ASL LITERACY AND CRITICAL THINKING DEVELOPMENT

Abstract

Most definitions of literacy, both historical and contemporary, define it as the sets of skills needed to learn and work within the basic needs of everyday life (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006; Lemke, 2004, as cited in Korhonen, 2010). Even the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines information literacy as "a capacity-building context, as the skills and capabilities for critical reception, assessment and use of information in peoples' personal or professional lives" (Frau-Meigs & Torrent, 2009, as cited in Korhonen, 2010, p. 218). However, these definitions do not fully capture literacy as the skills needed for everyday life in and outside of work or those fostering critical thinking development. More specifically, these definitions do not explicitly apply to American Sign Language (ASL) literacy. To date, ASL bilingual-biliteracy pedagogy has paid little attention to the definition of ASL literacy and to a full understanding of how it is embedded in cultural and social practices. The focus has been more on the ASL curriculum, teaching practices and strategies, ASL assessment, or its connections to ASL as a language of study. This article focuses on the comprehensive definition of ASL literacy and on the different components of how ASL language and culture 1 are connected to critical thinking development and to the use of metalinguistic and metacognitive skills such as comprehension and construction strategies to decode, comprehend, assess, evaluate, and reflect upon ASL literacy works and ASL texts, including ASL media works. In this sense, ASL literacy is seen as greater than the definition of skills needed for work and study, extending to skills needed for life. Furthermore, this article illustrates how ASL literacy learning is connected to the interrelationships between the child, the home, the school, the ASL community, and the global community. 1 The term "Deaf culture" has been used for many years in various publications. However, it can be confusing when discussing the two different groups of Deaf people in Ontario, Canada. One group uses ASL while the other uses langue des signes québécoise (LSQ). Each group has its own language, literature, and culture that are distinct and unique. To avoid confusion, it is more appropriate to refer to ASL culture instead of using the term "Deaf culture" (Gibson, 2006). The same rule also pertains to ASL people, ASL students, and the ASL community, as opposed to Deaf people, Deaf students, and the Deaf community. 2 Revista Brasileira de Alfabetização | ISSN: 2446-8584 | Número 22-2024 RESUMO A maioria das definições de alfabetização, tanto históricas quanto contemporâneas, define-a como o conjunto de habilidades necessárias para aprender e trabalhar dentro das necessidades básicas da vida cotidiana (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006; Lemke, 2004, conforme citado em Korhonen, 2010). Até mesmo a Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, Ciência e Cultura (UNESCO) define a alfabetização informacional como "um contexto de capacitação, como as habilidades e capacidades de recepção crítica, avaliação e uso da informação na vida pessoal ou profissional das pessoas" (Frau-Meigs & Torrent, 2009, conforme citado em Korhonen, 2010, p. 218). No entanto, essas definições não capturam totalmente a alfabetização como as habilidades necessárias para a vida cotidiana dentro e fora do trabalho ou aquelas que promovem o desenvolvimento do pensamento crítico. Mais especificamente, essas definições não se aplicam explicitamente à alfabetização na Língua de Sinais Americana (ASL). Até o momento, a pedagogia de alfabetização bilíngue em ASL tem dado pouca atenção à definição de alfabetização em ASL e a uma compreensão completa de como ela está inserida nas práticas culturais e sociais. O foco tem se concentrado mais no currículo de ASL, nas práticas e estratégias de ensino, na avaliação de ASL ou em suas conexões com a ASL como idioma de estudo. Este artigo se concentra na definição abrangente de alfabetização em ASL e nos diferentes componentes de como a língua e a cultura 2 ASL estão conectadas ao desenvolvimento do pensamento crítico e ao uso de habilidades metalinguísticas e metacognitivas, como estratégias de compreensão e construção para decodificar, compreender, avaliar e refletir sobre trabalhos de alfabetização e textos em ASL, incluindo trabalhos de mídia em ASL. Nesse sentido, a alfabetização em ASL é vista como algo maior do que a definição das habilidades necessárias para o trabalho e o estudo, estendendo-se às habilidades necessárias para a vida. Além disso, este artigo ilustra como o aprendizado da alfabetização em ASL está ligado às inter-relações entre a criança, a casa, a escola, a comunidade ASL e a comunidade global. Palavras-chave: Alfabetização em ASL. Pedagogia de ASL. Estratégias pedagógicas. Pensamento crítico. Habilidades cognitivas.

Full text

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Revista Brasileira de Alfabetização | ISSN: 2446-8584 | Número 22 - 2024
ASL LITERACY AND CRITICAL
THINKING DEVELOPMENT
ALFABETIZAÇÃO EM ASL E DESENVOLVIMENTO
DO PENSAMENTO CRÍTICO
Heather Gibson
Instituição: Ministry of Education, Ontario, Canada
Heather.Gibson@ontario.ca
Andrew Byrne
Instituição: Department of Linguistics, University at Buffalo, USA
abyrne@buffalo.edu
ABSTRACT
Most denitions of literacy, both historical and contemporary, dene it as the sets of skills needed to
learn and work within the basic needs of everyday life (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006; Lemke, 2004, as
cited in Korhonen, 2010). Even the United Nations Educational, Scientic, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) denes information literacy as “a capacity-building context, as the skills and capabilities
for critical reception, assessment and use of information in peoples’ personal or professional lives”
(Frau-Meigs & Torrent, 2009, as cited in Korhonen, 2010, p. 218). However, these denitions do not
fully capture literacy as the skills needed for everyday life in and outside of work or those fostering
critical thinking development. More specically, these denitions do not explicitly apply to American
Sign Language (ASL) literacy. To date, ASL bilingual-biliteracy pedagogy has paid little attention
to the denition of ASL literacy and to a full understanding of how it is embedded in cultural and
social practices. The focus has been more on the ASL curriculum, teaching practices and strategies,
ASL assessment, or its connections to ASL as a language of study. This article focuses on the
comprehensive denition of ASL literacy and on the different components of how ASL language
and culture1 are connected to critical thinking development and to the use of metalinguistic and
metacognitive skills such as comprehension and construction strategies to decode, comprehend,
assess, evaluate, and reect upon ASL literacy works and ASL texts, including ASL media works. In
this sense, ASL literacy is seen as greater than the denition of skills needed for work and study,
extending to skills needed for life. Furthermore, this article illustrates how ASL literacy learning is
connected to the interrelationships between the child, the home, the school, the ASL community, and
the global community.
Keywords: ASL literacy. ASL pedagogy. Pedagogical strategies. Critical thinking. Cognitive
skills.
1 The term “Deaf culture” has been used for many years in various publications. However, it can be confusing when discussing the two
different groups of Deaf people in Ontario, Canada. One group uses ASL while the other uses langue des signes québécoise (LSQ). Each
group has its own language, literature, and culture that are distinct and unique. To avoid confusion, it is more appropriate to refer to ASL
culture instead of using the term “Deaf culture” (Gibson, 2006). The same rule also pertains to ASL people, ASL students, and the ASL
community, as opposed to Deaf people, Deaf students, and the Deaf community.

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RESUMO
A maioria das denições de alfabetização, tanto históricas quanto contemporâneas, dene-a
como o conjunto de habilidades necessárias para aprender e trabalhar dentro das necessidades
básicas da vida cotidiana (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006; Lemke, 2004, conforme citado em
Korhonen, 2010). Até mesmo a Organização das Nações Unidas para a Educação, Ciência e
Cultura (UNESCO) dene a alfabetização informacional como “um contexto de capacitação,
como as habilidades e capacidades de recepção crítica, avaliação e uso da informação na vida
pessoal ou prossional das pessoas” (Frau-Meigs & Torrent, 2009, conforme citado em Korhonen,
2010, p. 218). No entanto, essas denições não capturam totalmente a alfabetização como as
habilidades necessárias para a vida cotidiana dentro e fora do trabalho ou aquelas que promovem
o desenvolvimento do pensamento crítico. Mais especicamente, essas denições não se aplicam
explicitamente à alfabetização na Língua de Sinais Americana (ASL). Até o momento, a pedagogia
de alfabetização bilíngue em ASL tem dado pouca atenção à denição de alfabetização em ASL
e a uma compreensão completa de como ela está inserida nas práticas culturais e sociais. O
foco tem se concentrado mais no currículo de ASL, nas práticas e estratégias de ensino, na
avaliação de ASL ou em suas conexões com a ASL como idioma de estudo. Este artigo se
concentra na denição abrangente de alfabetização em ASL e nos diferentes componentes de
como a língua e a cultura2ASL estão conectadas ao desenvolvimento do pensamento crítico e
ao uso de habilidades metalinguísticas e metacognitivas, como estratégias de compreensão e
construção para decodicar, compreender, avaliar e reetir sobre trabalhos de alfabetização e
textos em ASL, incluindo trabalhos de mídia em ASL. Nesse sentido, a alfabetização em ASL é
vista como algo maior do que a denição das habilidades necessárias para o trabalho e o estudo,
estendendo-se às habilidades necessárias para a vida. Além disso, este artigo ilustra como o
aprendizado da alfabetização em ASL está ligado às inter-relações entre a criança, a casa, a
escola, a comunidade ASL e a comunidade global.
Palavras-chave: Alfabetização em ASL. Pedagogia de ASL. Estratégias pedagógicas. Pensamento
crítico. Habilidades cognitivas.
Introduction
For the last six decades, research has indicated that the acquisition of American Sign Langua-
ge (ASL) structures takes place in the same language area of the brain where all other languages
develop. It is also known that ASL has the same trajectory of development that other languages
follow (Corina & Knapp, 2006; Emmorey, 2002; Hickok, Bellugi, & Klima, 2001; MacSweeney, Capek,
Campbell, & Woll, 2008). Furthermore, ASL is comparable to other languages in complexity (Klima &
Bellugi, 1979; Stokoe, 1960, 1966; Stokoe, Casterline, & Croneberg, 1965; Valli, Lucas, Mulrooney,
& Villanueva, 2011). From birth, a child’s rst language is acquired from the ASL language parents
(Baker & Woll, 2008; Lieberman & Mayberry, 2015; Lillo-Martin, 2016; Lillo-Martin & Henner, 2021;
Newport & Meier, 1985).
2 O termo “Cultura surda” tem sido usado há muitos anos em várias publicações. No entanto, ele pode ser confuso quando se discute os
dois grupos diferentes de pessoas surdas em Ontário, Canadá. Um grupo usa a ASL, enquanto o outro usa a langue des signes québécoise
(LSQ). Cada grupo tem seu próprio idioma, literatura e cultura, que são distintos e únicos. Para evitar confusão, é mais apropriado referir-se
à cultura ASL em vez de usar o termo “cultura Surda” (Gibson, 2006). A mesma regra também se aplica ao povo ASL, aos alunos ASL e à
comunidade ASL, em oposição ao povo Surdo, aos alunos Surdos e à comunidade Surda.

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Like all languages, ASL requires pedagogical approaches in the curriculum that allow students to
achieve ASL literacy and to use ASL literacy practices. The incorporation of ASL literacy and literacy
practices in a curriculum is critical if students are to achieve a level of cognitive complexity that enhan-
ces higher-order thinking skills. Such an evidence-based curriculum outlines instructional methods
and assessment strategies to maximize ASL literacy. It provides for planned instruction and interaction
of students with social, cultural, and language relationships in a variety of daily life and academic con-
texts.
When students learn to use ASL language in an ASL pedagogical setting, they develop literacy
skills both in comprehension and construction. They also develop an understanding of how their lan-
guage has meaning and the capability to make connections to the world around them, and they learn
how to use language for a variety of purposes in a variety of contexts and with different audiences.
The study of ASL and its literary works and ASL texts provides students with a connection to cultural
values and cultural interpretations of the world they live in. They link them to cognitive, affective, moral,
experiential, perceptual, and social domains, which are key to the development of their personal and
collective identity and their relationship with the ASL community. In Miller’s (2008) article, “Exemplary
Teacher: Principal Heather Gibson,” Gibson states, “Literary works are intimately tied to the culture
from which they spring and have their deepest meaning and strongest impact when the storyteller and
audience share a common cultural ground.”
Over the past 25 years, various attempts have been made to dene ASL literacy, as evidenced
by works from authors such as Christie & Wilkins (1997), Gallimore (2000), Gibson (2000), Lane, Hoff-
meister, & Bahan (1996), Moores (2006), Ray (2021), Snoddon (2012), and Zernovoj (2015). Similarly,
since 2008, sign language literacy has also been the subject of several attempts at denition by Gagne
& Coppola (2020), Kuntze (2008), Mertzani (2022), and Rosen (2020). The respective denitions of
ASL literacy and sign language literacy vary, with some authors perceiving them as a non-print form of
literacy or as a broader competence beyond just reading and writing, while others view them as multi-li-
teracies such as functional literacy, cultural literacy, and critical literacy. Finally, some authors include
the use of literate or higher-order cognition as the prerequisite for effectively understanding and cons-
tructing ASL or other sign languages. However, none of these denitions fully captures the essence
of literacy as comprehensively as they could. Byrne’s denition of ASL literacy, originally developed in
2013 and revised in 2020 (H. Gibson, personal communication, July 7, 2020), has been ne-tuned to
better encompass the full scope of literacy.
A comprehensive denition of ASL literacy
ASL literacy means having knowledge and skills in ASL language for a variety of purposes with a
variety of audiences and in a variety of contexts. It provides the foundation for the acquisition of even
more sophisticated literacy knowledge involving critical literary analysis and higher-level cognitive abi-
lities.
● First,ASL literacy is the abilityto usethe linguisticstructure ofASLfordeciphering-
deconstructing,reecting, organizing, andconveying information,ideas,and thoughts
foravarietyofpurposesandinavarietyofcontexts.Itinvolvesthe abilitytodecode,
comprehend,assess,evaluate,andreectASLliteraryworks,ASLtexts,andASLmedia
worksatthesocialandacademiclevels.

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● Second,ASLliteracyincludesthe abilitytoimaginativelyandeloquentlyconstructand
conveyASLliteraryworks,ASLtexts,andASLmediaworks.
● Third,ASLliteracyenhancesthe abilitytoacquireextensiveknowledgeandexperience
associated with ASL culture, ASL history, ASL literature andASL texts,ASL media,
education,signlanguagecultures,andotherrelevanttopics.
● Finally, ASL literacy equips an individual to effectively live, study, work, and actively
contributetotheASLcommunityandcommunitiesatlarge,andtoeffectivelynavigate
globalsociety.FullownershipofASLlanguageandASLculturalidentityiscrucialforthe
developmentandapplicationofASLliteracyskills.
Certain terms explained
Throughout the paper, several terms may be unfamiliar to readers, such as ASL literary work, ASL
text, ASL media work, ASL literary device, ASL construction, and deciphering-deconstructing. In order
to help readers fully comprehend these terms, it is necessary to dene them before proceeding further
in the paper.
AnASL literary workis an original compositioninASLthat isacohesive artistic expression
createdinanyformwithaliterarystyle,pointofview,andeffect.ASLliteraryworksareartistic
explorationsofideasandexperiences–forexample,toinform,describe,andconveythoughts,
feelings, and opinions that connect the audience to an ASL worldview (Ontario Ministry of
Education,2021).
An ASL text is a discourse form used for non-literary information sharing and knowledge
acquisition. ASL texts convey content or provide information in a continuous, organized, and
coherent ow (e.g., ASL video texts, instructions, news, scientic references, historical and
contemporarydocumentariesaboutASLpeopleand/orASLorganizations)(OntarioMinistryof
Education,2021).
AnASL media workisanASLcompositionthatisconveyedthroughelectronicmedia.Forms
ofASLmediahavevariousASLgenres,includingnewsreports,documentaries,sportprograms,
comedies,cartoons,advertisements,andinterviews(OntarioMinistryofEducation,2021).
AnASL literary deviceisaspecicpatternofASLwords,classierstructures,phrases,and/or
techniquesusedinASLliteraryworks,texts,andexpositionstocreateaspeciceffect.Examples
includeanalogy,comparison, contrast, irony,foreshadowing,simile,metaphor,personication,
pun,oxymoron,andsymbolism(OntarioMinistryofEducation,2021).
ASL constructionistheprocess of creating anASLwork.Specic knowledge and skillsare
essential to creating ASL works that incorporate content and forms effectively in a variety of
contextsandforavarietyofpurposes.Duringthisprocess,astudentwillapplytheirknowledge
ofASLconventions,ASLgrammaticalstructures,non-manualmarkers,ASLusage,andregisters
correctly(OntarioMinistryofEducation,2021).

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Figure 1: ASL Construction
Link: <https://youtube.com/shorts/3VMcOHJrZdk>.
Deciphering-deconstructing refers to the act and process of understanding a message in ASL.
It involves analyzing ASL literary works, such as prose, poetry, and other genres, that are experienced
in live or video format without the use of an orthographic system. It also includes analyzing ASL texts
(e.g., current news, dictionaries, history, science, and how-to vlogs). The process involves decoding
ASL words and classiers and language structure, thinking about the meaning of the content, and ex-
tracting meaning from the work. Examples of deciphering-deconstructing strategies include skimming
ASL literary works and ASL texts for information or details; analyzing parameters of ASL words; substi-
tuting unfamiliar ASL words and classiers with familiar ASL words and classiers; and breaking down
the content of ASL literary works into strophes, stanzas, and lines. During the deciphering-deconstruc-
ting process, students may use cueing systems – that is, semantic, syntactic, and/or pragmatic clues
from the context or their understanding of ASL structures and/or ASL parameter relationships – to help
them understand unfamiliar ASL words and classiers. They may also use a variety of comprehension
strategies to help them construct meaning and eventually demonstrate their understanding of an ASL
literary work or ASL text (adapted from the Ontario Ministry of Education, 2021).
Figure 2: Deciphering-deconstructing
Link: <https://youtube.com/shorts/3kKz-dMAncU>.

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The term deciphering-deconstructing recognizes a more complex process than viewing since it
involves a variety of comprehension strategies, such as predicting, visualizing, making connections,
inferring, and analyzing ideas and information conveyed by ASL works. This term is measurable by as-
sessing students’ comprehension skills, whereas viewing is not an appropriate pedagogical term and
is not listed in Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Miko, 2010). ASL teachers are able to detect areas of stren-
gth and areas in need of focus and proceed to the stage of identifying “what next.” Deciphering-de-
constructing involves students’ comprehension of ASL works in a greater depth than viewing suggests.
Figure 3: Literacy
Link: <https://youtube.com/shorts/1Y08HNnxQsg>.
The most common construction of the ASL word for “literacy” is strongly tied to the concept of
traditional literacy, namely reading and writing. This ASL word is demonstrated in Figure 3.
This ASL word reects the simplied concept that most people have of “literacy.” Based on the ability to
read and write, it misrepresents the true meaning of ASL literacy. Indeed, it does not appropriately reect the
meaning of the term literacy in the English language or any other language since all languages, including sign
languages, involve the skills to identify, comprehend, interpret, create, and convey content --- far more than
the mere ability to read and write. The proper ASL word demonstrated is shown in Figure 4 below. It appropria-
tely conveys the meaning of non-traditional literacy in the broader sense suggested in this article.
Figure 4: Literacy
Link: <https://youtube.com/shorts/dyHRxjc4gJE>.

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Theory into practice
According to Hoffmeister (1994), “Learning a language for school is not only a sociocultural pro-
cess but one requiring metaknowledge, metacognition, and metalinguistic skills” (p. 153). These as-
pects provide the necessary foundation for the development of ASL literacy skills. Research indicates
that higher levels of metacognition and metalinguistic skills yield higher levels of student achievement
and well-being in school.
Metalinguistic awareness recognizes the complexities and forms of an ASL language. It includes
the ability to think and discuss the linguistic form and structure and how these relate to and construct
the underlying meaning of the structure of a language. It also includes the ability to analyze the parti-
cular ways in which ASL language is used to convey meaning. With this focus on structure, students
are able to detect details in ASL persons’ use of their language for specic purposes (e.g., the use of
referential shifting [role shift] connected with specic ASL content, its purpose, and ASL context). It
requires an ASL person to have high literacy skills to be able to use and manipulate linguistic features
and components of the language. They need to be able to perceive and understand how other ASL
persons convey their thoughts, information, and ideas. It is not sufcient to use ASL just to “communi-
cate” or to converse about everyday contexts in a school setting.
It is imperative that ASL is used in the school as a language of instruction and also as a language
of study in itself. In this way, students are exposed to opportunities to learn ASL academically as a
language that promotes the development of higher-level cognitive processes as they study how ASL is
used to convey meaning. This approach is comparable to how, in French-language schools in Cana-
da, French is used as both a language of instruction and a language of study.
For example, the study of social justice in the ASL classroom would invite students to examine
how this issue impacts the ASL language, culture, and ASL community. This approach encourages
students to use their critical literacy skills to analyze the theme of social justice in ASL literary works and
ASL texts, including ASL media works. They are prompted to apply their understanding of ASL con-
tents in a variety of ASL forms in new and unfamiliar contexts. As they learn complex issues of social
justice in ASL works, they deepen their metalinguistic knowledge and metacognitive skills.
ASL literacy also involves the ability to deconstruct a variety of topics and contents related to the
study of language and the cultures connected with it. It includes history, legends, theories, science,
arts, sports, etc. When students study ASL contents in a variety of historical, social, traditional, and
cultural contexts, they can make connections with other sign languages/languages, cultures, and dif-
ferent time periods (from historical to contemporary). For example, when they examine the relationship
between the scientic theories related to language and the history of language and the ASL communi-
ty, they will think more deeply about ASL literary works, ASL texts, ASL media works, ASL culture, and
social justice. When they deconstruct and analyze the impact of legislation on ASL language, culture,
community, and its people, they enhance their understanding of the world around them. This, in turn,
supports and encourages student development of ASL language and ASL literacy skills (Ontario Mi-
nistry of Education, 2021).
Strong ASL language and literacy skills are the key integrating components for the development
of language comprehension and construction skills. For this reason, the ASL curriculum must introduce
learning activities and pedagogical strategies with this goal in mind. Students need to be taught com-
prehension strategies. They need to have many opportunities to respond to ASL literary works or texts.
Their construction skills need to be enhanced through dialogues and academic discussions, asking/

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answering questions, recounting experiences, discussing opinions, justifying responses, brainstor-
ming, problem-solving, sharing personal reections, etc. Vygotsky believed that higher-level cognitive
processing required meaningful interaction and dialogue with others (Dart, 2008).
A signicant part of the ASL curriculum is designed to support the development of ASL literacy.
The content requires students to develop and demonstrate their comprehension (making connections
and understanding) and construction of content (synthesizing and creating).
Comprehending ASL construction and content
ASL is a complex and evolving language, and full comprehension of both academic conversation
and ASL literary works and ASL texts requires the use of higher-order cognitive skills, which includes
the deciphering-deconstructing process. The result is a real, in-depth comprehension of ASL literary
works and ASL texts. Examples of comprehension strategies involve activating prior knowledge, pre-
viewing, skimming, scanning, deconstructing for main points or points of view in ASL works, re-deci-
phering-re-deconstructing, predicting, making inferences, summarizing, synthesizing, reecting, and
questioning for the purpose of explanation, clarication, expansion of understanding and application
to life events.
When deciphering-deconstructing ASL works, students develop a deeper understanding of the di-
mensions of their people’s experience as individuals and as a group. As they decipher-deconstruct cri-
tically, they develop a better understanding of the variety of forms found in ASL works and its elements
and features (e.g., literary devices and stylistic devices) in ASL literary works and ASL texts. As they
study ASL works that are connected with their language, culture, history, and contribution to the ASL
community, they create more meaningful connections between themselves and the world around them.
Based on ASL pedagogy and pedagogical strategies, programs (including cognitive activities
that rely on ASL as a rst language) aim for the development of metalinguistic knowledge and me-
tacognitive skills so students can deepen their understanding of ASL literary works and ASL texts.
An example of supporting students’ development of cognitive and critical thinking skills is the use
of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Pohl, 2000), as described below, which provides one framework for
enhancing students’ development of cognitive and critical thinking skills.
What is Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy?
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy, widely used in classrooms, is a system of organizing thinking skills
from lower to higher levels, with the higher levels involving increasingly sophisticated cognitive skills.
This classication of the thinking process is organized and delineated in different levels of cogniti-
ve complexity, providing teachers and students the opportunity to utilize and encourage a range of
thinking skills. It also empowers them with various types of questions and guides teachers’ levels of
questioning within a lesson.
Lower-level questions involve remembering, understanding, and lower-level applications of the
taxonomy; these are appropriate for evaluating students’ comprehension and application skills. They
assist in reviewing and summarizing content, as well as identifying students’ strengths and areas of
focus. Higher-level questions, requiring complex application, analysis, evaluation, or creation skills, en-
courage students to use critical and creative thinking more deeply, fostering problem-solving abilities.
They also stimulate engagement in discussions and independent information-seeking (Miko, 2010).

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Applying Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy to ASL Literacy Development
Utilizing Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning in an ASL program is one strategy to support and
develop students’ cognitive skills. The goal of employing Bloom’s revised taxonomy is to enhance stu-
dents’ ability to engage in complex critical thinking by using increasingly higher-order questions. This
method aims to elicit and deepen their understanding of ASL content in various forms, thus enabling
them to think creatively and independently as they solve problems related to the complex society in
which we live.
ASL teachers are encouraged to use strategies that apply Bloom’s revised taxonomy to instruct
students on how to think in novel ways. They must employ the higher levels of the taxonomy (analysis,
evaluation, creation) related to ASL literary works, ASL texts, and ASL media works to extend students’
critical literacy and thinking skills. This assistance enables students to apply what they know to new
contexts or situations.
ASL teachers can further employ Bloom’s revised taxonomy to guide students in ASL comprehen-
sion and construction strategies, encouraging them to use critical thinking skills while deciphering-de-
constructing and constructing ASL works. This method enables and encourages students to generate,
synthesize, and create new ideas and information using previously learned material. When students
are asked to manipulate information and ideas in this way, they become increasingly procient at
independently solving problems, developing a better understanding of the world around them, and
nding new meanings in ASL works. Students will also derive new meanings related to social issues
and values in their own lives through the analysis of ASL literary works and ASL texts from historical to
contemporary periods.
Applying Bloom’s revised taxonomy in an ASL classroom enables students to understand, inter-
pret, and make judgments about what they decipher-deconstruct based on evidence. They can draw
conclusions about ideas in ASL works and cite stated or implied evidence from the works to support
their points of view. The ability to decipher-deconstruct and comprehend ASL literary works and texts
is expanded through dialogues. “Learning deepens when students engage in deciphering-decons-
tructing, analyzing, constructing, reecting, representing, and responding, and using metacognitive
and metalinguistic interconnected skills — and reect on their own progress in developing language
and literacy” (Gibson, 2016, p. 5)3. It is vital that ASL teachers increasingly monitor students’ learning.
Data related to students’ results should be regularly collected and analyzed using ASL assessment,
curriculum-based ASL assessment (level of achievement chart for ASL), and students’ evidence of
learning. Using such data will provide crucial feedback to ASL teachers about the most effective pe-
dagogical approaches and high-yield instructional strategies to support students’ development in ASL
and ASL literacy skills.
According to Byrne (2013), “full ownership of the ASL language, ASL cultural space, and ASL
cultural identity is crucial for the development and application of ASL literacy skills” (p. 27). There-
fore, applying Bloom’s revised taxonomy affords students the opportunity to engage in higher-order
thinking. It is imperative that ASL teachers employ various instructional strategies such as differen-
tiated instruction, graphic organizers, ASL curriculum-based assessment, and instructional activities
or learning tasks to enhance students’ literacy skills and achievement to a greater extent in various
3 Heather Gibson developed a rst language-based ASL curriculum that outlined expectations for students’ ASL and literacy competencies.
The curriculum is designed to describe the knowledge and skills required at each grade level, providing administrators, teachers, parents,
and students with expectations for ASL language and ASL literacy.

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contexts when using higher-order questions. This will also improve students’ development of ASL
language skills. In ASL pedagogy, it is suggested that the use of taxonomy be incorporated into
daily lessons using an integrated approach, engaging students in higher-order thinking. Too often,
students’ critical thinking skills are conned to lower-order thinking levels that are not nourished and
expanded.
Below are a couple of examples of ASL curriculum-related templates of questions that reect
students’ cognitive development. These are applicable to an ASL class at the elementary school level.
There are different components that are involved in each lesson. The examples illustrate in a concrete
way how this approach supports students’ development of cognitive skills.
Example #1
ASLPoetry:“CowandRooster”byClaytonValli(1995)
GradeLevel:Grade1
Remembering • CreateanASLnger-playusingthepicturedhandshapesonastickand
retellValli’spoem.
• DescribeonlythemovementofaY-handshapeusedinthepoem.
• ExamineandidentifyASLculturalbehavioursfoundinthepoem.
Understanding • Collect various props related to farm life and place them in theASL
CommunityCentreforstudentstoactoutValli’spoem.
• Givethemainideaofthepoem.
Applying • Examineotherpossiblemovementsforacowandarooster.
• UseinappropriateASLcultural etiquette during ASL literacy time (e.g.,
“howthecowmadeeyecontactwiththerooster.”).
• Haveadiscussiononthesymbolismofthecharacters’specicmovements
in“Cow andRooster”. Identifythe movementsand theirmeaning, and
thenmakeconnectionsamongthesocialjusticeissuespresentedinthe
poem.
• Construct and create a similarASL poem using different animals and
makeitmorecomical.
Analyzing • Analyze rhymes (movement) and sequences of the poem and other
poeticfeaturesandmakeacritique.
• Why did the poet select two specic animals, cow and rooster, for his
poem?
• WhyisitimportantforanASLpoettouseeye-gazeandreferentialshifts
toestablishareferenceinspatialspacetopresentacowandarooster?
Evaluating • WhatpartofValli’spoemwouldyourecommendchanging?Whatpartof
thepoemwouldyounotrecommendchanging?
• Whichanimalwouldyouwanttobe?Giveyourreasonforyourchoice.
Creating • UserepeatedpartsofValli’spoemtocreateanASLchantmorecomical.
• Create and construct anASL poem after making a plan using anASL
videographicorganizer.

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Example #2
ASLPoetry:“Friends”byAndrewByrne(2000)
GradeLevel:Grade2/3
Remembering • RecountByrne’spoem.
• Describewhathappenedafterthecharactersbumpedintoeachother.
• WhatASLculturaletiquettedid the charactersusewhen bumping into
eachother?
• Describethesettinginthepoemwithouttheuseofpropsormedium.
Understanding • IdentifyunmarkedhandshapesusedinByrne’spoemwithouttheuseof
props.
• Explainthemainideaofthepoem.
• Paint their hands to represent characters and recite the poem using
mnemonictechniques.
Applying • Createa3Dmodelusingcardboardfora1-handshapeforanASLword,
friend.
• WhatwouldthemovementforusinganASLpronominalizedtermsuch
as“twoofyou”belikeinanASLpoem,Friends?
• ChangeByrne’spoemintoashortdocumentarylm.
Analyzing • Inferwhatwillhappentothecharactersiftheydidnotbumpintoeach
other.
• Discussandmakeacritiqueofthepoem.
• Analyzethepoemforthestanza.
• HowcanyoutellifanASLpersonissharinganASLpoem,“Friends,”in
amoreformalregister?Howwouldyouconstructyourresponsetothem
sothatitisculturallyappropriate?
• Howdid yourreview ofanASLpoemstructure priorto examiningthe
ASLvideotexthelpyouunderstandthecontent?
Evaluating • WhatcriteriawouldyouusetoassessByrne’spoem? (e.g., originality,
creativity,logicoforganization,cohesion/coherent,andothers).
• Discussthevalueofagoodfriend.
• Howdidyourpeers’feedbackrelatedtotheuseofroleshiftinghelpyou
understandthecontentinanASLpoem,Friends?
Creating • Create and construct an ASL poem using unmarked and marked
handshapes.
• StudentsdesigntheirownscavengerhuntrelatedtoByrne’spoemand
placeobjectsinvariouslocationsoftheclassroomandcreatevideotaped
instructionsusinglocativeclassiersforthatscavengerhunt.
As they decipher-deconstruct, analyze, and reect upon ASL literary works and ASL texts, stu-
dents also develop a deeper understanding of the ASL community and culture.
Constructing ASL content and the use of ASL grammatical structures
In the context of ASL pedagogy for constructing skills, teachers need planned language instruc-
tion to build students’ development in constructing ASL skills for dialogues, debates, presentations,
compositions, and other forms of ASL works. ASL construction is the process of developing, experi-
menting, and creating ASL works through the use of technology and/or in live presentation. It is not only

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that they construct ASL works. They also include cultural information, which is the key part of critical
analysis. Kuntze (2008, as cited in Gárate, 2014) argues that ASL “text” should be seen as content
that is linguistically documented through the use of video recordings. The content should be seen as
a document organized with a purpose and crafted to convey meaning. This requires students to have
an arsenal of specic skills and knowledge to create ASL works that incorporate content and forms for
their specic purpose and audience. Students need to ensure that there is a connection of ideas that
creates cohesion in an ASL work (e.g., use of specic handshapes, locations, and movement paths to
create an ASL classier for snowakes in an ASL documentary). They also need to ensure that an ASL
work is coherent in the use of ASL grammatical structures and non-manual markers. As well, they need
to ensure that the ASL sentences are constructed accurately. One of the strategies that students can
use to create an ASL work is the use of a video ASL graphic organizer. This process will guide them in
the planning, organizing, and editing of their ASL work in the ow of the content and ensure that their
work is grammatically coherent.
During the constructing process, students will apply their knowledge of ASL conventions, gramma-
tical structures, non-manual markers, ASL usages, and other ASL linguistic features, components and
literary devices that accurately convey meaning in ASL. This process necessarily requires students to
demonstrate cognitive skills as they create, construct, analyze, review, evaluate, and reect on their
ASL works.
The ASL Constructing Process
The ASL constructing process (Figure 5) for ASL literary works and ASL texts is a stagewise fra-
mework that requires the skills of planning, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing, respectively:
Figure 5: The ASL Constructing Process
Link: <https://youtube.com/shorts/ugk84cJN2-U>
Planning: This stage involves brainstorming and developing ideas, gathering information, inclu-
ding information about ASL cultures, and determining a form that suits the purpose and audience. It
may include considering register, style, and point of view.
Drafting: The drafting stage involves selecting and assuring the appropriate use of ASL discourse
structures, markers and registers, as well as ASL language structures, ASL parameters, ASL conven-
tions, ASL vocabulary, classier construction, spatial construction, and non-manual markers to organi-
ze content in a form and style for the purpose and audience.

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Revising: This stage involves critically examining the draft version of the ASL literary work or ASL
text by using different strategies to rene and improve the content, ow, and structure (to ensure cohe-
sion/coherence, clarity, and accuracy).
Editing: The editing stage involves checking the accuracy of the ASL discourse structures and
markers and registers, as well as the language structures, ASL parameters, ASL conventions, ASL vo-
cabulary, classier construction, spatial construction, and non-manual markers as well as the purpose
of the work.
Publishing: This stage involves using elements of effective delivery, such as graphics, layouts,
and hyperlinks, to nalize an ASL work that meets the criteria (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2021).
Note: It is imperative to recognize that students do not always wish their ASL works published.
Constructing ASL literary works and ASL texts from the planning stage to the publishing stage
involves higher-level thinking skills, cognitive processes, and technical skills. It entails the use of a fra-
mework in which students review, edit, and publish their ASL works. During the ASL constructing pro-
cess, students are encouraged to use strategies to create, experiment, and synthesize the information
they have collected to build content and convey meaning. They are also encouraged to ensure that the
connection of ideas and information forms an understandable, cohesive, and impactful whole in their
ASL works. There are ASL resources and pedagogical supports (e.g., teacher prompts, instructional
tips, glossary for ASL curriculum, and ASL literary genres) that enhance students’ development in com-
prehension, construction, and usage of ASL literary works and ASL texts. ASL digital literacy tools such
as video-text applications and photo editing applications are also included in the process.
The constructing process is a continuous process that requires students to use their language,
critical thinking, and analysis skills when creating their ASL works. It is imperative that ASL teachers
are there to support and guide students’ learning when creating ASL works during the constructing
process. Following are two examples of lesson plans that meet the comprehension and construction
expectations of the ASL Curriculum:
Lesson Plan #1: Comprehension

GradeLevel:Grade5
Strand B: Comprehending ASL Construction and Content
Overall Expectation:
B.1:DemonstratingUnderstandingofASLContent
• IdentifyvariousASLgenres,culturalelements,andASLwordsandclassierstodeterminemeaning
inavarietyofASLliteraryworksandASLtexts,usingarangeofcomprehensionstrategies.
Specic Expectation:
B1.3:UsingComprehensionStrategiestoUnderstandASLLiteraryWorksandASLTexts
• Usearangeofcomprehensionstrategiesbefore,during,andafterdeciphering-deconstructingideas
andinformationinASLliteraryworksandASLtextstodeterminemeaning.
B1.4:UsingComprehensionStrategiestoUnderstandASLWordsandClassiers

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• Usearangeofcomprehensionstrategiestodetermineorconrmthemeaningofnew,unfamiliar,or
recentlylearnedASLwordsandclassiersinASLliteraryworksandASLtexts.
Students’ Previous Knowledge:
• Knowledgeofdifferentfarmanimals,includingcowsandroosters
• KnowledgeofASLparametersandhowtheyarerelatedtoASLwordsandclassiersanditsrhyme
(e.g.,alliteration)
• KnowledgeofASLpoeticlinguisticfeatures(focusonhandshapes)
Learning Goal:
• Wewilllearntodecipher-deconstructClaytonValli’spoem,“CowandRooster,”formeaning.Wewill
respondtoquestionsrelatedtoBloom’srevisedtaxonomyforcomprehension.
Success Criteria:
• IcanusemypriorknowledgetointerpretValli’spoem.
• IcananalyzedifferenthandshapesandtheirconnectiontoASLwordsandclassiersinthepoemto
determinethemeaning.
• Icanrecitethepoem.
Minds-On:
• Reviewdifferentfarmanimals.
• Havestudentsdiscussandidentify/comparehowcowsandroostersarealikeanddifferent.
• Examineandidentifyeach animal’s speciccharactertraits.UsetheiPadstodocumenttheirASL
notes.
• ReviewASLpoeticlinguisticfeatures–focusonhandshapesandhowtheyarerelatedtoalliteration.
• Review/discusshowtheASLpoemisrelatedtosocialissues–basedonpreviousdiscussions.
Materials:
• iPadstodocumentstudents’notesandtoreciteandrecordtheirASLpoem,“CowandRooster”
• VideoofValli’spoem
• Whiteboardandmarkers
• Photosandvideosoffarmanimals
Teacher Supports:
Examplesofcomprehensionstrategiesinclude:
• activatingpriorknowledge;
• questioning;
• breakingdownthecontentofanASLpoemintolinesformeaning;
• repeatingtheprocessofdeciphering-deconstructing;and
• previewinganASLpoem’scharacteristicstomakepredictions.
Group Activity #1: In pairs:
Deciphering-DeconstructingValli’sPoem,“CowandRooster”:

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• ExplaintostudentsthattheywillbeaskedtoanalyzelinesbasedonValli’spoem’srstandsecond
stanzas.Theywillbeaskedtoidentifytheplotfortwostanzas.Studentswillalsobeaskedtopredict
the next ASL stanza (the third stanza) and its plot. Students will be encouraged to use different
comprehensionstrategiestoidentifytheplotineachstanza.Askstudentstoexaminetherststanza
oftheASLpoem“CowandRooster”anditsplotsandthenaskthemtopredictwhatwillhappenin
thefollowingstanzabasedontheirunderstandingofthepoem’sstructure;
• They will document their ASL notes based on their discussion. Then, each pair will be asked to
summarizetheirASLdocumenttotheclass.
Group Activity #2: In pairs:
• StudentswillworkinpairsonValli’spoemtodemonstratetheircomprehensionoftheuseofreferential
shiftingwhenusingspecicASLhandshapesinASLrhyme.Theywillusemnemonicsasacue(e.g.,
repetitivehandshapesinanASLpoem{e.g.,theY-handshapeandthe3-handshapeinValli’spoem})
forthemwhenusingreferentialshiftingfortwodifferentroles/charactersintableaudrama.
• Then,usingiPads,eachstudentwillbeaskedtorecitethersttwostanzasofValli’spoem.Theywill
beaskedtorecitethestanzasusingtheASLconstructingprocess.
Activity #3:
Question/AnswersusingBloom’sRevisedTaxonomy:
EachstudentwillbeaskedtogivetheirresponsesusinganASLliteraryjournal.Theywillbeaskedto
answerthequestionslistedbelow.
• Whydoyouthinkthepoetselectedaspecichandshapeforeachcharacter?
• WhathappenswhenaspecicparameterofanASLclassierischanged?
• When can unconventional ASL grammatical structures be used for specic purposes, such as a
specichandshapetodenote“tail”intheASLpoem“CowandRooster”?
• Howisthecharacter’sASLculturalidentitymadeevident?
• Whydidthepoetwearestudyinguseacarnivalesquediscourseforminhispoem?
• Whatstrategiesandmnemonictechniquesdidyouusetohelpyoutoreciteapoem?
• Howisanalliteration(therepetitionoftheY-handshapeandthe3-handshaperelatedtoASLclassiers
forthepoemforstylisticeffect)usedinValli’spoem?Studentsmayusethevideoclipsofthepoem
todecipher-deconstruct for theirdeepercomprehensionrelatedtotheuseofalliteration in anASL
poemintherstandsecondstanzas.
• Whatdo the interactionsbetweenthetwocharactersintheASLpoem“CowandRooster”tellyou
aboutthethemesofthispoem?Howisitrelatedtothecurrentsocialissues?
Consolidation:
Reection:
• Giventhe slip using a rubricthat isbased on theASL achievement chart, students willbe asked
torate their comprehensionof therst and secondstanzas of “Cow and Rooster”from level one
(knowledgeandskillswithlimitedeffectiveness)tolevel4(knowledgeandskillswithahighdegree
ofeffectiveness).
ReviewLearningGoalsandSuccessCriteria:
• Identifyseveralthingsthatyouhavelearnedinthisclass.
• Identifytheareaofthelessonyouwouldliketolearnmoreaboutordiscussforfurtherunderstanding
ofthecontentinanASLpoem.

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ASL Assessment:
• Useidentiedsuccesscriteriatotrackandmonitorprogresstowardachievingstatedlearninggoals
tosupportstudentstoidentifywheretheyareatintheirlearning,wheretheyneedtogo/focusonthe
area(s)theyneedtodevelop(nextstep),andhowtogetthere.
-Observation (Assessment for Learning): Group discussion and students’ responses to teacher’s
questions.
-ProductAssessment(AssessmentofLearning):RecitingValli’spoemandtheirASLliteraryjournalwith
alistofquestionsthatusesBloom’srevisedtaxonomy.
-Self-Assessment(AssessmentasLearning):Reection–rubric
-PeerAssessment(AssessmentasLearning):Tableaudramaactivity
Lesson Plan #2: Construction
GradeLevel:Grade5/6
Strand C: Constructing ASL Content and Usage of ASL Grammatical Structures

Overall Expectation:

C2:UsingtheASLConstructingProcess
• UsetheASLconstructing processto plan,draft, revise, edit,and publish avariety ofASLliterary
worksandASLtexts.

Specic Expectation:

C2.1:Generating,Developing,andOrganizingContent
• Generate,develop,andorganizeideasandcontentbeforeconstructingASLliteraryworksandASL
texts.
Activity: Recounting an ASL Poem

Learning Goal:
• WewillrecountavideotextofClaytonValli’sASLpoem,“Hands”.

Success Criteria:

• IcanusetheconstructingprocesstorecountanASLpoem.
• IcanidentifyconstructingstrategiesthathelpmetocreateanASLpoem.

Minds-On:

ReviewtheASLconstructingprocess:
• AskstudentstobrieyexplainwhatanASLconstructingprocessis.
• ShowphotosandshortvideoclipsofthefourseasonsandhowtheyareconnectedtoValli’spoem.

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• Havestudentsdiscusswhatthefourseasonsarelike–whattheirgeneralcharactertraitsmightbe
like.
• Havestudents deconstruct anddiscuss the literary devices thatValliuses inhisASLpoem(e.g.,
allusion,alliteration,analogy).
• Decipher-deconstructfourlinesfromavideoclipofValli’spoem.

Materials:

• i-PadstorecountandrecordtheirASLpoem.
• Videoclipoffourseasons
• whiteboard/chartpaperandmarkers
• Valli’spoem“Hands”

Teacher Supports:
Examplesofgenerating,developing,andorganizinginclude:
• activatingpriorknowledgethroughgroupdiscussion;
• referringtotheirASLvideojournaltodrawuponpreviouslearningandexperiences;
• sorting ideas and information using video graphic organizers (a storyboard with the class to
generateideasforcreatingandconstructinganASLwork);
• posingquestionstotheirteachersandpeerstodevelopcreativethinkingskills.
Group Activity:

1. GroupDiscussion:
• Have students discuss the characteristics they deconstruct in the video clips of Valli’s poem and
howtheyusehandshapes,locations,movementpaths,andnon-manualmarkerstocreatethefour
seasonscohesivelyandcoherently.Then,havethemdiscusspossiblehandshapesthattheywould
useforthispoem.
• Deconstruct/analyzethefourlinesofthepoem.
2. GroupLearningTask:

• Use a chart paper to deconstruct and track the four lines of Valli’s poem and the handshape(s),
locations,andmovementsthatcorrespondwiththefourseasons.
• Then,havethegrouprecounttherstfourlinesofthepoemusingvideotechnologytocapturetheir
ASLrecounting.
• SharetheASLworkwiththewholegroup.
Consolidation:ExitSlipandStudent-TeacherConference
ExitSlip:WhatdidyoulearnaboutValli’spoem,“Hands”?Whatfurtherquestionsdoyouhaveonthis
topic?
Assessment – Identied Success Criteria:

Useidentiedsuccesscriteria:

• Tomonitorstudents’learningprogresstowardachievingstatedlearninggoal(s).
• Toprovidedescriptivefeedbacktohelpstudentsidentifya)wheretheyareintheirlearning,b)where
theyneedtogo,andc)howtogetthere.

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DifferentiatedCurriculum-basedAssessment:

• Anecdotal Notes/Observation (Assessment for Learning): Group discussion responses to teacher
questions
• ProductAssessment(AssessmentofLearning):
a)RecountingbasedonanASLworkstudentsdeveloped
b)ASLJournalResponse
• Self-assessment(AssessmentasLearning):Reectionquestions
Including ASL literacy in ASL pedagogy enhances students’ success and well-being in deve-
loping/learning their own language and socio-cultural competencies, which in turn equip them with
valuable skills for their ASL community and for their lives. The academic learning environment is where
ASL students achieve complete literacy skills in ASL through the use of critical, metalinguistic, and
metacognitive thinking skills and where they learn to apply these skills to a variety of contexts. It is
essential that educators maintain collaborative dialogues through the use of the critical pedagogical
lens to focus on teaching practices, assessment, and instructional strategies to support students’ de-
velopment of literacy skills in ASL.
Conclusion and Implications
This article argues that ASL literacy is crucial in the design of an ASL curriculum with the
aim of enabling students to develop life-lasting critical thinking skills and to apply them in other
areas of their lives. The ASL as the rst language curriculum has been implemented in Provincial
Bilingual-Biliteracy-Bicultural Schools since the early 2000s. Two years ago, the ASL as a second
language curriculum was approved by the Ministry of Education and was implemented in the Pro-
vincial Schools and school boards. The curriculum is well-respected for its highly designed fra-
mework and content, learning expectations, assessment, and pedagogical support. In fact, ASL is
one of the four recognized languages in the Ontario Education Act (1990). Therefore, it demands
greater accountability on the part of educators to promote the development of ASL literacy skills
among students.
The ASL curriculum has been conducive to a learning environment in which students are able to
develop a positive self-image and convey and transmit their views of reality, their thoughts, their feelin-
gs, and their culture, values, and priorities in their rst language. The development of critical thinking
skills in ASL enables students to take ownership of the culture of the school community and to ground
themselves in the ASL community (Gibson & Blanchard, 2010). A strong ASL curriculum, rooted in
ASL literacy, ensures the continuity and evolution of ASL as a living language through transmission to
subsequent ASL generations. Today’s students of the ASL community will be the keepers of a vibrant
ASL linguistic and cultural heritage and future.
The research literature on ASL literacy and how it relates to the best evidence-based teaching
practices is sorely limited. More research is needed to investigate and identify the best evidence-ba-
sed practices in the classroom and how to guide ASL teachers and students in the learning path of
acquiring and responding to ASL literacy. As new insights, new instructional practices, methods and
strategies, and new resources are shared in the professional educator community, the benets of ha-
ving the ASL curriculum can become rich, cumulative, and fully realized.

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Received: 30/11/2023
Accepted: 21/02/2024