Address to the Board of Governors
... In his first speech in charge of the World Bank, McNamara stated that the result of the UN's first 'decade of development ' (1960-70) was 'disappointing', since the benefits of growth had not flowed downwards, as the dominant doctrine preached (McNamara, 1968b). Rather, economic inequality between nations had increased, as well as the disparity of income within Third World countries. ...
... In addition to changes in the sectoral allocation, the new administration modified the geographic destination of loans. Although disbursements for Asia were intensified -in particular, to respond to the return of Indonesia as a World Bank client after the US-supported military coup which brought Suharto to power in 1968 (see Rich, 1994;Sharma, 2017) -McNamara (1968b indicated that operations in Africa and Latin should be doubled and tripled, respectively. ...
This article analyses the actions of the World Bank between 1968 and 1981, under the presidency of Robert McNamara, in the context of the Cold War and the directions of US foreign aid policy. It discusses the reasons for, and the means by which the World Bank led, the ‘assault on poverty’, with an emphasis on rural poverty. It problematizes the theory which supported this initiative, analysing its operationalization in the countryside; it discusses the principal format that it assumed, the reasons which propelled it, the political calculation which guided it, the interests at play, and the results that were reached. Finally, the article argues that the ‘assault on poverty’ slogan expresses the disposition and the willingness of the World Bank to intervene in domestic questions, aiming to alter, in a selective and focused manner, the condition of particular social groups in client countries, rather than improving the general conditions of economies. This in turn demanded the strengthening of its advisory, technical assistance and economic research functions. If McNamara's policy of fighting poverty can be considered a failure in economic and social terms (a diagnosis widely accepted in the literature), this article argues that, politically, it was successful by constructing the foundations for the neoliberal‐type focused social policies that were in vogue in the following decades.
... .; ^the World Bank, McNamara emphasized the potential developing country's-capacity to utilize its growing e ord , r ed e labor force productively is its strategy for developing dangersn three closely related problems of developits agricultural sector, with an appropriate emphasis ment unemployment, urbaizationand industrialion a labor-using capital-saving approach [2,8] . Seleczation [9]. Theeditors of The London Economist in tive mechanization to meet peak labor requirements, their last ssue of 1969 very graphically posedthe and intensive cropping is indicated as essential to problems: Inessencetheysuggestedthatthepotenabsorb the exploding labor force. ...
... In some of its India, with an estimated population of 525 million overcrowded cities there may be mob-led revolution, (mid-1968) and increasing by 21 million a year, faces as in France in 1789" [13].The Economist sets forth a very difficult future. As McNamara points out, "In it vision of a possible disastrous future as follows: India's Fourth Five-Year Plan, for example (the plan covering the years 1969-73), the estimate is that 19 "The main economic facts about agriculture are: (a) million new jobs will be created, but that 23 million over 60 percent of the labourforce ofthe world is at new workers will come into the labor force to compresent engaged in it, although with modem producpete for them" [9]. ...
Today, the need for economic development is self-evident to the millions of people in Asia, Africa and Latin America who suffer from malnutrition, are ill-housed, poorly educated, and either unemployed or grossly underemployed. The ultimate objective of economic development is to raise the standard of life – the quality of life - for the mass of the people, to widen their area of choice, to open up new opportunities for human well-being. The less developed countries have two-thirds of the 3.5 billion people but receive only 12.5 percent of the world's gross national product. Life appears to be an economic treadmill with the future blighted by an excessive rate of population growth for millions of people. India provides a good illustration of the problem. With an estimated population of 525 million at mid-1968, India had 15 percent of the world's population, 2.4 percent of the world's land area, hardly 2 percent of the world's income, and an annual per capita income level of around $75.
... Az ENSZ nyilatkozata(Egyesült Nemzetek Szervezete, 1974) azonban mégsem javasolt új intézkedéseket, hanem ugyanazt a párbeszédet ismételte meg, mint az előző szakaszban: foglalkoztatás és oktatás. Elmélete szerint a fejlesztést a túléléshez szükséges alapvető szükségletek kielégítésével kell kezdeni, majd a legszegényebbek termelékenységét kell növelni, hogy be lehessen őket vonni a gazdasági rendszerbe(McNamara, 1972). Jó munkahelyek és gazdasági növekedés; 9. Infrastruktúra és innováció; 10. ...
The Outlook paper presents Panica's 2023 study on the changing relationship between conceptual approaches to development and poverty reduction policies. In contemporary social policy discourses, the legitimacy of the institution of the 'state' is increasingly subject to critique. Although the state, including welfare systems, played a significant role in the modern civilisation process in Western Europe, the cultural-civilisational 'development' of society in Central and Eastern Europe was different from that in the West. Daniela Panica's study, presented below, was conceived with the intention of understanding the ideologies that aspired to welfare statehood in Romania. She argues that to model these processes, it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the eras of social policy, which can be best captured through chronological changes in the poverty reduction methods used.
... У својој студији долазе до сазнања да економски раст у раним стадијумима развоја не само да продубљује неједнакост дохотка, већ и доводи до погоршања апсолутног сиромаштва, смањивањем просечног дохотка сиромашних слојева популације. У свом говору пред Бордом гувернера Светске банке Роберт Макнамара (McNamara 1973), тада председник Светске банке, критиковао је приступ привредном развоју искључиво фокусиран на економски раст, будући да су током 1960-их земље у развоју оствариле стопу економског раста без преседана, која упркос томе није довела до побољшања економског положаја најсиромашнијих. Мере подстицаја економског раста у тим земљама доприносиле су увећању богатства за 40% становника, који су припадали богатијим слојевима. ...
Polazeći od različitih teorija ekonomskog rasta, autor u radu prikazuje ekonomsku nejednakost kao jedan od značajnih faktora koji utiču na ekonomski rast. Brojne su studije koje se bave uticajem ekonomskog rasta na ekonomsku nejednakost. Relativno manje pažnje posvećeno je analizi odnosa ova dva fenomena u obrnutom smeru. Osnovna pretpostavka od koje autor polazi je da, ako posmatramo uticaj ekonomske nejednakosti na ekonomski rast, ta veza ne može biti tako jednostavno determinisana i data kao konačna. Stoga se u radu nastoji ispitati koji su to kanali uticaja rasta nejednakosti na ekonomski rast, da li je taj uticaj direktan ili posredan. Autor na primeru Sjedinjenih Američkih Država razmatra pitanja uzroka rasta nejednakosti, kao i uzroke usporavanja ekonomskog rasta. U radu se pokušava dokazati da upravo ekonomska nejednakost predstavlja faktor ograničenja ekonomskog rasta Sjedinjenih Američkih Država.
... But how the internet is to help with the poverty problem is still under discussion. Martin Franklin (2006) uses McNamara's (1973) argument to show how ICT relates to poverty eradication programs in three ways. First, ICT is seen as tool to empower the poor; second, ICT must be given priority to support investment and development in selected areas; and, third, ICT is a way to change the mind-sets of the community, of political leaders and of the bureaucracy so they might see it as enabling a prime environment for productivity increases. ...
... International Development (1969), Partners in Development, Praeger, new York. 4. Mcnamara, Robert (1973, "address to the Board of Governors", 24 September, World Bank, nairobi; also Mcnamara, Robert (1975), "address to the Board of Governors", 1 September, World Bank, Washington, DC. ...
Preparations for the upcoming United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development (Habitat III) in Quito in October 2016 have included a wide range of meetings and work on a negotiated outcome document entitled “The New Urban Agenda”. This is intended to present a global consensus on the significance and challenges of human settlements, as well as a Global Plan of Action. What can reasonably be expected from these activities? Will a meaningful and substantively appropriate “new urban agenda” emerge from the discussions? If so, what is the likelihood that it can actually be implemented? Or is all this activity and expense a waste of time and human energy? This article examines the results of the Habitat I and Habitat II conferences, the weakness of the associated monitoring and evaluation, and the changing dynamics of human settlements since 1996. It provides a forward-looking assessment of both the likely results of Habitat III and the issues to be faced subsequently.
... Over the past 30 years, the growth of microfinance projects has been phenomenal. These projects were first recognized in the 1970s for their potential to reduce rural poverty in developing countries, but over the years they have reached the poor neighborhoods of developed countries as well (McNamara, 1973;Conlin, 1999). By 1997, microfinance projects had provided loan to 10 million households. ...
Microfinance projects now seek to achieve improvement in environmental quality in addition to poverty alleviation. Achievement
of these goals may depend upon the economic and environmental impact of microfinance businesses. This study is a quantitative
analysis of these outcomes for Ecodevelopment, an Indian microfinance project, which aims to prevent forest degradation by
poverty alleviation. The study divides businesses into perishable goods, non-perishable goods, simple skills, and special
skills and measures their economic outcome by two indicators, repayment percentage and continuity of businesses. The study
examines the effect of loan amount on the economic outcome of businesses. To quantify the environmental outcome, it analyzes
the use of firewood or fodder and release of pollutants by businesses. The results show that loan amount does not affect the
economic outcome, special skills have best performance, and skills cause less pressure on forest resources. These results
suggest the need for development of knowledge-intensive skills, involvement of institutions in the operations of business,
and inclusive policies for protected area management.
... When whole nations have stagnant or declining average per capita incomes, it will usually be found that the vast majority of the population falls into this group. In less-developed countries (let us say those in the self named Group of 77 whose representatives met in Lima in September 1975), a great proportion is in agriculture and/or lives in a backward region and/or is self employed. (Fhis last point o 1 self-employment is emphasized by Ahluwalia in Chenery et al. (1974), pp. ...
... In 1986 a World Bank study distilled the implications of a multi-year research effort to draw together a strategy for low-income housing in developing countries. This work grew out of the Bank's efforts over the previous 14 years to develop ways to support the urban poor through an extensive housing assistance program, an effort that was formally launched by Bank President McNamara's Nairobi speech on urban poverty (McNamara, 1975). As the study documents, the Bank had provided more than $4 billion to support housing assistance targeted for the poor, and had undertaken an extensive research effort to help structure that lending. 1 The study, by Mayo, Malpezi and Gross (1986), summarizes the research that went into developing this program, as well as the lessons learned from the Bank's shelter projects. ...
In 1986 the World Bank prepared a strategy for low-income housing in developing countries. This work grew out of the Bank's efforts to support the urban poor through an extensive housing assistance program that was launched by Bank President McNamara's speech on urban poverty. By that time, the Bank had provided more than $4 billion of such assistance, and had undertaken an extensive research effort to design support for that lending. Much has changed since that time, not only in the way the Bank provides shelter assistance, more than doubling its support since that review, but also in the changing consensus as to what shelter strategy should be. The authors review the emerging consensus. They examine three new research areas: the empirical analysis of the effects policy has on housing supply; the richer understanding of the effects that land market regulations have on specific projects and on the functioning of urban areas; and the alleged mysterious effects that de Soto, for example, claims that effective property rights have not only for shelter policy but for development more generally. The authors also examine the emergence of both a new financial innovation, micro-enterprise finance, and the increased emphasis given to project design based on community participation, showing how these approaches more fully reconcile the incentives faced by beneficiaries and donors. In sum, the authors argue that the evolving consensus on shelter strategy is not nearly as mysterious as some would claim. Housing markets in most developing countries remain highly idiosyncratic and constrained. Nevertheless, the evolving consensus on shelter strategy appears to recognize these idiosyncrasies and policy constraints as evidenced by the strong and improving performance of the Bank's shelter lending.
Com mais de 75 anos de história, o Banco Mundial tem evidenciado notável capacidade de crescer de maneira incremental, adaptando-se às mudanças da economia política internacional. Este artigo analisa a construção do Banco Mundial como ator político, intelectual e financeiro do desenvolvimento capitalista internacional, discutindo as formas pelas quais se deu essa construção, que meios principais foram utilizados, que contradições ele enfrentou e a quais pressões e interesses respondeu. A despeito da fachada técnica, o Banco sempre atuou, ainda que de diferentes formas, na interface dos campos político, econômico e intelectual, em função da sua condição singular de emprestador, formulador de políticas e indutor de ideias e prescrições sobre o que fazer em matéria de desenvolvimento capitalista. Nessa trajetória sinuosa, mas ascendente, o Banco assumiu um lugar central entre as demais agências de desenvolvimento nascidas após a Segunda Guerra Mundial. O texto se baseia em documentação primária e vasta bibliografia. O argumento central é o de que o Banco Mundial somente se consolida como agência de desenvolvimento com a gestão de McNamara (1968-81).
Public policy is analysis and synthesis. Yet communication straddles the two. The depth of analysis and rigour of synthesis is in tension with the efficacy of communication. Consequently, a strong policy requires a holonomic space that reduces tension. This paper illuminates that argument. It is a contrasted case study of two policy perspectives on Africa, motivated by the concept of public-private partnerships (PPP). The paper contrasts the nexus of Robert McNamara in the late sixties with the zeitgeist of the infrastructure gap at the unfolding of the new millennium. That contrast illuminates Africa’s failure to capture the fundamentals of PPP. Africa sees PPP as a subject of finance, not efficiency. The concept has been reduced to a yawning gap in finance. And a key reason for that myopic view is that banner called infrastructure gap. That flaw reflects not just weakness in the agency of policy. It also yearns for a holonomic space of policy. McNamara benefitted from the post-war space. After this paper was drafted, COVID-19 struck the world. This pandemic offers space for Africa (and the world) to mould thrusts of policy comparable to McNamara’s nexus.
Taking world society theory as our point of departure, we examine the effect of world culture on contraceptive use rates around the world. World-cultural rhetoric frames contraception as a necessity for economic development, a human rights issue, and a women’s health matter. Using data on contraceptive use among married women for a sample of 159 countries over the period from 1970 to 2012, we find that linkages to all three sets of discourses are associated with increased use of modern contraceptive methods, over and above countries’ sociocultural and economic characteristics. Nevertheless, we also find that world society influences vary across major cultural zones, defined in terms of predominant religions and geographic regions. World cultural effects are strongest in Orthodox Christian, Hindu, non-Western Protestant, and sub-Saharan African countries. There is no effect in Western and East Asian countries, where contraceptive use is comparatively high, or in zones such as non-Western Catholic nations, where the unmet need for contraception is often greatest. Compared to development and women’s rights rhetoric, health-based frames appear to have the broadest and most effective reach across cultural divides. Overall, however, we find that world society processes tend to produce cross-cultural convergence in contraceptive use rates.
Ziel eines jeden partizipatorischen Prozesses ist die bewusste Verschiebung strukturell verankerter Kompetenzen und Entscheidungsmacht von oben nach unten. Wie weit diese gehen bzw. gelingen kann und an welchen Stellen im System, hängt von ganz unterschiedlichen Faktoren ab. Eine erste, rasche Wirkungseinschätzung zur Partizipation in Gruppenprozessen lässt sich mit einer einfachen Fragenfolge vornehmen.
Can the PRSP process enhance pro-poor growth in developing countries? This question is addressed in a politico-economic framework considering political distortions both on the recipient and on the donor side. It turns out that PRSP processes can be a very useful tool to enhance pro-poor growth and to raise the welfare of the poor. This is the case if the international aid organizations have all necessary information to assess the political situation in recipient countries and to select the true representatives of the poor into the process. If they do not hold this information or if bureaucratic interests and public pressure reduce their incentive to obtain or use this information, PRSPs lose their effectiveness in achieving the desired objective.
This study seeks to investigate to identify the impact of shortage of water on the tail, end areas of the irrigation network. For the research study 320 respondents were randomly selected and nearly 107 from each category that is large medium and small farmer’s respondent. The sample further stratified respondents from all three reaches that is head middle and tail of main semi-irrigation channels and on the water courses level as well to capture the authentic picture of the water availability on each level of irrigation system. The observation of the study and data collected revealed that farmers on the head reaches benefit more from the supply of water from crop production compare to middle and tail reaches and middle reaches have more opportunity of having better irrigation water compare to the tail reaches however, the more sufferers are the tail reach farmers who get less water from crop production. Consequently, this situation cause’s absolute poverty to the farmers on the tail reaches of the irrigation water supply channels.
A recent article by Sol Benatar calls on the global health community to reassess its approach to twin crises of global poverty and climate change. I build on his article by challenging mainstream narratives that claim satisfactory progress in efforts to reduce poverty and improve health for all, and arguing that any eradication of poverty that is consistent with environmental sustainability will require a more explicit emphasis on the redistribution of power and wealth. I suggest that the global health community has been largely socialised into accepting that progress and future solutions can be attained through more neoliberal development, technological advancement and philanthropic endeavour and that a more critical global health is required. I propose three steps that the global health community should take: first, create more space for the social, political and political sciences within global health; second, be more prepared to act politically and challenge power; and third, do more to bridge the global-local divide in recognition of the fact that progressive change requires mobilisation from the bottom-up in conjunction with top-down policy and legislative change.
Defending a procedural conception of global justice that calls for the establishment of reasonably democratic arrangements within and beyond the state, this book argues for a justice-based understanding of social development and justifies why a democracy-promoting international development practice is a requirement of global justice.
Die Messung von Armut ist für staatliche Sozialpolitik von grundlegender Bedeutung, da sie zur Bestimmung der Zielgruppen sozialer Fürsorge- und Sicherungspolitiken unerlässlich scheint. Allerdings bleiben die Adäquanz der zugrundeliegenden Definitionen und die Gültigkeit der angewendeten Verfahren äußerst umstritten. In der sozialwissenschaftlichen Diskussion werden monetäre Armuts-Grenzwerte seit langem als reduktionistisch kritisiert, und es wird vorgeschlagen, sie durch multidimensionale, dynamische und partizipative Ansätze zu ergänzen oder ganz zu ersetzen. Das Entwicklungsprogramm der Vereinten Nationen nahm diese Kritik auf und verfolgt ein ganzheitliches „Human-Armuts“-Paradigma, dass Armut als Folge einer Verweigerung von Verwirklichungschancen fasst. In der öffentlichen Diskussion ebenso wie der praktischen Entwicklungspolitik dominiert dagegen weiterhin der Armuts-Grenzwert von einem US-Dollar (Kaufkraft-Parität) pro Person und Tag, den die Weltbank 1990 festlegte und 2005 auf 1,25 Dollar erhöhte. Aus unterschiedlichen Definitionen ergeben sich verschiedene Strategien und Zielgruppen der Armutsbekämpfung.
The Long Battle for Global Governance charts the manner in which largely excluded countries, variously described as 'ex-colonial', 'underdeveloped', 'developing', 'Third World' and lately 'emerging', have challenged their relationship with the dominant centres of power and major institutions of global governance across each decade from the 1940s to the present. The book offers a fresh perspective on global governance by focusing in particular on the ways in which these countries have organised themselves politically, the demands they have articulated and the responses that have been offered to them through all the key periods in the history of modern global governance. It re-tells this story in a different way and, in so doing, describes and analyses the current rise to a new prominence within several key global institutions, notably the G20, of countries such as Brazil, China, India and South Africa. It sets this important political shift against the wider history of longstanding tensions in global politics and political economy between so-called 'Northern' and 'Southern' countries. Providing a comprehensive account of the key moments of change and contestation within leading international organisations and in global governance generally since the end of the Second World War, this book will be of great interest to scholars, students and policymakers interested in politics and international relations, international political economy, development and international organisations. © 2016 Stephen Buzdugan and Anthony Payne. All rights reserved.
Foreign aid as an instrument through which a government attempts to strengthen the economy of another country is a relatively new phenomenon. The Marshall Plan, initiated in 1948, was the first major foreign assistance program. Developed hastily to revive the wartorn economies of Western Europe, the Plan distributed $13 billion over a period of 4 years. It succeeded beyond the greatest hopes of its initiators. This was followed by the commitment, in President Truman’s 1949 inaugural address, to “a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas” (Truman, 1949; Kennedy and Ruttan, 1986).
„Armut“ soll in diesem Beitrag nicht nur definitorisch umschrieben werden; es soll vielmehr herausgearbeitet werden, daß sie „drei Gesichter“ hat: ein individuell erlebtes, ein gesellschaftlich und staatlich geformtes sowie ein international und global bestimmtes. Diese drei Dimensionen von Armut sollen im folgenden ausführlich dargestellt werden, um Ansatzpunkte für eine differenzierte und dennoch umfassende Wahrnehmung und wissenschaftlichee Aufarbeitung des Problems zu gewinnen.
So far the discussion in this study has centered on the rules to be followed for project planning purposes if interpersonal income distribution considerations are not taken into account. Often, however, the purpose of a project is to raise the incomes of certain groups of people — rural poor, urban poor, target groups in particular regions, and the like. How should such projects be designed, evaluated and ranked?
Social and economic disadvantage is reviewed with particular reference to its impacts on education outcomes in the US, the UK and European countries. The factors which contribute to disadvantage such as wage levels, employment policies and changes in urban demographics are reviewed. The impact on children’s lives is highlighted. Special attention is paid to the nature of the home environment and its impact on children and their development. The costs of inequality borne by society at large are reviewed in the light of recent studies and major surveys. The influence of developed countries’ policies on development in developing countries and the impact of tax minimisation and avoidance are reviewed. The situation facing urban youth today is discussed.
Le projet Cambérène, en accord avec d'autres projets d'habitation financés par des prêts de la Banque mondiale, a mis plus de temps que prévu à démarrer son étape de consolidation. En mai 1984, douze ans après la signature de l'entente entre la Banque et le gouvernement sénégalais, seulement le tiers des parcelles était occupé. On estime à un cinquième seulement le nombre des occupants faisant partie de la populationcible de départ. Cet article tente d'analyser les raisons de cet écart entre les objectifs du projet et ses résultats. Les raisons possibles incluent le devis du projet, les conflits en matière de gestion politique, et des événements extérieurs comme la récession mondiale. Il conclut que le problème fondamental réside dans les différences de conception de la gestion politique entre le gouvernement du Sénégal et la Banque. Il soulève également les inconsistences dans les politiques internes de la Banque ainsi que dans celles du gouvernement.
Whether a country should try to improve human well-being of the masses or should concentrate solely on economic upliftment of the country is an alarming question in development economics. Survey of literature evidences a number of views in this respect. Present study uses the lagged dependent variable model to address the question. It attempts to find causal priority between human well-being and per capita gross real product (an indicator of economic achievement of a country). In this context it uses three core indicators of human well-being life expectancy at birth, infant survival rate and adult as well as three broad income groups: high, middle and low.
Photovoltaic (PV) applications for rural areas of developing countries are discussed in relation to PV systems technology, reliability, and present projected cost. The information presented is derived mainly from experience at the Lewis Research Center of the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with PV systems deployed with a variety of users for applications relevant to developing countries. A detailed description of two village power systems is included. Energy cost comparisons are presented for PV systems versus alternative energy sources. It is concluded, based on present PV systems technology, reliability and cost, that photovoltaics provide a realistic energy option for developing countries in both the near‐ and far‐term.
Cet article aborde les applications photovoltaïques dans les zones rurales des pays en développement en matière de technique de systèmesphotovoltaïques, de fiabilité et de coûts estimatifs actuels. Les données qui y sont présentées proviennent principalement de l'expérience acquise au Centre de recherches Lewis de l'Administration nationale de l'aéronautique et de l'espace (NASA), dans le domaine des systèmes photovoltaïques appliqués par divers utilisateurs à des situations d'intérêt spécial aux pays en développement. L'article fournit également une description détaillée de deux systèmes énergétiques ruraux. De plus, il établit des comparaisons de coûts d'énergie entre des systèmes photovoltaïques et des sources d'énergie de remplacement. L'article conclut que, étant donné la technique actuelle des systèmes photovoltaïques, leur fiabilité et leur coüt, ces systèmes constituent pour les pays en développement un choix réaliste en matière d'énergie à court et long terme.
En este artículo se discuten las aplicaciones fotovoltaicas en las zonas rurales de los paises en desarrollo teniendo en cuenta la tecnologia de los sistemas fotovoltaicos, su confiabilidad y su costo presente y proyectado. La información que se presenta se deriva principalmente de la experiencia en el Lewis Research Center de la Administracion de Aeronáutica y del Espacio de los Estados Unidos (NASA) con sistemas fotovoltaicos desarrollados para una variedad de usuarios en aplicaciones relativas a paises en desarrollo. Se incluyen descripciones detalladas de dos sistemas de suministro de electricidad para pequeños poblados. Se presentan comparaciones de costo para sistemas fotovoltaicos versus recursos energéticos alternativos. Basado en la tecnología, confiabilidad y costos de los sistemas fotovoltaicos, se concluye que dichos sistemas representan una opción energética realista para los paises desarrollados a mediano y largo plazo.
Any attempt to adapt Chinese public health and medical programmes to other societies must take account of at least two sets of factors. First, there must be an awareness of the problems which the Chinese have encountered in implementing their policies. Secondly, for programme transfer to be successful, there must be comparability of resources, values, social structure, and domestic political factors between China and the ‘recipient’. Few Third World countries have characteristics which make comprehensive adoption of the Chinese programme feasible. The model does serve a heuristic purpose, however; it specifies the dimensions along which change must occur before a comparable endeavor can be undertaken profitably.
Well-meaning national and international bureaucracies dispense foreign aid under conditions in which bureaucracy fails. The environment that created aid bureaucracies led those organizations to (a) define their output as money disbursed rather than service delivered, (b) produce many low-return observable outputs (glossy reports and "frameworks") and few high-return less observable activities like ex - post evaluation, (c) engage in obfuscation, spin control, and amnesia (always describing aid efforts as "new and improved") exhibiting little learning from the past, (d) put enormous demands on scarce administrative skills in poor countries. To change this unhappy equilibrium, policymakers in rich and poor countries should experiment with decentralized markets, matching those who want to help the poor with the poor themselves freely expressing their needs and aspirations.
In seeking answers to specific questions about nutrition programs, the planner faces a dilemma. Although prima facie nutrition, must have some impact on disease resistance, labor productivity, reproductive capacity, intellectual development and receptivity to education, the exact relationship is unknown. In other words, the production, which relates inputs (nutrition in this case) to outputs (say, labor productivity), has not been quantified. This paper documents an investigation that tried to derive a consensus of opinion among nutritionists, pediatricians and members of associated disciplines on possible changes in certain parameters of human performance in response to an investment program that could be fitted into a planning model. The authors decided to experiment with the Delphi technique. This method calls for interaction of a group of experts under controlled conditions in an attempt to obtain a consensus on certain quantitative estimations.
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