Emerging Challenges for Cleaner Production Networks – The decline of the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPnet)

Abstract

Cleaner production has been channelled through National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) across the world since the year 1994. In order to strengthen the scaling up and replication of Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP) in developing and transition countries, the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPnet) was formed as a platform for networking, knowledge exchange and information transfer. However, the success of such networks can become short-lived if there is no funding strategy beyond project financing and if individual network members fail to take ownership of the network. This research assesses the role of the Global RECPnet in promoting cleaner production and analyses the challenges that the network faced in ensuring its continuity beyond project finance. The research further identifies barriers in the advancement of the Global RECPnet and its goals. A Case Study methodology was used and within the case study, interviews were undertaken with key industry experts in the field of Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP). Questionnaires were also send to selected members of the network. Content analysis was undertaken on publicly available Global RECPnet documents and evaluation reports. We conclude that networks such as Global RECPnet are effective drivers of cleaner production, but require a plan for network survival beyond patron agencies. However, without patron agencies and international funders, the network proved not to be viable, as most of the members could not finance their own subscriptions. We propose for a hybrid mechanism of network financing and dealing with dependencies on development support.

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ORIGINAL PAPER
Emerging Challenges forCleaner Production Networks
– The decline oftheGlobal Resource Efficient andCleaner
Production Network (RECPnet)
TawandaCollinsMuzamwese1
Received: 25 February 2024 / Accepted: 31 May 2024 / Published online: 18 June 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
Abstract
Cleaner production has been channelled through National Cleaner Production Centres
(NCPCs) across the world since the year 1994. In order to strengthen the scaling up and
replication of Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP) in developing and transi-
tion countries, the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPnet)
was formed as a platform for networking, knowledge exchange and information transfer.
However, the success of such networks can become short-lived if there is no funding strat-
egy beyond project financing and if individual network members fail to take ownership of
the network. This research assesses the role of the Global RECPnet in promoting cleaner
production and analyses the challenges that the network faced in ensuring its continuity
beyond project finance. The research further identifies barriers in the advancement of the
Global RECPnet and its goals. A Case Study methodology was used and within the case
study, interviews were undertaken with key industry experts in the field of Resource Effi-
cient and Cleaner Production (RECP). Questionnaires were also send to selected members
of the network. Content analysis was undertaken on publicly available Global RECPnet
documents and evaluation reports. We conclude that networks such as Global RECPnet
are effective drivers of cleaner production, but require a plan for network survival beyond
patron agencies. However, without patron agencies and international funders, the network
proved not to be viable, as most of the members could not finance their own subscriptions.
We propose for a hybrid mechanism of network financing and dealing with dependencies
on development support.
Keywords Networks· Circular Economy· Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production
(RECP)· Collaboration
* Tawanda Collins Muzamwese
tmuzamwese@gmail.com
1 Department ofTechnology andGovernance forSustainability (CSTM), University ofTwente,
Enschede, Netherlands
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Introduction
Towards Resource Efficient andCleaner Production (RECP) inDeveloping
andTransition Countries
Humanity stands at the cusp of destruction, if there is no comprehensive transformation
in the consumption and production patterns and reduction in the environmental impact of
anthropogenic activities [6]. Sustainable practices are urgent in ameliorating the variety
of environmental problems affecting the world [12]. Various parts of the world are grap-
pling with a plethora of problems that affect the ability of the environment to regenerate [9].
Increased extraction of resources for human consumption and the increasing needs of soci-
ety, continue to cause scars on the ecological haven of humanity. One of the last gateways of
salvaging humanity is through preventing pollution and implementing pro-active approaches
such as Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP). Implementing cleaner produc-
tion in project basedformats, may not yield sustainable outcomes with regard to the wide-
spread adoption of cleaner production, if we do not move beyond projects [2].
Preventing pollution has been a burden in developing and transition countries for many
years. Whilst traditional end-of-pipe systems were favourable, it is increasingly becoming
clear that proactive approaches are more effective [2, 31]. Cleaner Production is defined as
the continuous application of a preventive approach to processes, products and services,so
as to improve overall efficiency and reduce the risk to human health and the environment
[2].
The world population is currently above 7 billion people as at the year 2023 and it is
projected to exceed 9 billion people by the year 2050. Rapid changes in the production and
consumption patterns are necessary, if we are to ensure human survival amidst an unprec-
edented environmental crisis and population growth. Policies and regulations for promot-
ing cleaner production have been promulgated in different parts of the world to try and deal
with the threat posed by environmental pollution. Shifting the mind-set of organisations
from an end-of-pipe treatment philosophy, is an imperative that is needed in the quest to
attain a circular economy.
Networks are considered as channels of dissemination of cleaner production knowledge
and technical capacity in developing and transition countries [12]. Through multiple-actor
cooperation, cleaner production can be disseminated and transferred from one organisa-
tion to another. Networking for cleaner production is a recent phenomenon at global level,
although some other forms of collaboration had existed in the form of guilds of merchants,
weavers and other trades [8]. Whilst these forms of association existed, they did not have
a deliberate focus on cleaner production networking. Given this background, the formation
of cleaner production and circular economy networks has gained momentum in different
parts of the world [20]. Although cleaner production can be promoted through government
intervention, awareness and technology transfer, there is need for collaboration in order to
facilitate joint problem solving and agenda setting for industry.
The urgency of cleaner production networks in developing and transition countries is
higher, due to the fact that they are more vulnerable to the effects of environmental chal-
lenges such as climate change and the fluctuating weather conditions. Climate change has
been on the rise and results in negative impacts on society [23]. High level dependency on
natural resource extraction in developing and transition countries, makes cleaner produc-
tion more imperative. Whilst the assessment and research of cleaner production networks
has been restricted in developed countries, there is little independent research on cleaner
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production networks in developing and transition countries. Networks help to improve
innovative capabilities of organisations [12, 32, 33, 35]. The orientation, governance and
continuity of networks beyond donor financing remain key issues determining the success
or failure of networks. In the absence of networks, it is very difficult to transfer knowledge
amongst organisations and facilitate scaling up and replication of cleaner production. Hart
[13] proposes that organisations need tacit knowledge in order for them to adopt sustain-
able development. This knowledge can be gained through networking and inter-organisa-
tional collaboration [21].
Inter-organisational collaboration has been studied in multiple country contexts [12,
19]. It can either be through networks which are geographically associated with each other
in the case of industrial clusters, or else in geographically dispersed environments such as
networking at a global level [16–19]. The emergence of the Covid-19 pandemic, also facili-
tated more proliferation of global networks, including those that network in a virtual space
without physical relations. Despite these essential realities, little research exists on cleaner
production networks as well as their success and failure. Most research is restricted to mid-
term and terminal evaluations at project level. Wider research on a global and national
scale is essential to understand the differences between idiosyncratic and networked organ-
isations, as well as determinants that favour success or demise of these networks.
Formation ofGlobal RECPnet
The Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPnet) was formed
to bring together organisations with a focus on cleaner production. Under the guidance
of the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) and United Nations
Environment Programme, the Global UNIDO-UN Environment; the Resource Efficient
and Cleaner Production (RECP) Programme for Developing and Transition Countries was
formed [25]. Within this programme, a networking component that sought to establish
the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network also known as the Global
RECPnet was formed [27, 28].
Implementation of Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production is a mechanism meant to
deal with the end of pipe treatment technologies affecting many developing and transition
countries. Cleaner production attains a Circular Economy (CE), through raw material sub-
stitution, on-site re-use and recycling, good housekeeping, process modification, and prod-
uct modification. Due to the burgeoning crisis of climate change, preventive approaches
have become useful in facilitating a CE transition.
The Global RECPnet was officially established in 2010 and it was institutionalised
through the Nairobi Declaration and was anchored on a Charter that explained its modali-
ties of existence [25]. The network was formed with three categories of members including
Regular Members, Associate Members and Observer Members [26]. Initially the network
was comprised of 41 members drawn from different stakeholders such as National Cleaner
Production Centres (NCPCs), research centres and other RECP service providers.
Whilst it was envisaged that the RECPnet would grow, it eventually did not grow as
expected due to a number of challenges [27, 28]. Networking at a global level also meant
that organisations that were networking had to do so from a geographical divide of
Regional Chapters. Despite the failure to exponentially grow, there has been no research
undertaken on the network in order to understand what affected its continuity, apart from
terminal evaluation that was undertaken at the conclusion of the Global Resource Efficient
and Cleaner Production Project. The independent evaluation cited challenges related to the
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sustainability of the RECPnet. However, there is need to have a deeper understanding of
which the network failed to attain sustainability. It is against this background that there is
need to assess the factors that affect network success and continuity. In general, it is also
essential to clearly understand the role of networks in promoting a Circular Economy and
identify barriers that affect network growth as well as identify strategies of scaling up net-
work activities.
Eventual Demise oftheGlobal RECPnet
Despite undertaking a wide range of activities, global workshops and training initiatives;
the Global RECPnet eventually ceased physical activities in 2018. This was at the conclu-
sion of the main RECP project that was implemented by UNIDO. Whilst the RECPnet was
said to be succeeded by consequent Eco-Industrial Parks projects, the vibrancy and active
participation of members of the RECPnet withered after the end of the project financing.
Anchoring networking activities of cleaner production networks on project donor fund-
ing resulted in dependency syndrome for the members of the RECPnet such that members
failed to carry it forward beyond the financing from development partners. According to
researchers in the area of networks, without a funding strategy, networks struggle to be
sustainable [3, 14]. It is essential to assess the circumstances that resulted in the lagging
behind of the RECPnet especially after the finalisation of UNIDO funded projects.
Despite having a unique value proposition and starting with a bullish 41 members, the
RECPnet ended with 70 members at the time of demise and failed to grow itself to the
stage of sustainability and self-sustenance, despite the early promising network growth.
Notwithstanding the growing number of members, some of the members could not take
responsibility of ownership through regular payment of subscriptions. As at the year 2016
almost 50% of RECPnet members were in default of network membership fees [27, 28].
The lack of full payment of subscriptions is a challenges documented in literature [27, 28].
Whilst networks, are formed in different parts of the world, it is not all of them that
manage to survive many years beyond their formation [20]. Some barriers such as financ-
ing, lack of participation and ownership by members, ineffective recruitment strategies all
have an effect on the eventual success of the networks. Some challenges of networks may
emanate from diverging priorities amongst members [24, 34]. Managing networks housed
within international organisations that finance them, may not always be an effective way
of network administration as the delegated responsibilities may be deployed elsewhere as
soon as programme financing diminishes. Although the Global RECPnet is still “in prin-
ciple” in existence, it is considered as less active in 2023, in comparison to its peak years
of 2010 to 2018. This reality, provides the foundation of undertaking this research to seek
a clear understanding of why networks may be subdued outside project or programme sup-
port. Networks are under researched across the world and there is limited information on
their function and changes that result from participation in networks [21].
Research Focus
This research specifically assesses the role of network participation on implementation of
Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP) with a particular focus on the Global
Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (Global RECPnet). In particular, the
research assesses the following questions:
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i. What is the role of networks in promoting cleaner production?
ii. What factors led to the decline of the Global RECPnet?
iii. What role did development partners play in the success or failure of the RECPnet?
iv. Which barriers did the global RECPnet face in scaling up its cleaner production net-
work activities?
v. How did external contextual factors influence the eventual fate of the Global RECP-
net?
vi. How can similar networks be governed in order to ensure continued viability of net-
works?
Literature Review
Towards Sustainable Development, Innovation, Contextual Interaction
andIsomorphism
In order to transform the current patterns of production and consumption, a permanent
shift in the philosophy of humanity is required towards circular economy [11]. Sustainable
Development is defined as the development which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability for future generations to meet their own needs [2, 6]. One of
the most effective mechanisms of attaining sustainable industrial development is through
cleaner production [2, 31]. Cleaner production is the continuous application of a preventive
approach to processes, products and services so as to increase overall efficiency and reduce
risks to human health and the environment [31].
Theories that promote sustainable development were popularised from the adoption of
the Brundtland Commission’s Report – Our Common Future in 1987 [6]. The Sustainabil-
ity Theory proposes that we must undertake our developmental activities with a due con-
sideration of the generations to come. It postulates inter-generational equity and the fact
that no generation is superior than the other. In the context of industrialisation, sustainable
industrialisation activities have been promulgated in many organisations worldwide. The
demand for sustainable practices has been necessitated by the pressures from regulators,
shareholders and an emerging breed of green customers [1]. It is also becoming difficult
to export products to international markets, without demonstrating sustainability con-
cepts such as cleaner production. The demand for green products is also soaring each day.
Therefore, implementing cleaner production is a key strategy towards attaining sustainable
development [15].
Furthermore, the Diffusion of Innovation Theory by [22], proposes that organisations
go through various stages of innovative capabilities from early adopters and those classi-
fied as laggards. In order to attain sustainable development, there is need for diffusion of
innovation in industrial production processes. Various examples of diffusion of innovation
have been demonstrated through cleaner production assessments and cleaner production
projects. Some of the projects have been promoted by National Cleaner Production Centres
(NCPCs) as a way of scaling up cleaner production in developing and transition countries
[2].
The Contextual Interaction Theory proposed by Bressers [5],suggests that the success
or failure of policy goals is influenced by contextual factors such as power, information
and cognitions. This typology of contextual factors is often referred to as the Contextual
Interaction Theory (CIT). In assessing cleaner production projects implementation, their
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success and factors can be better explained using the Contextual Interaction Theory (CIT).
Due to the fact that networks operate from different country contexts with varying combi-
nations of contextual factors, the CIT can clearly explain the factors resulting in network
success or failure.
Di Maggio and Powell [7] proposed the Institutional Isomorphism Theory in organisa-
tions as a phenomenon where organisations gradually became similar in their practices as
a result of mimetic, normative and coercive pressures. Some of the pressures could be as
a result of seeing other organisations flourish in implementing cleaner production innova-
tions, whereas some of the pressures could be as a result of forced circumstances such as
regulations. In the context of cleaner production, organisations can become isomorphic and
behave in the same way with regard to preventive production approaches, especially due to
participation in inter-organisational networks.
The Need forResource Efficient Cleaner Production (RECP)
Cleaner production is a philosophy that shifts the way of production from merely relying
on end-of-pipe to adopting preventive approaches of dealing with industrial environmen-
tal problems [2, 31]. It is widely acknowledged that industry is one of the sectors with
key abilities to cause anthropogenic environmental challenges including climate change
[23]. At the same time – paradoxically; industry is a source of economic development and
creates jobs. Traditional approaches to development were concerned with transferring the
problems by treating waste at the end of pipe. The primary motivation was on increasing
production. However, this came at a cost to the environment.
The early 1900s were characterised by a care-free attitude towards environmental sus-
tainability and pollution. Baas [2] postulates that notions of pollution prevention became
popular in the 1980s in Europe and United States. The concept of cleaner production was
coined by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1989 [2]. Early strides in
establishing a global footprint for cleaner production occurred in 1994 when the first 8
National Cleaner Production Centres were established worldwide. Their role was to pro-
mote the new concept of cleaner production. By the year 2023, over 50 National Cleaner
Production Centres exist worldwide. Their morphology and structure varies from not-for
profit, quasi-government institutions, research centres and consultancy model organisa-
tions. The evolution and diversification of NCPCs into different types of organisational
forms is clearly acknowledged by researchers such as [31].
One of the main roles undertaken by National Cleaner Production Centres was to under-
take Cleaner Production Assessments using the framework developed by UNIDO and its
partners. This framework is illustrated in Fig.1.
Implementing cleaner production enables an organisation to cut costs of production,
reduce losses, prevent environmental pollution and meet the demands of regulatory author-
ities. In many countries there is an increased burden of compliance and meeting regulatory
requirements of legal authorities. Empirical evidence from a 20year evaluation of cleaner
production programmes confirms resource efficient benefits of cleaner production in multi-
ple country contexts [15]. Strict laws have been promulgated in the areas of air emissions,
effluent, air quality and waste management. Organisations that adopt cleaner production are
better able to deal with the legal demands and expectations of national policy and legisla-
tion. Other benefits of cleaner production implementation include the ability to export to
international markets due to the sustainability of products and services, necessitated by
the implementation of cleaner production. Companies that implement cleaner production
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are better able to market their products and services in foreign jurisdictions due to the abil-
ity to meet complex environmental laws existing in those countries. Whilst the concept of
cleaner production is also referred to as pollution prevention in other country domains such
as earlier in Europe and United States of America, it is clear that the benefits are desirable
for many organisations despite their geographical location [2].
Governments, development partners and NCPCs, have taken a lead in the promotion
of cleaner production in developing and transition countries. However, it is the National
Cleaner Production Centres which have contributed significantly to the implementation
cleaner production worldwide [15]. Cooperation amongst stakeholders has enabled the
establishment of networking platforms to focus and share information on cleaner produc-
tion technologies.
One of the most promising initiatives that has been observed over the past three dec-
ades has been the establishment of cleaner production networks at national, regional and
international level. Networks are seen as an innovative way to learn and share experiences
between organisations [16, 19, 21].
Networks andCollaboration asaTool forSustainable Development
Networking and collaboration for the purpose of attaining sustainable development has
gained momentum in the past three decades [21]. Organisations have started to belong to
some sort of network. The main motivations of belonging to a network emanate from the
need to access information, implement projects, build a critical mass for lobbying in the
policy and legal space. Other organisations join networks merely to benchmark perfor-
mance with other organisations.
One of the most organised networks that was formed to promote cleaner production is
the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network (RECPnet) [25]. The Net-
work was formed with an initial membership of 41 members and currently stands at over
70 members. The network was formed under the tutelage of patron UN Agencies namely,
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) and United Nations Envi-
ronment Programme, which is now known as UN Environment.
Despite formation of these and other networks, collaboration is still affected by many
factors which are not researched upon [12]. There is a serious gap in literature as to how
sustainability networks are formed as well as why they fail [21]. Scant information exists
on case studies of networks. In particular,there is no thorough barrier analysis, business
Fig. 1 Process of undertaking a cleaner production assessment. Source: Van Berkel [30]
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model research, network governance evaluation and an assessment or the results of net-
works on cleaner production and promoting a circular economy. Understanding the mor-
phology of networks through case studies enables the development of clear strategies, that
allow networks to succeed and continue to make significant contribution to the implemen-
tation of cleaner production.
Examples ofNetwork Collaboration
Network collaboration in the context of cleaner production can take different forms. Firstly,
networks can be geographically associated and agglomerated in the form of industrial clus-
ters or eco-industrial parks [4, 10, 19]. These organisations are located in close proxim-
ity with each other on geographical lines. Key examples of how they can collaborate is
through training, awareness, benchmarking visits and industrial symbiosis. In industrial
symbiosis regimes, organisations in one industrial cluster can access waste from another
organisation and use is as a raw material for another organisation. Networks can also take
the form of geographically dispersed organisations where organisations do not operate in
close proximity with each other [27, 28]. The Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Pro-
duction Network (RECPnet), Greening of Industry Network (GIN) and the Advances in
Cleaner Production Networks (ACPN) are typical examples of networks that operate at a
global level, whilst being geographically dispersed.
Furthermore, at regional level, networks exist, such as in the case of the African Round-
table for Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) and the European Roundta-
ble for Sustainable Consumption and Production (ERSCP). Networks also exist at national
level but in a geographically dispersed manner such as in the case of Plastics SA and Busi-
ness Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe (BCSDZ). Networks can also exist
in the form of supply chain networks which involve various nodes derived from an organi-
sation’s supply chain.
Barriers andEmerging Challenges inNetwork Management andContinuity
Although networks are proliferating worldwide, there is no clear strategy of how the net-
works are to be financed [29]. The formation of networks is mainly driven by a group of
professionals who are passionate about a certain professional field such as cleaner pro-
duction. Establishing networks without a clear financing strategy and ownership by the
“would-be network members” is a dangerous undertaking as the network is most likely
to suffer a still-birth. Therefore, one of the main challenges that result in networks fail-
ing is the lack of funding strategies. Most networks anchor their financing in subscriptions
from members after pitching their value proposition. Value proposition is the major factor
flagged by networks [21]. This can be effective if members religiously pay their subscrip-
tions. Research confirms that in subscription based organisations, the lack of payment of
subscriptions is a perennial challenge even for established members [29].
Poor governance of the network and lack of a defined focus of the network, are recog-
nised as other barriers encountered in promoting networking on cleaner production. The
challenge of voluntary participation also entails that the network members can engage or
disengage at any time in the tenure of their membership. It is also widely recognised that
the emergence of other networks, results in organisations also dividing their time amongst
multiple networks. Therefore, there is never exclusive concentration on one network by an
organisation.
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Although some networks have failed, very little has been done to investigate and
research why they failed and to establish what can be done to revive them and inform
future networks on how they should be managed [21]. The reliance on donor funding to
initiate network collaboration, purports that an external party is initiating collaboration. If
not carefully managed, this can brew a dependency syndrome amongst network members.
Furthermore, the payment of subscription fees in kind [26] could potentially have effects
on actual cash-flow of the network.
An Independent Terminal Evaluation of the Joint UNIDO-UNEP Programme on
Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP) in developing and transition countries
was undertaken including some aspects pertaining to the Global RECPnet. This evaluation
confirmed the challenges facing the RECPnet network as lack of ownership and sustaina-
bility [27, 28]. Despite recognising these challenges, there is no consideration of additional
barriers that could have hindered network success.
Materials andMethods
The research was designed as a Case Study focusing on depth, instead of breath. The case
study was selected using strategic sampling and especially thematic focus on cleaner pro-
duction. In order to collect data, interviews were undertaken with key informants including
a response from one of the agencies involved in the network. Additional responses were
recorded on questionnaires to members of sustainable business network. The questionnaire
included activities, roles, barriers and challenges associated with the networks as well as
the impact that was achieved due to network activities. The questionnaire was disseminated
using email communication. By the time of completing this research article, a total of 30
questionnaires were responded to by members of networks on cleaner production. Key
informant interviews were also undertaken including representatives of individuals that
belonged to networks. A semi-structured questionnaire was also sent to a representative of
the network in order to get the perspective of the network.
Document review was undertaken on a number of documents related to the RECPnet.
This information included independent evaluation reports, cleaner production assessment
case study reports, Charters, project proposal documents and network founding documents.
The documents were assessed in order to identify challenges associated with the network as
well as the progress that was attained during the tenure of the network. Data was analysed
qualitatively and trends were deduced from the thematic analysis. Various themes emerged
from the research such as roles, challenges, barriers, success factors patron agency effect.
In order to ensure that there was high level of reliability, validity and accuracy of the
data; the research employed a process of triangulation. The triangulation was undertaken
on sources, by ensuring that there were at least 3 sources in investigating variables. In
addition, there was deployment of the triangulation of methods; specifically—document
review, interviews and questionnaires which were used and disseminated. The selection
process of this case study was meant to ensure that the selection covered global networks,
in order to form a basis of comparing with networks from Africa. The selection process is
presented in Fig.2.
Figure2 presents the key elements which were considered in selecting the case study
for the research. This selection protocol was based on five systematic steps. Firstly, consid-
eration for selection was given to collaborative organisations or organisations which were
focused on facilitating networking amongst key stakeholders. The networking could either
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be physical or virtual networking regimes. Secondly the criteria considered thematic focus
of the network. Deliberate effort was undertaken to select networks which had a specific
focus on cleaner production and circular economy related concepts. The other networks
where collaboration occurred in unrelated areas to cleaner production and circular econ-
omy; an exclusion was undertaken.
Furthermore, the selection criteria considered geographical scope of the networks. In
this case study; consideration was given to the networks that were operating at a global and
regional level, as a basis for comparing with national level networks. The global or regional
collaboration was considered from the perspective of physical and virtual networking. The
specific focus of the global and regional networks was prioritised on the dimension of net-
works that focus on developing and transition countries.
The final dimension of selecting case studies was based on their legal status. Either for-
mally registered networks with administrative structures or networks that are not formally
registered but with administrative structures were chosen. This legal status dimension was
considered to ensure that there was a focal point for the network. The research has received
ethical clearance from the University of Twente, Behavioural, Management and Social Sci-
ences ethical committee / Domain Humanities & Social Sciences.
Results andDiscussion
Role oftheGlobal Resource Efficient andCleaner Production Network (RECPnet)
The questionnaires sent to key informants and the response from one of the patron agen-
cies, showed significant progress made in the promulgation of cleaner production. Some
of the major activities included capacity building, cleaner production workshops, demon-
stration projects, chemical lasing projects and environmental policy advise. The RECPnet
managed to escalate the relevance and implementation of cleaner production in different
Fig. 2 Selection process of case study
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developing and transition and developing countries. The progress of the RECPnet and
UNIDO-UNEP associated programmes on cleaner production can be tracked and assessed
in terms of the gradual increase in the number or stakeholders involved from the inception
of cleaner production projects in the early 1990s. Figure2 shows that the initial National
Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) worldwide were only 8. Through the work of UNIDO
and UNEP, more NCPCs were established.
At the formation of the RECPnet in 2011, there were 41 organisations including NCPCs
and other related organisations which focused on cleaner production. There was an increase
in the number of organisations and therefore, formalising the network was seen as a solu-
tion to ensuring a guaranteed membership and subscription base. By the time the RECPnet
held its last event in 2018 at the depletion of project funding, there were 70 members of
the RECPnet. The data shows that there was an evident increase in the interest and imple-
mentation of cleaner production worldwide during the period of 1994 to 2018 as illustrated
in Fig.3. As from 2018 to the year 2023, there was no adequate data available on what
remains as the membership of the RECPnet, apart from the information available as at the
conducting of the last event of the RECPnet. Response from a former RECPnet secretariat
staff indicated that they had been seconded to other projects.
Whilst the RECPnet enjoyed growth from 2011 to 2018, that growth was only due to the
fact that UNIDO and UN Environment were supporting the network. Without the financing
of patron agencies, it is not clear how many members remained beyond project funding and
whether members still remain committed to the Charter of the RECPnet despite the waning
financial support.
These roles varied amongst network members depending on the strategic thrust of the
organisations belonging to the network or its parent organisation. The roles of the RECP-
net included capacity building and information dissemination on the concept of cleaner
production. Several events were held such as the Global Network Conference on Resource
Efficient and Cleaner Production conferences, workshops and awareness raising events.
8
41
70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1995 - The first Naonal
Cleaner Producon
Centres set-up by UNIDO
and UNEP
2011 - The number of
members at formaon of
the Global RECP-Net
2018 - The number of
members at the last event
of the Global RECP-Net
Number of instuons
Fig. 3 Development of Cleaner production related collaboration from inception of cleaner production pro-
jects to the last event of the RECPnet
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These events improved the understanding of cleaner production amongst the members of
the network.
Some of the thematic activities that were undertaken by the RECPnet include -
Waste Recycling and Management, Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP),
Safe Chemicals Management, water efficiency, energy efficiency, chemical leasing, train-
ing and capacity building, workshops, conferences, demonstration projects, industrial sym-
biosis, technical assistance as well as information dissemination. Some of the members of
the RECPnet managed to adopt business models such as chemical leasing which is a func-
tional business model that pays for the functions of chemicals, rather than chemical quanti-
ties. In addition to technical roles associated with cleaner production topics, the network of
organisations within the RECPnet also contributed to policy advise.
It was also observed that the role of networks for cleaner production evolved over a
number of years depending on the changing landscape of sustainable development. From
a situation of ignoring pollution, there was a conscious process of mainstreaming cleaner
production in industrial processes. The evolution from the lack of consciousness on cleaner
production networks to a level of maturity of high subscription of the RECPnet, attributed
to the programmatic approach of the development agencies UNIDO and UNEP. However,
post 2018, it seems that the RECP concept started competing for relevance with emerg-
ing concepts such as Circular Economy (CE) and Eco-Industrial Parks (EIPs). Whilst the
cleaner production concept has effectively co-existed with similar concepts like eco-effi-
ciency and industrial ecology for many years; it seems that the new wave of the Circular
Economy has drawn attention worldwide in the last decade, thereby making it difficult to
pursue cleaner production in isolation of circularity amongst stakeholder groups such as
donors, financiers and industry. Therefore, many institutions including the patron agencies
are being forced to repackage cleaner production in integrated forms and those that evolve
it towards Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production (RECP) and recently Circular Econ-
omy (CE). Figure2 illustrates the evolution of cleaner production networks.
1950s -no
networks for
cleaner
production and
there is empasis
on end of pipe
treatment
1972 -Formation
of United Nations
Environment
Programme now
called UN-
Environment
1987 -Formal
definition of
sustainable
develpment
1992 The Rio
Summit and the
finalisation of
Agenda 21
1995 -
Establishment of
the first network
of 8 National
Cleaner
Production
Centres
(NCPCs)
2011 -Formation
of the Global
Network on
Resource
Efficeint and
Cleaner
Production
(RECPnet) with
41 members
2015 -
Finalisation of
Sustainable
Development
Goals (SDGs)
including goald
related to
Sustainable
Consumption
and Production
2018 -Last
event of the
Global RECPnet
with teh network
having 70
members
Post 2018
Implementation
new concepts
such as Circular
Economy and
Eco-Industrial
Parks
Barriers andChallenges Affecting theRECPnet
Alignment andFocus onOther Related Concepts andProjects
The viability of the RECPnet, was partly affected by the strong realignment towards other
concepts such as Circular Economy and Eco-Industrial Parks. Whilst it can be argued that
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RECP can be implemented under those concepts, it is not the same when RECP was a
standalone concept. Due to the varying international funding landscape, more resources to
finance projects started to focus on Circular Economy worldwide and Eco-Industrial Parks.
Whilst it is good to have a plethora of concepts and a diversity of different approaches to
deal with sustainable development challenges, this research notes that there is an increas-
ing phenomenon of the concepts ending up competing with themselves.
Whilst the Global RECPnet was named after a certain concept of cleaner production,
the radical shifts in the sustainability terminology and what donors prefer to finance, has
had an effect on the RECPnet and will continue to do so for some years to come. Structural
changes were also noticed within UNIDO, one of the patron agencies which changed the
Cleaner and Sustainable Production Unit into one which focuses on Circular Economy
and Environmental Protection. These changes show alignment with the changing sustaina-
bility landscape. However, the name of the RECPnet remains static despite radical changes
in sustainability concepts. At the same time, changing the name of a network each time
new concepts emerge, is not sustainable and lasts so long as the concepts remain relevant.
It is worth assessing the effect of the shift in the relevance of the Circular Economy to
become more prominent and its potential to overshadow concepts such as Resource Effi-
cient and Cleaner Production (RECP).
Consequently, the drastic shift by funders to finance more (CE) projects could have a
long term bearing on the viability of networks anchored on cleaner production such as the
RECPnet.
Financial Constraints
The continuity of the Global RECPnet suffered from the availability of financing. Due to
the fact that the RECPnet was part of the project with a limited budget of resources and
defined timeline, its continuation hinged upon that external financing. From 2018 until
2023, the research noticed that there was little or no activity related to the RECPnet apart
from a remaining website of the network.
To make the situation exacerbated, the members of the network did not take ownership
to finance the network. Secondary data from the evaluation of the Global Cleaner Produc-
tion Projects showed that members did not take ownership of the network [27, 28]. The
lack of ownership ultimately resulted in the lack of availability of financing. It is difficult to
envision that the current members can finance even a workshop on their own without donor
support. However, some best-practice and exemplary activities were observed within the
National Cleaner Production Centre of South Africa (NCPC-SA), which was able to suc-
cessfully arrange Colloquiums on its own.
Many members of the RECPnet emanate from developing and transition countries and
the majority face financial challenges even to pay their own subscriptions. This situation
means that there can be no meaningful fundraising to support the network. As a result,
some of the members of the RECPnet could not pay the required subscriptions that were
required by the RECPnet.
The greater control and administration of the network by the patron agencies means
that if there were changes with them, the RECPnet would sneeze. Setting up the
RECPnet without a clear business model of how it would operate beyond UNIDO and
UN Environment was the main challenge that contributed in its decline. If any efforts
are initiated to revitalise the network, one of the first aspects that should be explored
is to define a clear business model for the network and how it would generate income
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beyond the patron agencies. In addition, greater leverage should be given to the mem-
bers themselves to administer the RECPnet, rather than run the network through patron
agencies. Limited leverage to administer the network has an effect on the ability of
members to sustain themselves and it also builds an element of entitlement, which is
difficult to overcome at the end of programmatic funding.
Lack ofFull Coverage ofSubscriptions andMembers Evading Paying Categories
Whilst the RECPnet developed from an initial 41 to over 70 members, not all of them
were paying members. Some of the members were in categories that were called
Observer members mainly earmarked for new National Cleaner Production Centres
and other RECP service providers who had limited experience in RECP. However,
some NCPCs with experience of over 20years were also seen desiring to be Observer
Members. In some cases, senior NCPCs took responsibility and assumed proper cat-
egories, but in several cases seasoned RECP service providers desired Observer Mem-
bership, which was free for a specified period. Such antics had the ability to reduce
the revenue base of the RECPnet as it would not realise its full potential. More Expe-
rienced NCPCs are expected to take leadership and accountability in networks, includ-
ing taking the role of paying appropriate subscriptions in the proper categories.
Although Regular Membership was the highest proportion of the membership
(59%), the number of Observer Members was substantial (33%) and the figure was
increased by some NCPCs and service providers who evaded membership fees in order
to take non-paying categories. Strategically, the RECPnet should also have strived
to reduce the number of non-paying members in order to enhance revenue collection
for the viability of the network. The distribution of Membership categories shown in
Fig.4 should be used as a basis of setting strategy for recruiting new members.
For members which were in the paying category, not all of them paid subscriptions
on time and that had an effect on sustainability. Whilst UNIDO and UNEP Global
Programme on Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production could cushion and support
activities despite incomplete subscriptions, the effects of non-payment of subscriptions
would become more prevalent from 2018 to 2023.
Due to the fact that 2018 was designated as the year of the last event of the RECP-
net, it is not clear what would happen, if any member wanted to pay a subscription
and to whom they should pay it to. It seems that at the conclusion of the project, there
was limited follow-up on subscriptions. A few surveys were undertaken including one
undertaken by GAIA to try and explore business models for the RECPnet, but beyond
these activities, the network became generally inactive or focused on other thematic
areas. Therefore, extending the administration of the RECPnet beyond the patron
agencies was an imperative that should have been considered before the demise of the
RECPnet. The significant administration fees required to administer the network can
be used for network development if the network is managed by the members them-
selves. Development organisations administering networks may be influenced by avail-
ability of programme financing for implementing certain projects. Innovative models
of financing are essential and presented in this paper, in order to find ways of ensur-
ing network survival beyond donor funding. The schedule of subscription fees of the
RECPnet are presented in Fig.5.
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59%
8%
33%
DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERSHIP CATEGORIES WITHIN
THE RECPNET
RegularAssociate Observer
Fig. 4 Distribution of membership categories within the RECPnet
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
Regular Member
- OECD
Regular Member
- Non-OECD
Associate
Member - OECD
Associate
Member - Non-
OECD
Observer
Member
RECPnet Subscripon Fee levels in $ USD
Regular Member - OECD Regular Member - Non-OECD Associate Member - OECD
Associate Member - Non-OECD Observer Member
Fig. 5 RECPnet subscription fee levels in $USD
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Too Much Focus onNational Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) Than Other Cleaner
Production Providers
The RECPnet potentially could have faltered as a result of its high level focus on National
Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs). However, new players were entering the scene with
comparable and even superior cleaner production approaches. It is understandable that
due to the fact that UNIDO and UNEP pioneered the first cleaner production approaches
between 1994 and 1995, they would naturally continue to collaborate with some of the
institutions that they started cleaner production collaboration with. The impact of the
NCPCs was highly evident and it became a legacy project of the patron agencies. How-
ever, from a business model and financial sustainability perspective, not all the NCPCs
were becoming financially independent. Van Berkel [31] cites the evolution and diversifi-
cation of NCPCs and it is not all of them that managed to attain financial viability. Some
adopted consultancy models, whereas others went into capacity building. At the same
time, some NCPCs remained “quasi-government” and under the influence of host country
governments.
Whilst the RECPnet network indicated that it was opening up to new players who were
service providers in cleaner production, there was no deliberate strategy to attract them and
to market the RECPnet. Marketing the network to stakeholders beyond the NCPCs is an
area that needs to be rectified, if the RECPnet is to be revived or to continue as a financially
viable entity. There is urgent need to market it beyond the non-traditional stakeholders
in cleaner production. These findings also resonate to other cleaner production networks
beyond the RECPnet. Extending the membership categories to enable more members to
qualify is also a key step towards building the “critical mass” and therefore developing
a long term base of subscriptions. Broadening the revenue base of the RECPnet was not
well thought out at its inception, partly which can be attributable to the availability of pro-
gramme or project funding.
Different Levels ofMaturity ofNational Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs)
The different levels of maturity of NCPCs, also resulted in limited appreciation of the need for
networking and collaboration. Due to the legacy of the cleaner production programmes being
supported by development partners, it came a bit as a shock for some NCPCs to be required to
pay subscriptions. Even in the case of failure to pay subscriptions, the follow-up was limited.
Bringing the NCPCs to the same pedestal of development, conception and appreciating the
relevance of network participation is difficult, if not impossible. Some of the NCPCs remained
in government departments, research centres and some morphed into consultancy businesses
and their management styles varied. Some in government settings performed well under those
governance regimes. These external factors coupled with the contextual factors existing in
their countries of origin influenced the ability of the NCPCs to afford subscriptions. In cases
where they could be afforded, there was potential play of organisational politics and bureau-
cratic tendencies of organisations beyond the control of the RECPnet.
Network Coordination Undertaken Within Patron Agencies
The research noted that network coordination was mainly under the control of patron agen-
cies and operated based on their rules of engagement. This was a good advantage to the
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membership as it had access to project management and technical skills. However, this
was not sustainable after the end of project support. Network administration should draw
from the membership in order to ensure that beyond patron agencies, networks can be
sustainable.
Legal andPolicy Regimes
Stakeholders responding to the questionnaire send during the research cited policy and legal
barriers as having a contributory factor to the demise of the RECPnet. This was with regards
to the different regulatory regimes which existed in different countries. In some countries such
as China there is Cleaner Production law and in Zimbabwe, according to the Effluent and
Solid Waste Disposal Regulations, Statutory Instrument 6 of 2007, it was a compulsory for
organisations to develop cleaner production plans including objectives of waste minimisation.
Within the network, there were also some countries without any regulatory push for adopting
cleaner production. The legal regimes tended to push organisations to seek cleaner produc-
tion expertise including through networking. Although we could not establish a correlation
between regulatory regimes on cleaner production and the willingness to accept membership,
we believe that this is an area that warrants further research. The different legal and policy
regimes affected differently the prioritisation of cleaner production and hence where cleaner
production was not a legal issue, it was noted that in some occasions it was de-escalated. The
de-escalation resulted in less demand for cleaner production services such as those originating
from cleaner production networks.
Lack ofanEffective Membership andRecruitment Strategy
Although, there was a secretariat responsible for recruiting members, there was inadequate
verifiable actions to reach out to broader stakeholders. Where this was done, the recruitment
was not massive as envisaged. Comparing with some in-country networks that consisted of
over 100 members, the RECPnet still could not surpass 100 members and at the close of the
project was at 70, Greater work could be done to improve the marketing and promotion of the
network to new and prospective network members. This was as a result of primary focus on
traditional cleaner production service providers such as NCPCs. In the process of reviving
the RECPnet or similar network, a communication strategy that is effective in attracting new
membership is essential within the Secretariat of the RECPnet.
Summary ofChallenges Affecting theGlobal RECPnet
A summary of the challenges that affected the Global RECPnet were identified in the research
and are presented in Table1. Furthermore, we present new insights of how these challenges
could be addressed. These challenges can easily be addressed by implementing the proposed
strategies.
Patron Agency Effect
Assessing the documented information arising from the evaluation of the Global RECPnet,
alongside responses to the questionnaires sent to members, there is a typology of issues related
to the “patron agency effect”. These issues are either positive or negative and ultimately result
in the success or failure of the network.
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Table 1 Challenges affecting the RECPnet
Challenge observed to be affecting the RECPnet Potential implication on network success Strategies required to ensure viability of network
Limited financing restricted to the tenure of projects
within patron institutions
Lack of sustainability without project financing from
patron agencies
Develop new business model for the network
Classification of senior cleaner production service
providers e.g. mature NCPCs; as Observer Members
instead of taking Regular Membership Categories
Lost potential revenue that could have been earned by
the RECPnet in higher membership categories
Restrict Observer Members to new cleaner production
service providers
Lack of willingness to pay subscriptions by some mem-
bers of the network
Reduced financial resources to finance network activi-
ties
Enforce deadlines and restrict network access to unpaid
members
Too much focus on specific group of members such as
National Cleaner Production Centre (NCPCs) and
limited inclusion of other forms of organisations deliv-
ering cleaner production
Missed opportunity to grow membership and raise more
membership fees
Extensively market the network to other organisational
forms beyond NCPCs
Competition from emergence of other related concepts
such as Circular Economy (CE) and Eco-Industrial
Parks (EIPs)
Loss of funding as donors and stakeholders begin to
shift away from cleaner production and support other
emerging issues “the bandwagon effect”
Align cleaner production to new concepts to maintain its
relevance
Free membership for members who would join in the
middle of the year
Creation of “free riders” within the RECPnet Charge membership on a “pro-rata basis”
Lack of effective mechanisms to follow-up on debts of
members
Reduced financial resources for network activities Increase ability to collect dates and enforce binding pay-
ment plans
Subdued activities beyond global networking events Low visibility Maintain vibrancy of the network on all platforms
electronic, paper and digital media platforms even in
periods without global networking events. Avoid going
silent for long periods to prevent member losing contact
with NCPCs and associated service providers
Two thirds membership fees in kind by OECD member
countries through professional services
Potential effects on cashflow of the RECPnet Ensure members pay subscriptions and any other services
rendered must be transactional
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Positive Aspects ofPatron Agency Effect
The existence of patron agencies enabled the utilisation and availability of resources,
thereby easing the financial burden in members. Due to their impeccable reputations as
global brands, they had a high level of attracting power as well as leveraging power to
draw more organisations. Whilst this is very much expected, it did not result in a spurt in
membership drive but reasonable growth to above 70 members. This is quite commend-
able given that any activities of some sort on cleaner production were started in 1994 and
then in 1995 only the first 8 NCPCs were developed. Therefore, although the convening
power of international organisations existed, the financial commitment of subscriptions
still restricted some organisations from joining the Global RECPnet.
Furthermore, the existence of patron agencies made it possible to interact with inter-
national donors on behalf of individual cleaner production service providers. If the indi-
vidual members had sought funding on their own, it may have been difficult to accept all
their proposals. However, with the formation of the RECPnet, it was possible to represent
the collective and still gain legitimacy. The patron agencies also contributed immensely
in monetary terms through supporting the RECPnet by the programme budget, technical
skills transfer and manning the secretariat on behalf of the members.
Negative Aspects ofPatron Agency Effect
Despite the progressive gains of having patron agencies involved in the form of UNIDO
and UNEP, there were some other unintended effects such as the following:
• building entitlement amongst the members of the network.
• creation of high expectations amongst members of the network.
• lack of capacity development in members developing their own network due to man-
agement concentrated within patron agencies.
Some of the expectations were difficult to remove at the end of the project when the
RECPnet had its last event in 2018. Trying to now make members pay for network partici-
pation after getting support, became a challenge of sustaining the network. These negative
aspects of patron agency effect can all be managed by putting in place a strategy.
Proposed New Network Typologies andExtension ofKnowledge onNetworks
Assessing the typological structure of how the RECPnet was formed, managed and
demised – we are bound to imagine what organisational forms could be developed in
order to facilitate a transition in business model and structural formation of the associa-
tion. Key to the development of the new typologies is deliberate process of weaning off
networks from the patron agencies. In addition, an effective strategy of raising funds is
essential beyond project support. The RECPnet should also be managed independently
from the influence of patron agencies if it is to survive. An Independent Board needs to
be set up that oversees the operations of the network. In the proposed new typologies of
the network, there is a possibility of ensuring wider extension of the RECPnet beyond
the traditional NCPC and rope in potentially exciting new organisations forms. Existing
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Executive Committees can be morphed into Independent Boards to enhance autonomy.
Opening up new membership groups such as student membership is needed to develop a
funnel of potential cleaner production professionals.
Reformed RECPnet
Membership Categories
Patron Agency Membership
Champion Membership
Regular Membership
Associate Membership
Observer Membership (organisaons
with less than 2 years of existence
only. No senior NCPCs allowed in this
category)
Individual Membership
Student Membership (potenally PHD
Candidates, University Students)
Independent Board
RECPnet Fund
(Managed by
Independent
Board)
RECPnet
Secretariat
(Independent from
Patron Agencies)
RECP Projects,
activities and
events
RECPnet
MEAL
Independent
Monitoring,
Evaluation
and Learning
Unit
RECPnet
Membership
and Business
Development
Unit
(Managed by
SCALING UP
CLEANER
PRODUCTION
BUSINESS MODEL
New network typologies should have a governance mechanism through an independ-
ent Board that is free of the influence from the Patron Agencies. Such a Board would be
typically comprising of different stakeholders such as National Cleaner Production Cen-
tres (NCPCs), Research Centres, private sector, academia, independent experts, consult-
ants and government stakeholders. Diversity of the Board from a composition perspec-
tive is essential to ensure that there is a broader perception of cleaner production beyond
service providers. A new RECPnet should not ring fence membership to NCPCs alone
but seek indulgence of a plethora of stakeholders. NCPCs can continue showing leader-
ship and guidance due to their historical contribution to cleaner production worldwide,
but at the same time, new innovative members should be considered.
The future orientation of networks must establish a funding mechanism to finance
its activities beyond donor support. The proposed RECPnet Fund should be endowed
with financial resources to enable financing of network activities, projects and events.
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Various mechanisms can be used to finance the facility such as through membership
subscriptions, consultancy commissions from members of the RECPnet who acquire
projects via the network. In any case the RECPnet should retain a percentage of any
finance acquired. A proposal is also to acquire donor support that is predictable and
covers long term activities of the RECPnet. Looking beyond traditional donors is also
a key step towards financial independence of the network. New forms of finance, such
as climate finance could be used to finance the RECPnet, by aligning donor cleaner pro-
duction to climate change and emissions reductions.
Within new typologies of cleaner production networks, should be a Membership and
Business Development Unit (MBDU) that aggressively markets the RECPnet beyond the
existing 70 members. The marketing and business development activities can include pro-
motional activities, digital marketing and physical engagements at conferences and events
to attract new members. The Membership and Business Development component will be
responsible for growing the network to levels where it can generate sustainable revenue.
An independent Secretariat that is autonomous from patron agencies is a key step
towards ensuring the independence and sustainability of the network. Whenever network
activities are undertaken within patron institutions, the network tends to adopt leadership
styles and tenets of the patron agencies. A sustainable RECPnet is one which is autono-
mous in its operations and can manage its affairs, budget, personnel and membership.
Strengthening the RECPnet requires expansion of revenue streams and one of the first
steps in order to reform the RECPnet is to expand the membership categories. Some pro-
spective new categories of membership include Champion Membership (a model adopted
from the Business Council for Sustainable Development Zimbabwe where selected organi-
sations pay higher subscriptions in exchange for higher visibility). Student Membership
would be recommended as a niche to capture members so that they continue as soon as
they finish tertiary education. Patron Agencies are recommended to take up paid up mem-
bership to enhance sustainability of the network. In the new typology of network orienta-
tion Observer membership should only be allowed for new organisations with less than
2years’ experience. Restricting old generation NCPC from taking up Observer Member-
ship is essential in imperative to the growth of the RECPnet. These typologies of course
come with a lot of weaknesses but are suited for higher ability to generate more income
and enhance sustainability.
Conclusions
i. What is the role of networks in promoting cleaner production?
Networks play a very critical role of promoting cleaner production in developing and
transition countries. Using the example of the Global RECPnet, it can be observed that
networks provide capacity building, technical knowledge and information dissemination
on cleaner production. Furthermore, networks arrange events on cleaner production in the
form of conferences, workshops and seminars – all of which help to improve the abilities
of organisations to adopt cleaner production approaches. From the period of its formation
to the last event in 2018, the RECPnet helped to escalate cleaner production, building upon
the earlier work by UNIDO and UNEP who developed the cleaner production projects in
the early years of 1994 and 1995.
ii. What factors led to the decline of the Global RECPnet?
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A plethora of factors resulted in the decline of the Global RECPnet. Chief amongst them
is the lack of funding beyond donor financing that was in the project of the Global RECP
Programme. Coupled with limited ownership of the network, there was a challenge to
ensure that the network continues without development partners. Lack of payment of sub-
scriptions by members also contributed to the lack of mobilisation of sustainable financing
for the association. Furthermore, some seasoned NCPCs still preferred Observer Member-
ship categories with no subscriptions, thereby lowering the financial base of the network.
The rapid changes in the global sustainability landscape, catapulted Circular Economy and
Eco-Industrial Parks to the priority of many donors and stakeholders, thereby relegating
cleaner production in terms of priority. The shift in concepts and donor preferences could
also be a reason why the vibrancy of the network has been subdued.
iii. What role did development partners play in the success or failure of the RECPnet?
Development partners led to the success of the RECPnet through their convening power
to bring stakeholders together. In addition, patron agencies brought a significant amount
of resources in kind and support of administrative responsibilities that enabled hosting of
secretariats of the RECPnet. Their ability to promote novel tools such as cleaner produc-
tion became a selling point and promote the RECPnet. However, patron agencies failed
to build an element of ownership with the network at the inception and tried to build this
element after there was already network dependency. Reliance on subscriptions and failure
to develop new business models financing the RECPnet is a flaw that was supposed to be
addressed in the project design. Managing the RECPnet within patron agencies, deprived
the network of managing itself and outgrowing the dependency that was noticed in the
early years of the cleaner production programme since 1995. Treating the RECP as a leg-
acy project of the NCPCs without venturing into new organisational forms to complement
the NCPCs, set up the RECPnet to fail. New forms of technical support and projects should
be designed in a way that patron agencies start weaning NCPCs from dependency at the
conceptualisation of projects.
iv. Which barriers did the global RECPnet face in scaling up its cleaner production net-
work activities?
The RECPnet faced a plethora of barriers in its quest to exist beyond donor fund-
ing. Firstly, the programmatic nature of the RECPnet made it difficult for it to exist as
an institution. Beyond the Global Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production programme
in developing and transition countries, it was not clear how the network would survive.
The belief that members would take it up and forward its mandate beyond the project, was
constrained. The lack of subscriptions and elusive behaviour of selected network members
to take non-paying membership categories greatly hindered the RECPnet from building a
financial base. Instead of keeping members regularly engaged, the RECPnet focused more
on Global Networking events and relatively was quiet in the periods between these mega
events. A knowledge management system is significantly acknowledged, but the need for
effective communication strategies remains an area of improvement on the RECPnet.
xxii. How did external contextual factors influence the eventual fate of the Global RECP-
net?
There were several contextual factors that affected the viability of the RECPnet. Firstly,
it relates to the changing sustainability context which popularised related concepts such
as Circular Economy (CE) and Eco-Industrial Parks (EIPs). Whilst cleaner production
remained solid proven concept, the emergence of CE shifted donor priorities, organisational
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Circular Economy and Sustainability (2024) 4:2313–2337
1 3
priorities and even led to restructuring in many organisations including patron organisa-
tions. The paradox of aligning with new concepts and the challenges of practically fol-
lowing concepts remain issues to ponder within patron agencies such as UNIDO and UN
Environment. Contextually speaking, in addition to aforementioned challenges, there were
external issues like organisational culture, national legal regimes, which are beyond the
control of RECPnet, but have an effect on whether or not an organisation joins the RECP-
net. External micro-economic conditions had an effect on the ability to pay subscriptions to
the network especially in selected developing countries.
vi. How can similar networks be governed in order to ensure continued viability of net-
works?
Networks must be administered by the members themselves and not necessarily patron
agencies. The role of patron agencies should be to facilitate networking. Through this
approach, ownership is built at an earlier stage rather than during the project. Future net-
works should not be designed with a programmatic approach, but from an institutional
approach to enable continuity. We propose new typologies of network orientation which
establish a funding mechanisms, communication strategies, independent secretariat, inde-
pendent Boards and a wide range of membership categories beyond the narrow 3 catego-
ries. More membership categories can enable reaching out to a wide range of stakeholders
beyond the traditional ones. In order to maximise the revenue potential of the network, free
membership for the members who join in the middle of the year should be abolished and
replaced with charging on a pro-rata basis. The payment of subscriptions “in kind” for cer-
tain members in the OECD region, who render services, is also a challenge to the cashflow
of the RECPnet. Commercial activities should be transactional and subscriptions should
be paid when they are due. Business Development Unit as well as a Monitoring, Evalua-
tion and Learning (MEAL) Units are necessary. The Business Development Unit should
aggressively market the network to prospective and potential members in order to grow the
network beyond 70 members. Similar networks can be governed with innovative business
models that ensure that the network itself builds a sustainable source of adequate and pre-
dictable financial resources.
Author Contribution Tawanda Collins Muzamwese: Lead authorship, conceptualisation, methodology,
investigation, writing, editing and reviewing.
Declarations
Competing Interest The authors declare that there are no competing interests with regard the research, that
could influence the outcomes of this paper.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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2336
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