Red, White, and Spooked: The Supernatural in American Culture
Abstract
America has always attempted to define itself through a network of invented myths and national narratives. Historically, this national mythmaking has focused on the building of the nation itself as a sort of grand adventure, as in the notion of manifest destiny, or the taming of the western frontier. This project has also naturally led to a focus on individual heroes, often playing the role of savior and redeemer in ways with clear religious resonances: Christ andShaneand Superman, for instance, all share key characteristics. At the same time, these superheroes have often been adolescents, designed to appeal to younger audiences as well. Other hero myths have been more down-to-earth, focusing on heroes who fight against evil, but in a more modest way, as in the case of the hardboiled detective.Red, White, and Spookeddetails the development of our national myths in an effort to try and see what these fantasies can reveal about what it means to be American today, and what we want it to mean.
Beginning with John Winthrop's city upon a hill sermon in 1630, American culture has been informed by a sense of its own exceptional nature. The notion of the Western hemisphere as a new world, a place filled with possibility and even magic, goes back to the initial voyages of Columbus, while the American Revolution gave even more impetus to the idea that the United States was a special place with a unique mission. As a result, America has always attempted to define itself through a network of invented myths and national narratives.Red, White, and Spookeddetails the development of our national myths which can be seen underlying the genres of country and film noir, the characters of Superman, Batman, and Spiderman, television hits likeDeadwoodandNYPD Blue, and thePirates of the CaribbeanandLord of the Ringsfranchises as well.
This culture-spanning investigation begins with a historical survey of supernatural and superhuman themes in American culture, concluding with the recent upsurge that began in the 1990s. It then turns to a number of thematic chapters that discuss various works of recent popular culture with supernatural and superhuman themes - such asThe X-Files, Smallville, The 4400, Medium, Heroes, Lost, andThe Dead Zone- organized according to the desires to which these works commonly respond. The object here is to try and see what these fantasies can reveal about what it means to be American today, and what we still want it to mean.
... However, the topic remains popular throughout the year. This theme is prominent in American culture (Baker & Bader, 2014;Booker, 2009) and has become pronounced worldwide (Molle & Bader, 2013). ...
... Paranormal belief now unsurprisingly spans the spectrum from local neighborhoods to celebrity circles (Clarke, 2012). Ghosts are consequently ubiquitous in contemporary American life (Booker, 2009;Heffter, 2014;Wadler, 2008)-a continuous presence (Peeren, 2010) that is socially-acceptable (Hanks, 2015;Pierce, 2012). The experience narrative, in turn, contributes to the construction of social reality (Childs & Murray, 2010;Goldstein et al., 2007;Ironside, 2016;Mayer & Grunder, 2011). ...
A review of nearly 20 years of sociocultural research and trends on "ghostly episodes" (ghosts, haunted houses, and poltergeists) suggests that personal accounts, group investigations, and popular depictions of anomalous experiences function as active, meaningful, and potent cultural memes. These, in part, reflect interpersonal or group dynamics grounded in Durkheimian models, as well as Social Identity and Conflict theories. Expanding on and integrating these themes, this paper provides a general framework that explains the enduring popularity of ghost narratives in terms of their versatility, adaptability, participatory nature, universality, and scalability (VAPUS model). This perspective implies that ghostly episodes, as experiences and narratives, embody and exemplify the marketing concepts of "brand personality" and consumer engagement. Accordingly, social and cultural influences are discussed as important and inherent contextual variables that help to produce, promote, shape, and sustain these narratives.
... However, the topic remains popular throughout the year. This theme is prominent in American culture (Baker & Bader, 2014;Booker, 2009) and has become pronounced worldwide (Molle & Bader, 2013). ...
... Paranormal belief now unsurprisingly spans the spectrum from local neighborhoods to celebrity circles (Clarke, 2012). Ghosts are consequently ubiquitous in contemporary American life (Booker, 2009;Heffter, 2014;Wadler, 2008)-a continuous presence (Peeren, 2010) that is socially-acceptable (Hanks, 2015;Pierce, 2012). The experience narrative, in turn, contributes to the construction of social reality (Childs & Murray, 2010;Goldstein et al., 2007;Ironside, 2016;Mayer & Grunder, 2011). ...
A review of nearly 20 years of sociocultural research and
trends on “ghostly episodes” (ghosts, haunted houses, and poltergeists)
suggests that personal accounts, group investigations, and popular
depictions of anomalous experiences function as active, meaningful,
and potent cultural memes. These, in part, reflect interpersonal or
group dynamics grounded in Durkheimian models, as well as Social
Identity and Conflict theories. Expanding on and integrating these
themes, this paper provides a general framework that explains the
enduring popularity of ghost narratives in terms of their versatility,
adaptability, participatory nature, universality, and scalability
(VAPUS model). This perspective implies that ghostly episodes, as
experiences and narratives, embody and exemplify the marketing
concepts of “brand personality” and consumer engagement.
Accordingly, social and cultural influences are discussed as important
and inherent contextual variables that help to produce, promote,
shape, and sustain these narratives.
... However, substantial issues remain with citizen scientist groups and the appropriate use of the equipment necessary to measure EMF. Equipment is often used by Amateur Research and Investigation Groups (ARIGs) during ghost hunts (Baker & Bader, 2014;Booker, 2009;Hill, 2017;Hill, 2010;Houran, 2017;Potts, 2004). Electromagnetic Field (EMF) meters are discussed in ghost hunting guides and are used extensively by ARIGs (Hill, 2017;Parsons, 2015;Taylor, 2007). ...
There has been little to no environmental and experience data collected at randomlyselected non-haunted control sites despite the call for researchers and field investigatorsto do so over twenty years ago. Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) and their associationand correlation with haunted locations and haunt-type phenomena have been studiedby both academics and hobbyist ghost hunters/paranormal investigators. The field hasprogressed over the years with mixed results and some within site controls. However,there is still a lack of data collected at non-haunted control locations, and many questionsremain on how to collect and analyze baseline data. The current study was conducted tocollect multi-hour multiple-run baseline EMF data to explore EMF profiles and to betterunderstand how EMF readings can vary temporally across a 3-axis EMF meter at a nonhauntedcontrol site. Results showed that a non-haunted control site had complex timevaryingmagnetic fields during long-term data collection periods at various days andtimes, similar to locations deemed to be anomalous. Limitations of the study are noted,and future research is suggested.
... Sinclair & Ashkanasy, 2005), i.e., creatively constructed partly from tacit knowledge accumulated through experience and cultural learnings, combined with a psychophysiological ability to access sensory and affective elements (MacKinnon, 1971;Rugg, 1963;Zausner, 1988 Group 5: Illicitrespondents with no prior ghostly experiences asked to concoct a bogus but seemingly convincing account. This slightly resembles the "fantasy" group above, except that narratives here would arguably cater more to social approval or cultural norms (e.g., Counts, 1983), especially as related to the characterization of paranormal themes in popular culture (Booker, 2009;Edwards, 2001 Respond to the survey below in a way that you think would best convince the producers that you really do live in a genuine haunted house and thereby win a spot on the show" ...
Using a sample of self-reported “spontaneous” accounts (ostensibly sincere and unprimed, N = 426), we calibrated a 32-item, Rasch-based “Survey of Strange Events (SSE)” to quantify the phenomenology of ghostly episodes while assessing response biases related to experients’ age and gender. This inventory included psychological experiences typical of haunts, and physical manifestations common to poltergeist-like disturbances. Results supported earlier suggestions that “spontaneous” accounts have a predictable (cumulative) behavioral pattern and show a unidimensional factor structure. Further, compared to spontaneous accounts, we identified strong response biases on the SSE across four control conditions (i.e., Lifestyle, Primed, Fantasy, and Illicit). Statistical modeling successfully predicted group memberships with good accuracy, corroborating that spontaneous experiences differ systematically in certain ways from “impostors.” The SSE is a robust measure of overall intensity of ghostly episodes (Rasch reliability = 0.87) and serves as a standard operationalization of specific anomalies in surveys, fieldwork studies, and investigations that code free-response data or spontaneous case material for quantitative analysis.
... As such, spectral themes frequently appear in the popular media and academic literature. All of this serves to promote ghosts and haunted houses as pervasive cultural narratives (Edwards, 2005;Goldstein et al., 2007;Booker, 2009;Lecouteux, 2012;Bader, 2017), which can become highly engaging memes (Hill et al., 2018Drinkwater et al., 2019). ...
This paper contains a narrative overview of the past 20-years of environmental research on anomalous experiences attributed to “haunted house.” This exercise served as a much-needed update to an anthology of noteworthy overviews on ghosts, haunts, and poltergeists (Houran and Lange, 2001b). We also considered whether new studies had incorporated certain recommendations made in this anthology. Our search revealed a relative paucity of studies (n = 66) on environmental factors that ostensibly stimulate haunt-type experiences. This literature was diverse and often lacked methodological consistency and adherence to the prior suggestions. However, critical consideration of the content revealed a recurring focus on six ambient variables: embedded (static) cues, lighting levels, air quality, temperature, infrasound, and electromagnetic fields. Their relation to the onset or structure of witness reports showed mostly null, though sometimes inconsistent or weak outcomes. However, such research as related to haunts is arguably in its infancy and new designs are needed to account better for environmental and architectural phenomenology. Future studies should therefore address four areas: (i) more consistent and precise measurements of discrete ambient variables; (ii) the potential role of “Gestalt influences” that involve holistic environment-person interactions; (iii) individual differences in attentional or perceptual sensitivities of percipients to environmental variables; and (iv) the role of attitudinal and normative influences in the interpretation of environmental stimuli. Focused scrutiny on these issues should clarify the explanatory power of evolutionary-environmental models for these and related anomalous experiences.
... The Paranormal in Popular Culture "Ghosts and haunted houses" are pervasive cultural narratives (Bader, 2017;Blanco & Peeren, 2013;Booker, 2009;Edwards, 2005;Goldstein et al., 2007;Lecouteux, 2012) that can act as highly engaging memes S. A. Hill et al., 2018. Some cognitive and evolutionary psychologists have even argued that human beings are neurologically "hard-wired" for anomalous, mystical, or numinous experiences (J. ...
We review the premise, popularity, and profitability of paranormal tourism, which involves visits to any setting or locale for the explicit purpose of encountering apparent supernatural phenomena for leisure, investigation, services, products, or conventions. This niche sector can offer an inherently engaging conceptual framework for seasonal or year-round space activation and monetization by businesses situated in specific settings or cities. On a broader level, the niche also illustrates how tourism–hospitality brands and operations can navigate and even capitalize on three paradigm shifts that have disrupted contemporary markets, that is, the mobilities, performative, and creative turns. This assertion is underscored with a case analysis of a historic site that successfully leveraged paranormal themes as part of its space reactivation and rebranding. Finally, our market study suggests that the success factors of paranormal tourism might indicate a fourth paradigm shift across the wider tourism–hospitality industry, whereby the experience economy is transforming to an enchantment economy.
... Objective comprises apparent object movements, malfunctioning of electrical or mechanical equipment, and inexplicable percussive sounds like raps or knockings (for reviews of these S/O anomalies see e.g., Dagnall, Drinkwater, Denovan, & Parker, 2015;Drinkwater, Dagnall, Denovan, & Parker, 2019;Houran, 2000). We should also emphasize that paranormal attributions by witnesses to these "signs or symptoms" are not surprising given the prevalence of "ghosts" as both beliefs and memetic cultural narratives (Bader, 2017;Booker, 2009;Goldstein, Grider, & Thomas, 2007;Hill et al., 2018Hill et al., , 2019. ...
Research suggests a “Haunted People Syndrome (HP-S)” defined by recurrent and systematic perceptions of anomalous subjective and objective anomalies. Such signs or symptoms are traditionally attributed to “spirits and the supernatural,” but these themes are hypothesised to morph to “surveillance and stalking” in reports of “group-(or gang) stalking,” We tested this premise with a quali-quantitative exercise that mapped group-stalking experiences from a published first-hand account to a Rasch measure of haunt-type anomalies. This comparison found significant agreement in the specific “signs or symptoms” of both phenomena. Meta-patterns likewise showed clear conceptual similarities between the phenomenology of haunts and group-stalking. Findings are consistent with the idea that both anomalous episodes involve the same, or similar, attentional or perceptual processes and thereby support the viability of the HP-S construct.
... Similarly, post 2001, popular ghost movies, such as The Others, (Amenabar, 2001), Insidious (Whannell & Wan, 2010), Sinister (Derrickson & Cargill, 2012) and The Awakening (Volk & Murphy, 2011), peaked interest and fueled aspirations. Supernatural-themed media reflected a need for re-enchantment, making up for the lack of magic and emptiness in real life (Booker, 2009). The universal popularity of the Harry Potter canon is a notable illustration (Hanks, 2015). ...
We continue our integrative review of nearly 20 years of sociocultural research and popular trends on ghosts, haunted houses, and poltergeists (collectively termed "ghostly episodes") that commenced in Part I (Hill, O'Keeffe, Laythe, Dagnall, Drinkwater, Ventola, & Houran, 2018). That analysis characterized the powerful brand personality of ghost narratives in terms of their Versatility, Adaptability, Participatory nature, Universality, and Scalability. This VAPUS model emphasizes that these narratives serve as cultural memes which, in part, reflect interpersonal or group dynamics. We illustrate these themes via three analyses that explore the role of the media, the use of technology to legitimatize amateur organizations, and the resulting conflict between popularized ghost-hunting groups, skeptic organizations, and parapsychology. Optimistically, we expect the VAPUS model can guide the development of new means or methods that aim to delineate and even bridge some of the competing social forces that shape or sustain these narratives in the popular culture and thereby constructively advance research in this domain.
... Bolstering and complicating the issue above is the plethora of selfstyled and techno-focused 'ghost-hunting' or tour clubs (Baker & Bader, 2014;Booker, 2009;Hill, 2010;Potts, 2004), which seem presently to define this domain for the mass media and lay-public. Whereas parapsychologists might fall prey to 'gadget envy' passively, these groups seem to succumb to it actively. ...
This essay explores factors that arguably hinder progress in the domain of parapsychology that deals with ghostly episodes-apparitions, haunts and poltergeist-like outbreaks. An infatuation with gadgets and hardware, a sensationalized public image and a lack of consistent, cumulative theory-building all individually and collectively seem to constrain the active adoption and application of other approaches that are more concerned with 'substance over style'. Indeed, this modern era of analytics opens new avenues in methodology and modeling. Examples of this potential are reviewed and discussed. Ultimately, it is proposed that multidisciplinary, collaborative research programs equally focused on psychometric and environmental variables are required to achieve a cohesive, scientific explanation for these phenomena.
The VAPUS model (Hill et al., 2018, 2019) characterizes the powerful "brand personality" of ghost narratives in terms of their Versatility, Adaptability, Participatory Nature, Universality, and Scalability. This suggests that these narratives act as cultural memes that partly reflect interpersonal or group dynamics. We use these themes in a review and conceptual synthesis of key literature to address the phenomenon of "gaslighting," which denotes the determined efforts of an influencer to alter the perceptions of a targeted individual. Modelling ghost narratives as psychosocial constructions implies malleability via attitudinal and normative influences. Accordingly, we specify and discuss two apparent manifestations of this narrative plasticity, i.e., "positive (reinforcing) gaslighting" (i.e., confirmation biases) or "negative (rejecting) gaslighting" (i.e., second-guessing or self-doubt). These ideas clarify some Trickster-type effects and imply that all ghost narratives likely involve gaslighting to an extent.
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