychological and social dimensions of unaccompanied refugee children demand urgent attention and
comprehensive intervention strategies. The intricate interplay between their traumatic experiences and the consequent psychological
manifestations necessitates a nuanced approach in addressing their unique needs and facilitating their integration into their new
societal context.
6.2. Challenges confronting unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan
The study results unequivocally afrm that unaccompanied refugee children grapple with myriad social challenges, with the most
prominent being the strain on their relationships with caregivers, leading to their erosion. Additionally, there is a pronounced tension
in their relationships with fellow children sharing their place of residence. This tension can be attributed, as per the ndings, to the
caregivers falling short in fullling their expected roles as surrogate parents. According to social role theory, the deviation of caregivers
from the expectations tied to their social status contributes signicantly to the creation of numerous challenges across all facets of the
lives of the children under their care. This nding stands in contrast to the study by Wade et al. (2012), which reported high levels of
adaptability among unaccompanied refugee children and their caregivers. Similarly, the study conducted by Malmsten (2014) diverges
from the aforementioned result by highlighting the satisfaction expressed by children towards their caregivers, recognizing the sub-
stantial effort invested in supporting and enhancing their cohesion.
The study revealed that social isolation and limited social relationships among unaccompanied refugee children are among the
paramount outcomes associated with social challenges. The ndings underscore a signicant deciency in the social networks of these
children, manifesting a clear inadequacy in their abilities to form social relationships and engage with others. This outcome aligns with
the observations made in the study conducted by Cochliou & Spaneas (2019), which highlighted shortcomings in meeting the social
needs of children, such as involvement in the surrounding environment and the establishment of friendship bonds. The discerned
weaknesses point to a broader concern regarding the social integration and adaptability of unaccompanied refugee children,
emphasizing the imperative for targeted interventions and support mechanisms to enhance their social well-being and developmental
trajectories.
Concerning the psychological aspect of unaccompanied refugee children, the study's ndings unveil a broad spectrum of psy-
chological challenges profoundly impacting the mental health of these individuals. Social specialists engaged in the study noted that
these children grapple with the anguish of separation, both from their families and their homelands. Moreover, they are susceptible to
various forms of psychological disorders, notably depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), disturbances in eating and
sleeping patterns, as well as challenges in memory and concentration. These outcomes align with the ndings of both Jensen et al.
(2015) and Jakobsen et al. (2014), emphasizing that the experiences of children undergoing separation from their families and close
associates signicantly contribute to the exacerbation of certain psychological disorders among them.
This conuence of evidence underscores the urgent need for targeted intervention strategies to address the intricate psychological
well-being of unaccompanied refugee children. The identied challenges demand nuanced and comprehensive approaches that
acknowledge the complex interplay of factors inuencing the mental health of these vulnerable individuals.
The study's ndings regarding the economic aspect shed light on a signicant and escalating scarcity in meeting the basic needs of
unaccompanied refugee children. This dire economic situation raises concerns about their access to amenities and luxuries. The
children's compelling circumstances force them into early engagement in the labor market, subjecting them to exploitation and
mistreatment from employers and customers alike. This aligns seamlessly with the observations made by Cochliou & Spaneas (2019),
who emphasized that the nancial challenges faced by these children render them vulnerable to human trafcking, as well as physical
and sexual violence.
The study results revealed a signicant dropout rate among these children from education in the destination country, a nding that
resonated with what Al-Bashir (2017) indicated in his study, stating that unaccompanied refugee children in the Shujrab camp do not
receive any form of formal education.
According to the study's ndings, the dropout from education can be attributed to two key factors. The rst factor is the inadequacy
in fullling children's rights to education in destination countries, aligning with the observations of Chochliou and Spaneas (2019) that
children do not adequately and effectively receive their educational rights in destination countries. The second factor is related to the
economic hardship faced by children, compelling them to work and limiting their presence within the educational environment
(Cochliou & Spaneas, 2019).
Consequently, the multifaceted challenges encountered by unaccompanied refugee children in their new lives in destination
countries encompass psychological, social, economic, educational, and health dimensions. This can be comprehensively understood
through the lens of role theory. The separation of these children from their biological families represents a profound loss of the
essential roles traditionally provided by primary caregivers, such as protection and nurturing. This shift in caregiving dynamics
profoundly inuences the children's developmental trajectories, affecting various dimensions of their lives, including biological,
psychological, and social development.
Moreover, these children are compelled to navigate the asylum process independently, integrating into unfamiliar environments
without familial support, which often requires them to assume responsibilities that deviate from conventional childhood roles. These
responsibilities may include employment instead of education, self-care, and occasionally caregiving for themselves or their siblings,
limiting opportunities for recreational activities and play.
In response, unaccompanied refugee children are typically integrated into alternative care systems within host nations, where
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surrogate caregivers assume responsibility for their well-being. It is crucial for these alternative caregivers to effectively fulll their
duties, ensuring a secure and stable environment for the children in line with established role theory. Conversely, the failure to provide
necessary support may exacerbate the challenges faced by these children, increasing their vulnerability to heightened psychological
and social risks.
6.3. The role of social workers with unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan
The ndings of this study illuminate the role of social workers in the lives of unaccompanied refugee children within alternative
care settings in Jordan. This conclusion aligns with the study conducted by Al-Makhamreh and Hutchinson (2018), which emphasized
the necessity of an active role for social workers with this group. The study's results suggested that social workers engaged with
unaccompanied refugee children in alternative care settings in Jordan predominantly focus on case management. This contrasts with
Zwebathu (2018) research, which demonstrated a broader spectrum of roles among social workers, including counselors and social
integration ofcers, emphasizing diversity based on specic work settings.
The role of social workers with this group encompasses two main aspects according to the study ndings: direct engagement with
the children, and navigating responsibilities within foster families and caregiving contexts.
Guardianship and Holistic Support: In the realm of direct engagement, social workers, often designated as case managers, are the
linchpin of support for unaccompanied refugee children. Their responsibilities encompass comprehensive evaluations of the children's
circumstances, nuanced understanding of their needs, and facilitation of necessary provisions. The case manager becomes a steadfast
companion, guiding the child through every phase of their asylum journey. Social workers usually craft detailed plans to guarantee
appropriate care and protection for unaccompanied refugee children. A segment of the results from Zwebathu (2018) study resonates
with the current ndings, emphasizing the signicant role of social workers in conducting essential assessments, encompassing needs
evaluation and risk assessment. This involves the crucial task of selecting the most suitable form of alternative care for the children, a
role identied in this study as “case management.”
Referral as a Cornerstone of Support: The ndings highlighted the pivotal role of referrals in meeting the diverse needs of
unaccompanied refugee children. Referrals serve as a crucial means of connecting children with specialized professionals. This
initiative-taking approach aligns with the participants' shared commitment to the comprehensive well-being of the children, extending
beyond basic needs to encompass mental and physical health.
Social Integration: Beyond Basic Needs: The ndings underscore the signicance of social integration for unaccompanied
refugee children, underscoring the imperative to assist them in building friendships, engaging with others, and preventing isolation.
Emphasizing the social dimension accentuates the role of social workers in fostering positive relationships within schools and com-
munities. Through the cultivation of social and communication skills, social workers make a substantial contribution to the children's
rapid adaptation, alleviating the difculties associated with seeking asylum and ameliorating the emotional distress stemming from
separation from family and friends. A study conducted by Zwebathu (2018) corroborated a parallel outcome, highlighting the role of
social workers in assisting unaccompanied refugee children in integrating into new social environments. This involvement extends to
fostering the development of their communication skills and expanding their social networks.
Foster Families and Caregivers: Facilitating Adaptation and Safety: In the realm of social work with foster families and
caregivers, the ndings highlighted the meticulous process of selecting suitable families, evaluating their readiness, and educating
them on effective childcare. This responsibility extends to ongoing monitoring, guidance, and assistance in overcoming challenges,
ensuring the care process aligns with planned objectives. The study illuminated the critical role of social workers in securing a stable
environment for the children's growth and intervening promptly in cases of suspected danger or abuse.
Despite the essential roles social workers play with unaccompanied refugee children, challenges persist in Jordan. Participants
identied policy constraints as a major concern, limiting their professional practice. Limited resources and logistical complexities
further hinder effective work.
6.4. Enhancing the well-being of unaccompanied refugee children: social workers' recommendations
The study's results reveal critical insights and recommendations provided by social workers to enhance the living conditions of
unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan. Drawing on their extensive practical experiences, the participants unanimously high-
lighted the urgent need to improve the nancial circumstances of both the children and their caregivers. This includes ensuring a
regular stipend for the children to discourage them from abandoning school for work, protecting them from exploitation, and fostering
a life of dignity free from psychological pressures. The participants emphasized that nancial assistance not only prevents exploitation
but also contributes to a positive environment within foster families or caregiving contexts. These recommendations are in accordance
with the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2005) and the Guidelines for Alternative Care
(SOS Children’s Villages, 2009), emphasizing the imperative to address the needs of unaccompanied refugee children and ensure their
rights as children take precedence over their status as refugees.
The study participants strongly advocated for engagement with foster families and caregivers to comprehensively capacitate them
in caring for unaccompanied refugee children. This involves enhancing their parental skills, improving communication, raising
awareness about the psychological and social complexities of these children, and providing ongoing psychosocial support. The par-
ticipants suggested mandatory instructional modules for caregivers, regular meetings to discuss updates and challenges, and the
dissemination of information about the rights and responsibilities associated with childcare. Furthermore, they stressed the need for
clear protocols in case of policy violations and the importance of accountability mechanisms for caregivers in both institutional and
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familial settings.
In response to the deciencies in educational and healthcare services, the participants proposed solutions to address these chal-
lenges. They highlighted the limited educational opportunities and complex administrative processes that hinder children's access to
schooling. Additionally, they pointed out the inadequacies in healthcare services, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive health
insurance system for unaccompanied refugee children. The proposal included advocating for free education, improving socio-
economic conditions to facilitate enrollment in educational institutions, and establishing a healthcare provision for every unaccom-
panied refugee child in Jordan.
In conclusion, the research emphasizes the myriad challenges confronting unaccompanied refugee children across social, psy-
chological, economic, educational, and health dimensions. It underscores the role of social workers in aiding them through these
difculties. Yet, it also acknowledges the constraints and limitations associated with this role.
7. Conclusion
The study's ndings on the psychosocial traits of unaccompanied refugee children highlight profound psychological and social
repercussions resulting from their harrowing experiences. The pressures and challenges faced by these children signicantly impact
their psychological development, leading to mental health deterioration that manifests in their social integration and interactions
within the broader community. Psychological characteristics observed include profound sorrow, hostility, separation anxiety, fear,
insomnia, eating disorders, and behavioral and ethical disintegration. Social loss and ineffective adaptation to their surroundings
emerge as predominant psychological features governing their behavior and social engagement.
This study, conducted in Jordan, focuses on the challenges of the unknown to explore the intricacies of the lives of unaccompanied
refugee children in Jordan. By breaking new ground, it enriches our understanding of this vulnerable population within the unique
context of Jordan.
This study assumes signicance not only at the national level but also within the Arab world, serving as a notable investigation into
the roles of social workers in addressing challenges encountered by unaccompanied refugee children. This regional importance en-
hances the broader impact and signicance of the research. Additionally, the study addresses a crucial knowledge gap, casting light on
the largely obscure and uninvestigated conditions of unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan. In doing so, it draws attention to a
segment that has been inadequately studied due to the complexities associated with obtaining approvals in this delicate eld.
While the study makes noteworthy contributions, it grapples within certain limitations. The relatively modest sample size is a point
of consideration. However, it is imperative to acknowledge that this limitation is a result of navigating challenges in obtaining ap-
provals from authorities and conducting interviews with participants. The constraints imposed by stakeholders have inuenced the
study's ability to engage a larger sample. Moreover, the study's sample focused on practitioners of social work functioning as case
managers rather than those operating under the title of social work specialists. This limitation arises from the organizational structure,
where all social work practitioners working with this group in Jordan operate under the umbrella of case managers. This highlights a
potential weakness in the professional practice of social work in this eld in Jordan.
The challenging landscape of obtaining approvals has also restricted the in-depth exploration of the conditions of unaccompanied
refugee children. While the study sheds light on their challenges, a call for a more detailed examination is warranted to provide a
comprehensive understanding of their experiences. Furthermore, the inability to record interviews constitutes a limitation of the study,
as it may lead to the loss of some participant-provided information. Nonetheless, researchers diligently tackled this challenge by
ensuring the second researcher was present during interviews to take notes, with participants' consent.
In Conclusion, despite these limitations, the study signicantly enriches our knowledge of the lives of unaccompanied refugee
children in the Arab world, particularly in Jordan.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sara Taha: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Resources, Project administration,
Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Manal Anabtawi: Supervision.
Tamara Al Wreidat: Writing – review & editing, Data curation.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Appendix A. Appendix
Interview Draft:
What are the primary challenges encountered by unaccompanied refugee children in Jordan, based on your experience working
with them?
Could you describe the psychological and social characteristics commonly observed in these children?
How do you perceive the relationship between the child and the caregiver typically? Is there mutual acceptance and adaptation
between them?
What are the prominent forms of mistreatment that children often face during their time in alternative care?
S. Taha et al.
Child Abuse & Neglect 154 (2024) 106868
21
How would you characterize the social relationships of unaccompanied children with others within their surrounding
environment?
Could you provide insights into the psychological well-being of unaccompanied children in various alternative care methods?
What are the primary roles you undertake while working with this group as a social worker?
Based on your experience, what suggestions do you have for enhancing the lives of these children and mitigating the challenges
they face?
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