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http://ijhe.sciedupress.com International Journal of Higher Education Vol. 13, No. 3; 2024
Published by Sciedu Press 1 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
Flow, Fear, and Classroom Modality: Student Experiences in a University
Environmental and Sustainability Film Course
Michael W. Everett1 & Crystal L. Eustice1
1 Department of Community Sustainability, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
Correspondence: Michael W. Everett, Department of Community Sustainability, East Lansing, Michigan, 48824,
USA. Tel: 1-517-581-5888. E-mail: everettm@msu.edu
Received: April 26, 2024 Accepted: May 28, 2024 Online Published: May 30, 2024
doi:10.5430/ijhe.v13n3p1 URL: https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v13n3p1
Abstract
When the words climate change, environment, and sustainability are used in conversations today, they typically elicit
engaging dialogue among the current generation of university students. One common thread among these
conversations is that students are looking to course faculty for answers as their fears are cause for concern. The purpose
of this research was to determine if relationships existed between students in an environmental and sustainability film
course through the modality in which they took the course, level of fear, and whether individuals exhibited flow
experiences during the course. Fear and flow are socio-psychological constructs related to individuals having: (a) a
level of fear or concern related to a specific instance or event in time, and (b) a perceived level of skill associated
related to an activity and a level of challenge that individuals have that is associated with the same activity. Results
indicate that occurrences of flow most often occurred in the online modality of learning by students. Additionally,
students’ fear levels corresponded to flow occurrences for the online modality of the learning by students. This case
study supports previous research that fear, and flow can be positive experiences for students when considering
pedagogical practices in teaching and learning.
Keywords: flow, fear, film, environmental, sustainability, modality
1. Introduction
The recent COVID-19 pandemic has provided an opportunity to consider how a university education can be delivered.
These opportunities include considerations about the definition of a classroom, where classroom teaching and learning
occurs, and in what settings students are most motivated to learn. Understanding learners and opportunities to improve
pedagogical approaches has always and continues to be an evolving process. COVID-19 simply expedited these
processes and the different ways in which we educate individuals (Everett et al., 2021). Use of film as a pedagogical
approach is one unique way to deliver content and motivate students to learn. As such, it may also be a contributor to
the elicitation of a broad scope of positive emotional responses by students. These emotional responses include having
both perceived levels of fear and flow during educational experiences related to course content (Everett et al., 2023).
According to Galbraith and Rodriguez (2018), utilization of film as an educational approach in course curriculum
heightens students’ sensitivity towards themes of course content while stimulating discussion about subject matter.
Elicitation of experiences where fear is a consistent part of the film’s message may be another way for students to
achieve these flow experiences (Zupan & Eskritt, 2020) where flow is defined as “being in the zone” through the
effortless action of an individual (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Concomitantly, satisfaction of cognitive needs may also
be amplified with increased peak-experiences during moments of fear (Maslow, 1963) or antecedents related to
positive flow experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). Literature indicates that unique instructional approaches such as
film may have the ability to increase incidences of flow (Everett et al., 2023). According to Jang et al. (2020),
elicitation of fear may be critical to learning course content associated with the worldwide grand challenges of climate
change, food insecurity, alternative energy solutions, and the creation of sustainable energy systems (Everett et al.,
2023). When used together, flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) and the theory of fear in communication (Leventhal,
1970) have the potential to better understand and support student motivation when using film as a pedagogical
approach to learning. If implemented with efficacy statements and problem-solution questions, these approaches have
the potential to develop individuals and future leaders in their respective career pathways (Sprinkle et al., 2006).
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Published by Sciedu Press 2 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
1.1 Course Modality
Course modality and how content is delivered has been a topic of recent discussion with the onset of the COVID-19
pandemic. Online, in-person, and hybrid modalities have all been proven valuable forms of instructional approaches
during this worldwide change in education (Banks & Vergez, 2022). However, questions still exist as to what type of
instruction is best for specific courses and delivery of course content from a learning perspective. In a recent study by
Everett et al. (2021), students preferred in-person learning experiences over online learning as a function of flow
experiences (e.g., “being in the zone”) and being transported into the academic narrative (e.g., narrative transport) prior
to moving course content to an online experience due to the pandemic. Research by Banks and Vergez (2022) support
these results by indicating that there were student differences between achievement and perception based on course
modality. This study also concluded that students preferred an in-person classroom setting in a STEM-based
undergraduate course (Banks & Vergez, 2022).
1.2 Flow Theory
Being in the zone! This catch phrase has been used in many contexts including participation in athletics (Orta et al.,
2017), academics (Everett et al., 2023), and recreational activities (Everett & Gore, 2015). “Being in the zone” and
related constructs of flow theory in the context of learning occurs when: (a) perceived skills and challenge meet the
demands of the activity; (b) there are clear goals related to activities; and (c) immediate feedback is provided at the
conclusion of the activity (Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). Csikszentmihalyi (1975) developed flow theory as a
methodological approach in conjunction with the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) to better understand human
behavior and when incidences of flow occur in everyday life. The ESM was developed to measure participant flow
experiences during various activities (Hektner et al., 2007). Recent developments in published research by Everett and
colleagues has indicated that “being in the zone” consistently occurred during specific themes of content when film
was used as a pedagogical approach (Everett et al., 2020; Everett et al., 2021; Everett et al., 2023).
1.3 Fear in Communication Theory
In today’s society fear is a behavior that seems to be consistent with topics related to war (Kurapov et al., 2023),
climate change (Ballet et al., 2023), or other dramatic and often contentious human-induced events (Boddez et al.,
2021). As such, communicating fear is a critical aspect of information consumption and delivery of content today
(Ahorsu et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2020; Montano & Carr, 2021). Recent examples include the fear of contracting
COVID-19 made prominent in social media posts (Lin et al., 2020), natural disaster related fears (Montano & Carr,
2021), and fears related to films about the climate crisis and unsustainable energy production (Everett et al., 2023). As
such, narratives and storylines using the medium of film have the potential to not only educate students through fear in
communication, but also increase potential for flow experiences (Everett et al., 2023).
Film-related instructional experiences may have the potential to: (a) increase persuasion through fear arousing
communication, (b) decrease coping ability of fear-induced situations, and (c) exasperate external factors associated
with specific fears (Leventhal, 1970). Therefore, most fear communication research is associated with humanistic
threats such as a description of the danger and associated avoidance of an event (Leventhal, 1970). According to
Leventhal (1970), attitudinal items should measure beliefs related to the danger (e.g., specific tornadoes and
hurricanes), evaluation of its magnitude (e.g., higher mean temperatures during a given year) and personal relevance
(e.g., changing ecosystems and how this relates to ways of living) to support the effects of the information.
This study sought to utilize flow theory and fear in communication theory to determine relationships between in-person
and online course modalities where film was the focused instructional approach used in a university undergraduate
course. The study was guided by the following research questions.
(1) What modality of learning elicited flow experiences and levels of fear in students?
(2) What movie themes and modality of instruction produced experiences of flow and levels of fear in students?
(3) What relationships exist between student modality, flow, and fear in an undergraduate university environmental
and sustainability course?
2. Methodology
Data for this population study were collected at Michigan State University in the fall semester of 2021 in a 200-level
course offered within the Department of Community Sustainability in the College of Agriculture and Natural
Resources. The course was taught using a multi-modality approach where students could participate either online
asynchronously or in-person. The course was open to all undergraduates at the University as a programmatic elective.
There were 172 undergraduates enrolled in the course and students voluntarily elected to participate in this research
http://ijhe.sciedupress.com International Journal of Higher Education Vol. 13, No. 3; 2024
Published by Sciedu Press 3 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
study. The flow and fear research instrument for this study utilized a previously developed survey by Everett et al.
(2023). The Michigan State University Institutional Review Board deemed this study exempt from human subject’s
protocols.
For this study, 172 students completed 295 flow and fear surveys, which amounted to a response rate of 11.4% (15
measured class sessions x 172 = 2580 total potential responses). On average, 19.7 responses were collected during each
class session during the semester. Previous research by Everett et al. (2023) had a response rate of 20.6% for
comparison in a course using a multi-modality teaching approach (e.g., students could attend in-person or online).
Though this response rate was less than the Everett et al. (2023) study, this methodological approach and derived data
was deemed reasonable for an online population survey response rate. As this study was voluntary to eliminate
response bias, student respondents were encouraged, but not required to participate in this study. These response rates
in voluntary ESM studies were also compared to previous research where incentivizing participation did not occur and
results were deemed acceptable (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 2014; Hektner et al., 2007).
This study utilized an electronic survey platform for data collection of flow (Hektner et al., 2007) and fear (Everett et
al., 2023). A Likert type scale interval (5-Point) survey was utilized to simplify options for filling out instrument
questions. Scale options for each item ranged from 1 – Not Agree to 5 – Very Much Agree using an online survey
platform. Three faculty from the Department of Community Sustainability reviewed the adapted ESM instrument
(Hektner et al., 2007) for flow and fear (Everett et al., 2023) constructs to ensure appropriate categories and themes
were based on course content subject matter. There were 9 items in the instrument where the value for Chronbach’s
Alpha for the survey was = 0.87. Previous research by Everett and colleagues supports this instruments’ internal
consistency (Everett et al., 2023).
Data were collected each week of the semester using an electronic survey platform system. An electronic
event-contingent sampling approach was used as a means to collect ESM participant data (Hektner et al., 2007). At the
first course session, student participants were provided with instructions prior to taking the first flow and fear survey
(Table 1). At the conclusion of the first film, student participants were sent an electronic consent form and survey link
and asked to fill out the items at the conclusion of each movie. All data were collected through the Qualtrics survey
software system which provided an anonymous platform for data collection (QualtricsXM, Provo, UT). Survey data
were categorized by film themes including: (a) climate systems, (b) food systems, (c) energy systems, (d) sustainability
systems movies, and (e) student developed films (Table 2). During the three-student developed film class sessions,
students viewed the top 20 videos as selected by the instructor and voted on the film they thought most appropriately
represented the assigned theme for each of the three class sessions. The three film themes included a 1-minute film on
personal sustainability beliefs, a 2- to 3-minute film about climate change, and a 3- to 5- minute film production about
any of the four themes of the course (e.g., food, climate, energy, or sustainability). Examples of student films included
energy consumption habits and reduction recommendations from home and how climate change occurred through the
observational lens of being on the Michigan State University campus.
2.1 Data Analysis Procedure
Dependent Variables. Flow was categorized into four-channels (e.g., anxiety, apathy, boredom, and flow) based on
measurements of perceived student challenge and skill. The variable of flow was categorized into the measures of
challenge and skill to determine the socio-psychological channel of respondents (Figure 1). Flow was calculated by the
comparison of individual challenge to skill (Items 8-9) levels perceived by respondents with respect to the average
challenge and skill levels by film or class session. As indicated in previous research (Everett et al., 2023), observation
of anxiety occurred when individual challenge was greater than or equal to average challenge and individual skill was
less than average skill. Observed apathy was defined when individual challenge was less than average challenge and
skill ratings and were greater than or equal to average skill at the conclusion of the film. Observed boredom occurred
when perceived individual challenge and skill was less than both average challenge and skill, and observed flow
occurred when both individual challenge and skill were greater than or equal to both average challenge and skill at the
end of the film. Appropriate individual experiences and associated channels (i.e., anxiety, apathy, boredom, and flow)
were then categorized within the four-channel model (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988, Figure 1). A
chi-square test of association was used to determine relationships between flow constructs by film theme.
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Published by Sciedu Press 4 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
Table 1. Fear and Flow Instrument
Item #
Flow and Fear Item Questions
While watching the movie(s) today I…
1
I am most afraid of this movie topic.
2
It makes me uncomfortable to think about this movie topic.
3
My hands become clammy when I think about this movie topic.
4
I am afraid of losing my life because of this movie topic.
5
When I watch stories about this movie topic on social media, I become nervous or anxious.
6
I cannot sleep because I’m worrying about this movie topic.
7
My heart races or palpitates when I think about this movie topic.
8
I feel challenged by the content of the movie.
9
I feel as though I am skilled or competent in the content of the movie.
Note. Items 1-7 measure the construct of fear in film and items 8-9 measure flow.
Table 2. Movie title and movie theme
Class Session and Movie Title
Movie Theme
1 - Rotten – Bitter Chocolate
Food
2 - More Than Honey
Food
3 - Just Eat It: A Food Waste
Food
4 - The Island President
Climate
5 - Racing Extinction
Climate
6 - Student Produced Video #1
Student Developed
7 - The Last Mountain
Energy
8 - The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind
Energy
9 - Foreign Correspondent: How to Save the World
Climate
10 - The True Cost
Energy
11 - Student Produced Video #2
Student Developed
12 - A Plastic Ocean
Env/Sustainability
13 - Minimalism
Env/Sustainability
14 - Living the Change: Inspiring Stories for a Sustainable Future
Env/Sustainability
15 - Student Produced Video #3
Student Developed
The dependent variable of fear was calculated by the summation of appropriate scale items (Items 1-7) where scores
ranged from 7 to 35 (Table 1). A Pearson’s R was used to determine if correlations existed between student perceived
fear by class session and whether students identified as taking the course in an in-person or online modality.
Independent Variables. The independent variables for this analysis fall into two categories. The first category
references class session. There were 15 class sessions over the course of the semester where movies were viewed,
analyzed, and compared to content in the course literature (Table 2). The second category of independent variable
measured was the modality in which students identified in the survey for each of the class sessions. Students could take
the course online through the Michigan State University electronic learning platform Desire to Learn (D2L) or could
attend the class in-person where course content and movies were presented each week of the semester. Data were
analyzed using the SPSS 29.0 statistical software package. Descriptive statistics were used to determine fear and flow
construct measures of central tendency.
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Published by Sciedu Press 5 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052
Figure 1. The four-channel flow model applied to Experience Sampling Method
The intersection of all channels is the average of the challenge and skill for a specific activity or event. (Adapted from
Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Massimini & Carli, 1988)
3. Results
This study included students in the Exploring Environmental and Sustainability Issues and Policy Using Film course (n
= 172). Of the students in the course there were 32 freshmen, 32, sophomores, 50, juniors, and 58 seniors. Sixty-eight
percent of the students identified as females in the course. Fifty-five majors were represented in the course across nine
Colleges at Michigan State University.
From a teaching modality perspective, students were more likely to be in a state of flow when taking the course online
(Table 3). Of the course modality results, 32.2% of the student respondents were more likely to “be in the zone” or in
flow than those students who participated in the course in-person (24%). A chi-square test of independence yielded no
significant relationship between flow and modality χ² (3, N = 295) = 3.51, p = 0.32 (Table 3). These descriptive results
are consistent with a previous study by Everett et al. (2021) when the COVID-19 pandemic began, and learning
switched from in-person to online. Interestingly, students were more anxious in an in-person learning setting (32.8%,
Table 3). This may indicate that students felt added on-campus, in-person pressures that would have not otherwise
occurred while students were participating in the online learning setting for the course. Finally, perceived fear levels by
students were slightly higher with online students (M = 15.0, SD = 7.13) as compared to in-person students (M = 13.8
SD = 6.23). A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to assess the linear relationship between in-person and
online fear levels. There was no correlation between the two variables, r(293) = 0.09, p = 0.132. Therefore, only
descriptive results suggest that online students had a slightly higher sense of fear after watching films that could not be
mediated through problem-solutions and efficacy statements during an in-person class session as indicated by Sprinkle
et al. (2006).
A descriptive analysis of flow and fear data by movie theme indicated that in-person learning was more likely to elicit
flow in students during climate themed movies (47.8%) and sustainability movies (55.6%) (Table 4). A chi-square test
of independence yielded a significant relationship between flow and in-person modality by movie themes χ² (12, N =
295) = 20.32, p = 0.05 (Table 4). Online students exhibited more instances of flow in all movie themes as compared to
the other three channels (e.g., anxiety, apathy, boredom). Descriptive results indicated that students were more likely to
have flow experiences when watching movies outside of a formal classroom setting. A chi-square test of independence
yielded no significant relationship between flow and online modality by various movie themes χ² (12, N = 295) = 5.93,
p = 0.92 (Table 4). Interestingly, student produced videos exhibited more instances of anxiety (44.4%) in an in-person
setting. This result may indicate that students felt anxious when watching videos around other peers. Descriptive
results by students indicated highest levels of perceived fear during climate themed movies during both in-person (M =
18.3, SD = 8.04) and online (M = 17.9, SD = 7.89) modalities. A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to
Skill
Challenge
Flow
Apathy
Anxiety
Boredom
High
High
Low
Low
Individual’s
Average
Challenge
and Skill
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assess the linear relationship between in-person and online fear levels by movie themes. There was no correlation
between online modality and film theme variables, r(293) = 0.16, p = 0.060. However, there was a slight correlation
between in-person modality and film theme variables, r(293) = 0.29, p = 0.001.
Table 3. Relationship between flow channels and fear by course modality in an Experience Sampling Method (ESM)
study (n = 295)
Course Modality
Anxiety
Apathy
Boredom
Flow
Fear
(M/SD)
In-Person Students
48
(32.8%)
28
(19.2%)
35
(24.0%)
35
(24.0%)
13.8
(6.23)
Online Student
χ² (3, N = 295) = 3.51, p = 0.32
37
(24.9%)
30
(20.1%)
34
(22.8%)
48
(32.2%)
15.0
(7.13)
Total f
85
(28.8%)
58
(19.7%)
69
(23.4%)
83
(28.1%)
*p < .05. **p < .01.
4. Discussion
What educational settings are most conducive to perceived flow or “being in the zone” during learning experiences?
Based on descriptive results, increasing frequencies of fear-inducing events (e.g., natural disasters, COVID-19)
provide instructors a forum to discuss these and many other natural and life challenges to increase flow in students.
Instruction where fear-inducing events occur on a consistent basis has proven to be a valuable source of information
about student learning (Everett et al., 2023; Montano & Carr, 2021). According to descriptive results, inducing fear as
a form of motivation in learning may be an approach underutilized in undergraduate classroom instruction. Classrooms
should be venues where student flow and fear experiences can occur in ways that provide positive learning experiences
for all students. This study sought to understand the relationships between student socio-psychological measurements
of flow and fear in multi-modality class settings by film theme. The authors note that this research is not generalizable,
and caution should be taken when applying these results across different classes and class settings.
Descriptive results suggest that students indicated being in flow more when taking the course in an online setting as
opposed to the in-person modality class setting. Additionally, fear levels were slightly higher with students in the
online modality. Similarly, student levels of anxiety were higher with students who took the course in an in-person
modality course setting. Previous research by Everett et al. (2023) indicated similar results in relation to climate films.
However, these same results were contradictory in terms of in-person modality for student-produced films where
anxiety was the predominate channel as indicated by students.
Frequency of flow and fear levels of students in course films indicated that specific themes of films impacted students
more than others as a function of course modality. High frequencies of flow and correspondingly high levels of
perceived fear for climate films as opposed to other themes of movies were reflected in the data of this study. These
descriptive results were contrary to previous research by Everett et al. (2023) by confirming that fear communication
did impact students’ perceived flow. Student levels of anxiety were most pronounced in student produced films related
to the in-person modality of the study. However, the perceived fear levels were lowest during the in-person modality of
learning. These descriptive results between anxiety and fear support the previous study by Everett et al. (2023),
however did not indicate a statistical relationship between anxiety and fear.
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Table 4. Relationship between flow channels and fear by class sessions when students participated in an in-person or
online modality (n = 295)
Movie Theme
Anxiety
f (%)
Apathy
f (%)
Boredom
f (%)
Flow
f (%)
Fear
M (S.D.)
In-Person
Food
35 (37.6%)
19 (20.4%)
24 (25.8%)
15 (16.1%)
11.9 (4.30)
Climate
Energy
Sustainability
Student Videos
In-Person f
χ² (12, N = 295) = 20.32,
p = 0.05*
Online
Food
Climate
Energy
Sustainability
Student Videos
Online f
χ² (12, N = 295) = 5.93,
p = 0.92
5 (21.7%)
3 (25.0%)
1 (11.1%)
4 (44.4%)
48 (32.9%)
10 (20.4%)
12 (27.3%)
6 (17.3%)
4 (26.7%)
5 (26.3%)
37 (24.9%)
3 (13.0%)
4 (33.3%)
0 (0.0%)
2 (22.2%)
28 (19.2%)
10 (20.4%)
11 (25.0%)
5 (22.7%)
2 (13.3%)
2 (10.5%)
30 (20.1%)
4 (17.4%)
3 (25.0%)
3 (33.3%)
1 (11.1%)
35 (24.0%)
12 (24.5%)
8 (18.2%)
3 (13.6%)
4 (26.7%)
7 (36.8%)
34 (22.8%)
11 (47.8%)
2 (16.7%)
5 (55.6%)
2 (22.2%)
35 (24.0%)
17 (34.7%)
13 (29.5%)
8 (36.4%)
5 (33.3%)
5 (26.3%)
48 (32.2%)
18.3 (8.04)
14.9 (6.19)
17.6 (9.99)
16.1 (6.09)
13.8 (6.23)
11.6 (4.89)
17.9 (7.89)
16.1 (7.46)
14.8 (7.14)
15.6 (6.81)
15.0 (7.13)
Total f
85 (28.8%)
58 (19.7%)
69 (23.4%)
83 (28.1%)
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Descriptive results indicated that climate themed movies when watched in-person elicited higher instances of flow and
fear levels than other movies. As indicated in previous research some film themes were less likely to amplify flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) and fear (Leventhal, 1970). The results of this study along with the work of Everett et al.
(2023) suggest that flow and fear are attributes that may be able to complement learning in today’s classrooms and
should be studied further to determine if statistical relationships may exist. In certain descriptive instances, student
produced films did yield higher frequencies of flow. As indicated in the study by Everett et al. (2023), and supported by
the descriptive results of this study, the authors recommend the enrichment of learning through student produced films
as a way to infuse the experiential learning process into undergraduate learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2017).
Limitations of this study included the potential for recall bias as related to students filling out surveys at the conclusion
of each movie or class session and the decreased number of responses by students as the course continued over the
semester. Additionally, caution should be taken in interpreting descriptive results given the relatively small number of
responses in some of the class sessions.
The authors of this study recommend that future studies should measure flow and fear constructs in more fear-inducing
climate themed movies. Results support a recent research study by Everett et al. (2023) where flow and fear in
communication were important indicators of student learning when varying course modality. The authors also suggest
that further consideration be given to flow and fear in comparison to other forms of content delivery. If the goal of
teaching and learning in an undergraduate course setting is to create experiences of “being in the zone,” then
understanding the importance of how students succeed in different learning modalities should be a primary
consideration.
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5. Conclusion
What is the true definition of a classroom today? This research sought to better understand how course modality, flow
experiences and perceived levels of fear play a role in determining where quality learning occurs and in what type of
classroom setting. Interestingly, descriptive results indicated that online learning experiences were more likely to
produce student flow or students “being in the zone.” This context for learning also provided valuable information
about how course modality relates to flow and fear (Leventhal, 1970) using film as a teaching approach. Research by
Everett et al. (2023) indicated that use of film as an instructional approach provides significant benefit to classroom
learning. This study further amplifies that research and adds that course modality is another variable to consider when
determining an appropriate learning setting.
If the goal is to increase frequency of flow and levels of fear in students as a learning approach, this research
encourages films where climate is the focus of the narrative. According to Banks and Vergez (2022), different course
modalities can provide a range learning opportunities for students. If the goal of classroom learning is to increase
moments of anxiety while maintaining high levels of fear in students (Everett et al., 2023; Zupan & Eskritt, 2020), then
curriculum should include ample opportunity for students to develop artifacts and present those artifacts to peers in the
learning setting. These opportunities may also support student learning by decreasing anxiety through repetition and
allow for student creation of student-centered narratives.
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