Navigating through the Storm—The Challenges of the Energy Transition in the European Union

Abstract

As civilization and technology have developed, there have been multiple energy transitions that have pushed various resources like coal, wood, oil, and gas to the forefront of the energy mix. Due to a variety of geopolitical initiatives, there have been progressively more restrictions on the energy sector in recent years. One of the main concerns of researchers is the widespread use of renewable energy and the replacement of fossil resources. The utilization of non-renewable energy sources results in a detrimental increase in greenhouse gas emissions. One of the most crucial strategies for lowering energy consumption and enhancing the energy system’s sustainability is to increase energy efficiency. Numerous studies note that energy transition has become necessary in the modern day. Using the analysis of the main components as an extraction method, hierarchical cluster analysis, this study focuses on the situation of the states of the European Union in their race for energy transition, taking into account the main challenges generated by geopolitical tensions and the energy poverty spectrum for the population. The conclusions of the study call for a reconfiguration of the energy mix based on renewable energy. Increasing the share of renewable energy is a goal pursued by EU countries, but energy policies must be considered in a broader context that includes the social aspects of the energy transition. So, just transition is a new concept that reshapes the actions of public authorities on the path to a low-carbon economy. Just transition is a necessity that puts the consumer at the center of attention so that the negative externalities generated by the move away from fossil fuels are minimized in terms of social impact.

Full text

Citation: Panait, M.; Iacob, S
,.; Voica,
C.; Iacovoiu, V.; Iov, D.; Mincă, C.;
Teodorescu, C. Navigating through
the Storm—The Challenges of the
Energy Transition in the European
Union. Energies 2024,17, 2874.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122874
Academic Editor: Ignacio Mauleón
Received: 25 April 2024
Revised: 31 May 2024
Accepted: 10 June 2024
Published: 12 June 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
energies
Article
Navigating through the Storm—The Challenges of the Energy
Transition in the European Union
Mirela Panait *, S
,tefan Iacob , Cătălin Voica * , Viorela Iacovoiu, Daniela Iov, Carmen Mincă
and Cristian Teodorescu
Department of Cybernetics, Economic Informatics, Finance and Accountancy, Romania Petroleum-Gas University
of Ploiesti, 39, Bd Bucures
,ti, 100680 Ploiesti, Romania; siacob@upg-ploiesti.ro (S
,.I.);
viorela.iacovoiu@upg-ploiesti.ro (V.I.); driov@upg-ploiesti.ro (D.I.); carmen.zefinescu@upg-ploiesti.ro (C.M.);
cteodorescu@upg-ploiesti.ro (C.T.)
*Correspondence: mirela.matei@upg-ploiesti.ro (M.P.); catalin.voica@upg-ploiesti.ro (C.V.)
Abstract: As civilization and technology have developed, there have been multiple energy transitions
that have pushed various resources like coal, wood, oil, and gas to the forefront of the energy mix.
Due to a variety of geopolitical initiatives, there have been progressively more restrictions on the
energy sector in recent years. One of the main concerns of researchers is the widespread use of
renewable energy and the replacement of fossil resources. The utilization of non-renewable energy
sources results in a detrimental increase in greenhouse gas emissions. One of the most crucial
strategies for lowering energy consumption and enhancing the energy system’s sustainability is to
increase energy efficiency. Numerous studies note that energy transition has become necessary in the
modern day. Using the analysis of the main components as an extraction method, hierarchical cluster
analysis, this study focuses on the situation of the states of the European Union in their race for
energy transition, taking into account the main challenges generated by geopolitical tensions and the
energy poverty spectrum for the population. The conclusions of the study call for a reconfiguration
of the energy mix based on renewable energy. Increasing the share of renewable energy is a goal
pursued by EU countries, but energy policies must be considered in a broader context that includes
the social aspects of the energy transition. So, just transition is a new concept that reshapes the actions
of public authorities on the path to a low-carbon economy. Just transition is a necessity that puts the
consumer at the center of attention so that the negative externalities generated by the move away
from fossil fuels are minimized in terms of social impact.
Keywords: energy transition; fossil fuel; renewable energy; European Union
1. Introduction
Concerns regarding sustainable development have become increasingly intense, and
companies are involved in the transition to a low-carbon economy [
1
–
3
]. There is a close
relationship between energy, the economy, and the environment. Along with the develop-
ment of humanity, energy sources have diversified, and energy consumption has increased
substantially, the negative externalities on the environment being dramatic [
4
–
7
]. As society
and technology have progressed, humanity has gone through several energy transitions
that have brought to the center of the energy mix different resources, such as wood, coal, oil,
and gas. Currently, the paradigm shifts in the energy sector envisage the predominant use
of renewable energy resources, which have a low environmental impact [
8
–
15
]. Redefining
the energy mix is a complex problem considering the economic, social, technological, and
geopolitical challenges that affect the energy sector [
16
–
19
]. The interests of the companies
in the traditional energy sector are very large and are supported at a high level; coal/oil
and gas lobby are a new trend in countries such as India and Poland, where these resources
play an important role in energy generation [20–23].
Energies 2024,17, 2874. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17122874 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024,17, 2874 2 of 18
In recent years, there have been increasingly strong constraints in the energy area
generated by various geopolitical actions with important economic and social effects.
Consequently, imbalances in the economic sector have influenced environmental deci-
sions [
24
–
26
]. For this reason, energies considered dirty, such as coal or nuclear energy,
have been reconsidered due to their role in energy security goals [
27
,
28
]. Although the new
energy transition was generated by the stakeholders’ desire to reduce the effect of energy
production and consumption on the environment, concerns related to energy security and
ensuring access to energy for all have become a priority.
This new energy transition is aligned with all sustainable development goals (SDGs)
and puts consumers at the center of attention, which is increasingly facing the specter of
energy poverty [
29
–
35
]. New technologies, the use of renewable energies, and the existence
of prosumers have led to the decentralization and flexibility of national energy systems. In
addition, the existence of the European Energy Union ensures the interconnection of the
energy systems of the member countries, the watchword being flexibility. The European
authorities promote flexible markets in the field of energy, which is a tool through which the
zero-carbon objective for 2050 can be achieved. Flexibility allows consumers to adjust their
energy usage during peak times when prices are higher, thus reducing their energy bills. By
shifting usage to off-peak times, households can take advantage of lower rates. Flexibility
helps balance the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar
by adjusting demand to match supply. This is critical for maintaining grid stability. By
enabling a more responsive grid, flexibility ensures that renewable energy can be integrated
without compromising reliability. This reduces the reliance on fossil fuels. Flexibility is a
crucial element in both combating energy poverty and advancing the energy transition. It
enables more efficient and equitable use of energy resources, integrates renewable energy
effectively, and enhances the resilience and reliability of the energy system [
36
,
37
]. The
widespread use of renewable energy and, consequently, the replacement of fossil resources
is of key interest to researchers but also to public authorities or management teams of
international economic bodies, such as the European Union [
38
–
41
]. The European Union
is the undisputed leader of the energy transition worldwide, the concerns of the public
authorities being complex to achieve a balance between the concerns of protecting the
environment, ensuring access to energy for all residents, energy solidarity between member
countries and operational internal energy [20,42–45].
Energy consumption is a major constituent in terms of the economic progress of each
nation because the configuration and achievement of production at national and global
levels are governed by the quantity and quality of these energy resources. Conventional
non-renewable energy resources, namely oil, natural gas, and coal, are exhaustible. In these
circumstances, it is particularly important to have a very well-developed strategy regarding
this energy transition.
It is energy that drives all economic and financial mechanisms globally. When prob-
lems arise in the energy production area, they are immediately felt and quantified in all
other areas. A rise in fuel prices generates a build-up in the costs of equipment that uses
directly (transport equipment, production) or indirectly (equipment running on electricity)
this type of fuel. These costs are then passed on downstream to the final consumer [
46
,
47
].
This was observed during the distortions generated by the COVID-19 pandemic when,
globally and locally, enormous funds were used to counteract its effects on the economy
and population. As a result of these actions, considerable sums of money were thrown into
the market in the form of incentives, aid, etc., in order to assure proper access to energy for
consumers [48].
Non-renewable energy source usage leads to increased greenhouse gas emissions,
which have a particularly harmful effect. At the moment, energy production and consump-
tion that generate greenhouse gas emissions are particularly high [
49
,
50
]. In recent years,
the energy transition has become a global priority, as it is necessary to reduce emissions
of greenhouse gases and other pollutants to prevent climate change and protect people’s
health and quality of life. Increasing energy efficiency is one of the most important ap-

Energies 2024,17, 2874 3 of 18
proaches to lowering energy consumption and improving the sustainability of the energy
system [
51
–
53
]. In the context of an energy transition, increasing energy efficiency can be
achieved through specific methods. Improving the energy efficiency of buildings is an
important tool used in many countries, taking into account the fact that buildings consume
a significant amount of energy for heating, cooling, and lighting. Improving the energy
efficiency of buildings can be achieved through thermal insulation, installation of double-
glazed windows, use of LED lighting systems, and improvement of ventilation and heating
systems. In addition, advanced technologies such as heat pumps and solar panels can be
used to reduce energy consumption and increase energy efficiency. Transport represents
another significant source of energy consumption, so increasing the energy efficiency of
vehicles through the use of cleaner and more efficient technologies, like electric vehicles,
can considerably reduce energy consumption. Increased use of renewable energy, mainly
solar and wind power, has the potential to significantly cut down energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions.
The European Commission Is debating a number of measures and programs to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, such as the regulation on reducing methane emissions in the
energy sector [
54
]. It is also concerned with increasing the production of renewable energy
by issuing several directives to reach a certain share of renewable energy in total energy.
Thus, the 2018 directive aimed at a 32% share of renewable energy sources in gross final
energy consumption by 2030 [
55
]). This target was increased to a minimum of 42.5% by a
revised directive [
56
]. Subsequently, the European Commission proposed a revision of the
renewables target to 40% renewable energy in gross final energy consumption and then
a further increase to 45% under the REPowerEU plan. Information from the EU’s latest
publications states that it accounts for 6% of the global GHG emissions, being the fourth
largest emitter. Between 1990 and 2022, the EU decreased its emissions by 31% and has a
target of 55% for the year 2030 compared to 1990 [57].
The objective of this paper is to analyze the EU’s development toward reaching net-
zero emissions and the main components that impact this goal. Additionally, the objective
involves discerning variations between different member states by classifying them into
different clusters. Followed up by making predictions on when net zero emissions will be
achieved based on their actual evolution.
The article begins with an Introductory section In Ih the authors present the main
results recorded worldwide regarding the energy transition. In the Section 2, the results
of the most representative studies identified in the international scientific literature are
presented, which demonstrate the existence of a research gap that justifies the completion
of this study. In the Sections 3and 4, the scientific method, the data used, and the results
obtained are presented. The Section 5of the study presents in detail the authors acknowl-
edging research limitations, which is why they propose future research avenues that will
be the subject of further studies.
2. Literature Review
The mitigation of climate change is the main objective for humanity’s future: to
survive the harm done to the planet and reverse it. One of the most efficient tools in
achieving this goal is the energy transition to renewable energy. From one point of view,
it helps lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and from another point, it provides an
efficient instrument to fight climate change [
58
]. Starting with the 2000s, many countries,
especially those with high climate risk, took important steps toward transitioning their
energy production from fossil fuels to renewable energy [59,60].
The research on energy transition Is mainly located In Europe and North America,
given their highly active approach to the subject. The increased focus of both scientists and
public institutions on the energy transition in these countries is generated by their high level
of economic development and the existence of abundant financial resources. The screening
of the international scientific literature demonstrates the existence of numerous papers
focused on single-country case studies or comparative approaches by using quantitative

Energies 2024,17, 2874 4 of 18
and qualitative tools [
61
–
65
]. Lately, an increasing interest in Global South countries
spurred a new wave of research from these regions [66–69].
Energy transition has come with the important metamorphosis of the energy mix.
The renewable energy market has constantly increased its market share. This is a must
if a cleaner future is to be achieved [
70
]). This gives rise to complex problems that must
be overcome, like the decoupling from traditional and inefficient methods while fulfill-
ing the energy needs of a growing population and increasing corporate demand [
71
–
75
].
Throughout the implementation of GHG reduction activities and energy transition, many
researchers have conducted complex analyses to see how the timeline is respected and
identify possible ways and policies to better ensure an organized and smooth transition.
Ref. [
76
] conducted a review of past transitions and identified three modern cases of
energy transition: Brazil, France, and the United States. Their findings highlight that energy
transition fixed on energy efficiency can take place more rapidly [
76
]. Ref. [
77
] conducted a
comprehensive review of energy storage technologies that may have an important impact
on energy transition as many renewable energy technologies suffer from the challenge of
delivering energy on demand as their source is not continuous [77].
Ref. [78], identified four premises on sustainable energy transition pathways: (1) sus-
tainable energy economics and management; (2) renewable energy generation and con-
sumption; (3) environmental impacts of energy systems; and (4) electric vehicle and energy
storage. They suggested that innovative, robust, and bold strategies in governance, manage-
ment, and education are vital to encourage sustainable energy transition amongst various
scales and sectors [
78
]. Tian et al., 2022, conducted an in-depth review of the energy transi-
tion pre-COVID-19 pandemic and identified the challenges for energy transition during the
pandemic. The study proposed a post-pandemic energy transition roadmap by expanding
green financing tools, bolstering international cooperation, and improving green financing
instruments [79].
Qadir et al., 2021, analyzed the necessity for extra capital spending on energy resources
that can assemble global demand with no environmental damage. Investments in clean
forms of energy, like solar, wind, and hydropower, have fluctuated even though they are
both successful and readily available. The study presents the main obstacles impeding
investment in clean energy production, underlines vital incentives that could hurry up
the investment processes, and surveys a number of essential tactics for the switch from
fossil-fuel-based energy to renewables [71].
Ref. [
80
] highlighted the technical capability and economic practicability of 100%
renewable energy systems covering the power, heat, transport, and desalination sectors.
Ref. [
81
] identified four dimensions that permit the detection of certain economic principles
or key plans to steer the energy transition. The energy transition (1) is driven by policies
instead of technology forces and (2) disrupts liberalized electricity markets that influence
the economic foundation of this process, (3) is going to be incomplete, taking into account
the technological challenges, at least in the next few decades, (4) generates a change in
consumer behavior that determined new business models.
Limpens et al., 2019, presented EnergyScope TD, an innovative open-source model
for the strategic energy planning of urban and regional energy systems. One of the most
advanced energy modelling systems which optimises both the investment and operating
strategy of an entire energy system [82].
Building on these advancements in the literature, this study focuses on the EU’s
development toward reaching net-zero emissions and analyses the main components that
impact this goal.
3. Data and Methods
Achieving the energy transition is a crucial objective that we consider in this research
and in this context. We will analyze the dynamic developments of some indicators, such as
the production and recycling of materials and materials necessary for the renewable sector,
the production and consumption of renewable energy/non-renewable energy, energy

Energies 2024,17, 2874 5 of 18
imports, and the intensity of greenhouse gas emissions at the European Union level. Data
on the evolving dynamics of the studied indicators are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Evolution of indicators in dynamics between 2000 and 2021 at the EU27 level.
Year FEC
Millions of Tons
RE
Millions of Tons
GES
Index (Year 2000 = 100)
GAE
Millions of Tons
IMP
(%)
2000 979.9 83.43 100 1297.94 56.284
2001 1002.9 87.20 99.4 1303.78 55.769
2002 996.2 91.13 99.2 1309.64 56.256
2003 1026.2 95.25 98.9 1315.53 56.878
2004 1036.3 99.55 97.4 1321.45 56.854
2005 1041.3 105.96 96.5 1358.93 57.819
2006 1045.9 112.72 95.7 1403.21 58.257
2007 1028.5 120.85 95.8 1428.88 57.219
2008 1036.7 130.11 94.3 1461.58 58.37
2009 980.8 135.81 93.3 1370.26 57.175
2010 1024.5 147.51 92 1445.20 55.766
2011 984.6 143.22 91.7 1421.61 56.359
2012 982.6 157.22 91.2 1537.23 54.918
2013 980.4 163.35 89.8 1519.99 53.939
2014 938.8 163.58 88.4 1468.05 54.421
2015 957.9 170.81 88.9 1488.48 56.064
2016 976.9 175.75 88.1 1501.71 56.16
2017 989 182.21 86.7 1532.99 57.548
2018 991.6 189.49 85.1 1524.75 58.136
2019 986 196.17 82.2 1501.40 60.482
2020 905.9 200.30 80.9 1379.10 57.455
2021 967.9 204.61 81.2 1462.43 55.523
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors. FEC stands for final energy consumption. RE stands for renewable
energy production. GES stands for greenhouse gas emissions. GAE stands for available raw energy. IMP represents
the energy deficit covered by imports.
Through the methodology used (the method of indices, the method of dynamic series,
the comparative study, bringing the indicators used by deflation to real/comparable values,
the method of grouping by components, and others), the authors highlight the fact that
the energy transition must remain a priority of the European Union even the social and
geopolitical issues they gained ground.
4. Results and Discussions
One of the primary objectives of this research is to quantify the situation in the
European Union and in each member country in terms of greenhouse gas emissions
intensity due to energy consumption and to identify some solutions that could lead to a
decrease in greenhouse gas intensity. At the EU level, the evolution of greenhouse gas
emissions is downward, an aspect presented in Figure 1.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Figure 1. Evolution of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union between 2000 and 2021
(Year 2000 = 100). Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
It can be noted that in 22 years, there has been a decrease of almost 20% in greenhouse
gas emissions at the European Union level. Also, the average year-on-year pace of decline
is 0.98%. Renewable energy is gaining prominence in consumers’ lives, and the techno-
logical revolution offers solutions for exploiting the natural capacity of each region. Wind,
solar energy, and biofuels have progressively joined the energy mix of each country, being
crucial in this setup both the territorial distribution of these resources, the involvement of
economic agents in the process of innovation, research, and development, as well as the
attitude of consumers and local communities towards new types of energy. Of course, the
amount of renewable energy consumed tends to increase from one period of time to an-
other, which should draw attention, as mentioned above, to the replacement of non-re-
newable energy with renewable energy. The shift towards renewable energy is a global
phenomenon, with most countries endeavoring to increase renewable energy production
for the benefit of consumers and the development of national economies. Figure 2 shows
the evolution of renewable energy production between 2000 and 2021 at the European
Union level.
Figure 2. The evolution of renewable energy production between 2000 and 2021 at the EU level.
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
It can easily be seen that renewable energy production in the European Union has
increased significantly. Thus, in absolute data, renewable energy production increased
from 83.43 million tons of oil equivalent in 2000 to 204.61 million tons of oil equivalent in
2021, thus registering an average annual rate of 4.4%.
Consequently, the research aims to trace the positions and evolutionary trends of
some variables in view of taking urgent measures to accelerate the achievement of the
energy transition, taking into account in this regard also the energy crisis due to a large
extent to the geopolitical tensions and the restrictions imposed by the European Union on
Figure 1. Evolution of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union between 2000 and 2021 (Year
2000 = 100). Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.

Energies 2024,17, 2874 6 of 18
It can be noted that in 22 years, there has been a decrease of almost 20% in greenhouse
gas emissions at the European Union level. Also, the average year-on-year pace of decline is
0.98%. Renewable energy is gaining prominence in consumers’ lives, and the technological
revolution offers solutions for exploiting the natural capacity of each region. Wind, solar
energy, and biofuels have progressively joined the energy mix of each country, being crucial
in this setup both the territorial distribution of these resources, the involvement of economic
agents in the process of innovation, research, and development, as well as the attitude of
consumers and local communities towards new types of energy. Of course, the amount of
renewable energy consumed tends to increase from one period of time to another, which
should draw attention, as mentioned above, to the replacement of non-renewable energy
with renewable energy. The shift towards renewable energy is a global phenomenon, with
most countries endeavoring to increase renewable energy production for the benefit of
consumers and the development of national economies. Figure 2shows the evolution of
renewable energy production between 2000 and 2021 at the European Union level.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Figure 1. Evolution of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union between 2000 and 2021
(Year 2000 = 100). Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
It can be noted that in 22 years, there has been a decrease of almost 20% in greenhouse
gas emissions at the European Union level. Also, the average year-on-year pace of decline
is 0.98%. Renewable energy is gaining prominence in consumers’ lives, and the techno-
logical revolution offers solutions for exploiting the natural capacity of each region. Wind,
solar energy, and biofuels have progressively joined the energy mix of each country, being
crucial in this setup both the territorial distribution of these resources, the involvement of
economic agents in the process of innovation, research, and development, as well as the
attitude of consumers and local communities towards new types of energy. Of course, the
amount of renewable energy consumed tends to increase from one period of time to an-
other, which should draw attention, as mentioned above, to the replacement of non-re-
newable energy with renewable energy. The shift towards renewable energy is a global
phenomenon, with most countries endeavoring to increase renewable energy production
for the benefit of consumers and the development of national economies. Figure 2 shows
the evolution of renewable energy production between 2000 and 2021 at the European
Union level.
Figure 2. The evolution of renewable energy production between 2000 and 2021 at the EU level.
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
It can easily be seen that renewable energy production in the European Union has
increased significantly. Thus, in absolute data, renewable energy production increased
from 83.43 million tons of oil equivalent in 2000 to 204.61 million tons of oil equivalent in
2021, thus registering an average annual rate of 4.4%.
Consequently, the research aims to trace the positions and evolutionary trends of
some variables in view of taking urgent measures to accelerate the achievement of the
energy transition, taking into account in this regard also the energy crisis due to a large
extent to the geopolitical tensions and the restrictions imposed by the European Union on
Figure 2. The evolution of renewable energy production between 2000 and 2021 at the EU level.
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
It can easily be seen that renewable energy production in the European Union has
increased significantly. Thus, in absolute data, renewable energy production increased
from 83.43 million tons of oil equivalent in 2000 to 204.61 million tons of oil equivalent in
2021, thus registering an average annual rate of 4.4%.
Consequently, the research aims to trace the positions and evolutionary trends of
some variables in view of taking urgent measures to accelerate the achievement of the
energy transition, taking into account in this regard also the energy crisis due to a large
extent to the geopolitical tensions and the restrictions imposed by the European Union on
Russia, which are practically turning like a boomerang against the Member States. It is
important to note that the European Union currently imports around 55% of the energy
consumed, and practically, the European Union’s real strategic autonomy in terms of energy
sources is far from being achieved. Figure 3shows the evolution of energy imports in the
European Union.
The evolution of energy imports in the European Union during the analyzed period
exhibits oscillations, with minimum values of 53.94% in 2013 and maximums of 60.48% in
2019, but we can say that more than half of the energy consumed by the Member States
of the European Union comes from imports. Achieving the energy transition requires the
use of resources such as rare earth metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel for energy
storage batteries, as well as solar panels and wind turbines. However, these resources
are available in limited quantities and concentrated in certain countries, which can lead
to supply security issues. Moreover, the extraction and processing of these resources can
have negative environmental impacts, such as soil and water pollution and deforestation.

Energies 2024,17, 2874 7 of 18
Increased demand for these raw materials may also lead to higher prices, which could
affect access to these technologies for poorer countries. However, there are solutions to this
problem. One of them would be the development of alternative technologies for replacing
scarce raw materials. For example, researchers are working on developing batteries that
use more common materials, such as sodium or magnesium, instead of lithium and cobalt.
In addition, there is also the possibility to recycle rare materials from batteries and other
electronic devices, which could reduce dependence on extracting new resources. Greater
use of nuclear energy and hydrogen could also reduce dependence on fossil fuels and
scarce raw materials used in current technologies.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19
Russia, which are practically turning like a boomerang against the Member States. It is
important to note that the European Union currently imports around 55% of the energy
consumed, and practically, the European Union’s real strategic autonomy in terms of en-
ergy sources is far from being achieved. Figure 3 shows the evolution of energy imports
in the European Union.
Figure 3. Evolution of energy imports in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eu-
rostat. Data processed by authors.
The evolution of energy imports in the European Union during the analyzed period
exhibits oscillations, with minimum values of 53.94% in 2013 and maximums of 60.48% in
2019, but we can say that more than half of the energy consumed by the Member States of
the European Union comes from imports. Achieving the energy transition requires the
use of resources such as rare earth metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel for energy
storage batteries, as well as solar panels and wind turbines. However, these resources are
available in limited quantities and concentrated in certain countries, which can lead to
supply security issues. Moreover, the extraction and processing of these resources can
have negative environmental impacts, such as soil and water pollution and deforestation.
Increased demand for these raw materials may also lead to higher prices, which could
affect access to these technologies for poorer countries. However, there are solutions to
this problem. One of them would be the development of alternative technologies for re-
placing scarce raw materials. For example, researchers are working on developing batter-
ies that use more common materials, such as sodium or magnesium, instead of lithium
and cobalt. In addition, there is also the possibility to recycle rare materials from batteries
and other electronic devices, which could reduce dependence on extracting new re-
sources. Greater use of nuclear energy and hydrogen could also reduce dependence on
fossil fuels and scarce raw materials used in current technologies.
It can be noted that although the gross energy available in the European Union in-
creased with some oscillations from 1297.94 million tons of oil equivalent in 2000 to the
maximum of 1537.23 million tons of oil equivalent in 2012 and in 2014, the trend changed,
and we could even say with syncope in 2020, following a recovery in 2021 reaching the
value of 1462.43 million tons of oil equivalent (Figure 4). Another indicator that we con-
sidered decisive for the energy transition is energy consumption at the European Union
level.
Figure 3. Evolution of energy imports in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat.
Data processed by authors.
It can be noted that although the gross energy available in the European Union
increased with some oscillations from 1297.94 million tons of oil equivalent in 2000 to the
maximum of 1537.23 million tons of oil equivalent in 2012 and in 2014, the trend changed,
and we could even say with syncope in 2020, following a recovery in 2021 reaching the value
of 1462.43 million tons of oil equivalent (Figure 4). Another indicator that we considered
decisive for the energy transition is energy consumption at the European Union level.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
Figure 4. Gross energy available in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat.
Data processed by authors.
It can be seen from Figure 5 that, although there were some fluctuations, they did not
have high intensities, and energy consumption in the European Union remains at a level
comparable to 2000 in 2021. Table 2 present what is the situation in 2021 for the 27 Member
States of the European Union regarding the evolution of these indicators, which were
studied one by one in dynamics. In this regard, we presented the data taken from Eurostat
and processed by the authors in the following table.
Figure 5. Energy consumption in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat.
Data processed by authors.
Table 2. Indicator values by country (EU27) in 2021.
Country
FEC
Millions of
Tons
RE
Millions of
Tons
GES
Index (Year
2000 = 100)
GAE
Millions of
Tons
IMP
Millions of
Tons
Belgium 35.9 4.67 80.9 64.37 45.58
Bulgaria 10.3 1.75 95.1 19.38 7.00
Czechia 26.2 4.63 69.2 42.77 17.11
Denmark 13.8 4.79 60.9 17.49 5.64
Germany 209.7 40.20 85.2 297.29 188.76
Estonia 2.8 1.06 71.1 4.91 0.07
Ireland 11.4 1.43 82.7 14.47 11.14
Greece 15.2 3.33 71.7 23.32 17.22
Spain 80.3 16.65 78.1 125.93 87.01
France 143.2 27.70 79.7 242.90 107.30
Figure 4. Gross energy available in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat.
Data processed by authors.
It can be seen from Figure 5that, although there were some fluctuations, they did
not have high intensities, and energy consumption in the European Union remains at a
level comparable to 2000 in 2021. Table 2present what is the situation in 2021 for the

Energies 2024,17, 2874 8 of 18
27 Member States of the European Union regarding the evolution of these indicators, which
were studied one by one in dynamics. In this regard, we presented the data taken from
Eurostat and processed by the authors in the following table.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19
Figure 4. Gross energy available in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat.
Data processed by authors.
It can be seen from Figure 5 that, although there were some fluctuations, they did not
have high intensities, and energy consumption in the European Union remains at a level
comparable to 2000 in 2021. Table 2 present what is the situation in 2021 for the 27 Member
States of the European Union regarding the evolution of these indicators, which were
studied one by one in dynamics. In this regard, we presented the data taken from Eurostat
and processed by the authors in the following table.
Figure 5. Energy consumption in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat.
Data processed by authors.
Table 2. Indicator values by country (EU27) in 2021.
Country
FEC
Millions of
Tons
RE
Millions of
Tons
GES
Index (Year
2000 = 100)
GAE
Millions of
Tons
IMP
Millions of
Tons
Belgium 35.9 4.67 80.9 64.37 45.58
Bulgaria 10.3 1.75 95.1 19.38 7.00
Czechia 26.2 4.63 69.2 42.77 17.11
Denmark 13.8 4.79 60.9 17.49 5.64
Germany 209.7 40.20 85.2 297.29 188.76
Estonia 2.8 1.06 71.1 4.91 0.07
Ireland 11.4 1.43 82.7 14.47 11.14
Greece 15.2 3.33 71.7 23.32 17.22
Spain 80.3 16.65 78.1 125.93 87.01
France 143.2 27.70 79.7 242.90 107.30
Figure 5. Energy consumption in the European Union between 2000 and 2021. Source: Eurostat. Data
processed by authors.
Table 2. Indicator values by country (EU27) in 2021.
Country FEC
Millions of Tons
RE
Millions of Tons
GES
Index (Year 2000 = 100)
GAE
Millions of Tons
IMP
Millions of Tons
Belgium 35.9 4.67 80.9 64.37 45.58
Bulgaria 10.3 1.75 95.1 19.38 7.00
Czechia 26.2 4.63 69.2 42.77 17.11
Denmark 13.8 4.79 60.9 17.49 5.64
Germany 209.7 40.20 85.2 297.29 188.76
Estonia 2.8 1.06 71.1 4.91 0.07
Ireland 11.4 1.43 82.7 14.47 11.14
Greece 15.2 3.33 71.7 23.32 17.22
Spain 80.3 16.65 78.1 125.93 87.01
France 143.2 27.70 79.7 242.90 107.30
Croatia 7 2.19 86.8 8.72 4.75
Italy 113.3 21.57 82.1 156.18 114.85
Cyprus 1.7 0.31 97.7 2.66 2.38
Latvia 4.1 1.73 79.8 4.79 1.84
Lithuania 5.7 1.61 103.7 8.14 5.96
Luxembourg 4.1 0.48 86 4.23 3.91
Hungary 19.2 2.71 75 27.38 14.82
Malta 0.6 0.07 65.7 2.74 2.66
The Netherlands 46.9 6.10 86 85.77 50.07
Austria 27.8 10.13 80.8 34.14 17.74
Poland 75.2 11.75 84.4 109.94 44.46
Portugal 15.7 5.34 72.7 22.20 14.86
Romania 25.4 5.99 83.8 34.33 10.86
Slovenia 4.7 1.18 86 6.63 3.22
Slovakia 11.4 1.98 75.5 17.79 9.36
Finland 24.9 10.73 62.1 34.00 12.91
Sweden 31.7 19.84 67.7 49.95 10.49
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors. FEC stands for final energy consumption. RE stands for renewable
energy production. GES stands for greenhouse gas emissions. GAE stands for available raw energy. IMP represents
the energy deficit covered by imports.
Comparative analysis leads to the following observations. Thus, in terms of final
energy consumption, we find that Germany holds a leading position, followed by France
and Italy (Figure 6).

Energies 2024,17, 2874 9 of 18
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19
Croatia 7 2.19 86.8 8.72 4.75
Italy 113.3 21.57 82.1 156.18 114.85
Cyprus 1.7 0.31 97.7 2.66 2.38
Latvia 4.1 1.73 79.8 4.79 1.84
Lithuania 5.7 1.61 103.7 8.14 5.96
Luxembourg 4.1 0.48 86 4.23 3.91
Hungary 19.2 2.71 75 27.38 14.82
Malta 0.6 0.07 65.7 2.74 2.66
The Netherlands 46.9 6.10 86 85.77 50.07
Austria 27.8 10.13 80.8 34.14 17.74
Poland 75.2 11.75 84.4 109.94 44.46
Portugal 15.7 5.34 72.7 22.20 14.86
Romania 25.4 5.99 83.8 34.33 10.86
Slovenia 4.7 1.18 86 6.63 3.22
Slovakia 11.4 1.98 75.5 17.79 9.36
Finland 24.9 10.73 62.1 34.00 12.91
Sweden 31.7 19.84 67.7 49.95 10.49
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors. FEC stands for final energy consumption. RE stands
for renewable energy production. GES stands for greenhouse gas emissions. GAE stands for avail-
able raw energy. IMP represents the energy deficit covered by imports.
Comparative analysis leads to the following observations. Thus, in terms of final en-
ergy consumption, we find that Germany holds a leading position, followed by France
and Italy (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Evolution of FEC, RE, GES, GAE, and IMP indicators for the 27 Member States of the
European Union in 2021. Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
Also, at the bottom of the ranking are Malta, Cyprus, and Estonia. Interestingly, alt-
hough there are significant differences between countries in final energy consumption,
2021 greenhouse gas emission values do not show such a discrepancy. In terms of raw
energy available, there are significant differences between countries, and we mention Ger-
many, France, and Italy, which were at the top in 2021. In terms of renewable energy pro-
duction in 2021, the leaders are Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, and at the opposite
pole are Malta and Luxembourg. In terms of energy imports, the most dependent coun-
tries in the European Union are Cyprus, Luxembourg, and Malta.
In order to deepen the research and to be able to issue some indications on the im-
plementation of the plan for achieving an efficient energy transition, we will study the
Figure 6. Evolution of FEC, RE, GES, GAE, and IMP indicators for the 27 Member States of the
European Union in 2021. Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
Also, at the bottom of the ranking are Malta, Cyprus, and Estonia. Interestingly,
although there are significant differences between countries in final energy consumption,
2021 greenhouse gas emission values do not show such a discrepancy. In terms of raw
energy available, there are significant differences between countries, and we mention
Germany, France, and Italy, which were at the top in 2021. In terms of renewable energy
production in 2021, the leaders are Germany, France, Spain, and Italy, and at the opposite
pole are Malta and Luxembourg. In terms of energy imports, the most dependent countries
in the European Union are Cyprus, Luxembourg, and Malta.
In order to deepen the research and to be able to issue some indications on the
implementation of the plan for achieving an efficient energy transition, we will study
the correlations between the indicators: renewable/non-renewable energy production,
imports, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions intensity, using in this regard
some statistical-econometric methods. Thus, we will continue to address an analysis of
the main components at the level of 2021, taking into account the 27 Member States of the
European Union.
We considered the component grouping method useful in the analysis because it
involves the identification of the closest pairs of cases and/or variables, depending on
the type of measurement unit used, and combines them to form a cluster. The algorithm
involves the formation of pairs of clusters so that the data can finally be concentrated in
a cluster.
The K-means cluster analysis method assumes the use of the first ncases as temporary
estimates of nmeans of the groups. The analysis assumes that the identification of the
initial centers of the groups involves the assignment of a cluster for each case as close as
possible to the center, later averaging the two until the identification of the final centers of
the respective clusters. This recalculation is performed until there are no more changes at
the group centers or when the desired (set) maximum number of iterations is reached.
The hierarchical cluster analysis method involves identifying groups that are relatively
homogeneous according to certain selected characteristics, using, in this sense, an algorithm
that starts with each case in a separate group and then combines the groups until, finally,
there is only one.
The hierarchical cluster analysis method ensures the flexibility of the analysis by the
fact that it is not necessary to specify the number of clusters at the beginning of the analysis;
they are formed along the way in a hierarchical way, leaving it up to the researcher to
choose the optimal level of grouping after the final hierarchy has been determined. Also,
the dendrogram provides a clear visual representation of the relationships between the
elements in the data set, showing how and when the clusters are joined in the process of

Energies 2024,17, 2874 10 of 18
building the hierarchy. At the same time, the method is effective for the analysis of small
and medium-sized data sets and, at the same time, can be applied even when there are
missing data, using, in this sense, appropriate imputation methods or matrices that can
handle missing data. The method ensures the exploratory study of the data in the sense
that structures can be identified on the basis of which hypotheses can be issued, which can
be tested and validated through statistical-co-econometric methods. Thus, we will continue
to address an analysis of the main components at the level of 2021, taking into account the
27 Member States of the European Union.
We find that all components (Figure 7), greenhouse gas emissions, final energy con-
sumption, energy imports, available raw energy, and renewable energy production have
asymmetries, leading to the conclusion that this is due to differences between members of
the European Union according to their development level. Subsequently, we will use the
analysis of the main components as an extraction method. Thus, the component matrix is
presented in Table 3.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19
correlations between the indicators: renewable/non-renewable energy production, im-
ports, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions intensity, using in this regard
some statistical-econometric methods. Thus, we will continue to address an analysis of
the main components at the level of 2021, taking into account the 27 Member States of the
European Union.
We considered the component grouping method useful in the analysis because it in-
volves the identification of the closest pairs of cases and/or variables, depending on the
type of measurement unit used, and combines them to form a cluster. The algorithm in-
volves the formation of pairs of clusters so that the data can finally be concentrated in a
cluster.
The K-means cluster analysis method assumes the use of the first n cases as tempo-
rary estimates of n means of the groups. The analysis assumes that the identification of
the initial centers of the groups involves the assignment of a cluster for each case as close
as possible to the center, later averaging the two until the identification of the final centers
of the respective clusters. This recalculation is performed until there are no more changes
at the group centers or when the desired (set) maximum number of iterations is reached.
The hierarchical cluster analysis method involves identifying groups that are rela-
tively homogeneous according to certain selected characteristics, using, in this sense, an
algorithm that starts with each case in a separate group and then combines the groups
until, finally, there is only one.
The hierarchical cluster analysis method ensures the flexibility of the analysis by the
fact that it is not necessary to specify the number of clusters at the beginning of the anal-
ysis; they are formed along the way in a hierarchical way, leaving it up to the researcher
to choose the optimal level of grouping after the final hierarchy has been determined.
Also, the dendrogram provides a clear visual representation of the relationships between
the elements in the data set, showing how and when the clusters are joined in the process
of building the hierarchy. At the same time, the method is effective for the analysis of
small and medium-sized data sets and, at the same time, can be applied even when there
are missing data, using, in this sense, appropriate imputation methods or matrices that
can handle missing data. The method ensures the exploratory study of the data in the
sense that structures can be identified on the basis of which hypotheses can be issued,
which can be tested and validated through statistical-co-econometric methods. Thus, we
will continue to address an analysis of the main components at the level of 2021, taking
into account the 27 Member States of the European Union.
We find that all components (Figure 7), greenhouse gas emissions, final energy con-
sumption, energy imports, available raw energy, and renewable energy production have
asymmetries, leading to the conclusion that this is due to differences between members of
the European Union according to their development level. Subsequently, we will use the
analysis of the main components as an extraction method. Thus, the component matrix is
presented in Table 3.
Figure 7. Component structure. Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
Figure 7. Component structure. Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
Table 3. Matrix of components.
Component
1 2
FEC 0.997 0.008
RE 0.959 −0.133
GES 0.061 0.997
IMP 0.980 0.051
GAE 0.992 0.009
For easier interpretation of the results, they are shown in Figure 8.
According to the obtained results, we find that in component 1, there are strong
positive correlations for the variables IMP, GAE, FEC, and RE, and GHG shows a weak
positive correlation. In component 2, the correlation for GHG is positive and strong, and for
the other variables, there is a weak correlation, specifying that on this component, in terms
of RE, the correlation is negative. What is noteworthy is that there is a significant difference
in the correlation between the variables IMP, GAE, FEC, RE, and the GHG variable. We
will continue the study using the hierarchical cluster analysis method to identify groups
that are relatively homogeneous according to the selected characteristics. Thus, in Figure 9,
the dendrogram is shown.
Interpreting the results presented graphically, we find that the vast majority of Member
States of the European Union have small differences in the evolution of the variables
considered, which are represented on the scale with a value of 1. The exceptions are
Belgium and the Netherlands, which also make a group. Then Spain and Poland make
the next group, which group with Belgium and the Netherlands at level 2. The more
developed countries, France and Italy, also form a group at level 3 and, together with

Energies 2024,17, 2874 11 of 18
Germany, another group at level 8 according to the representation scale. In other words, we
find that this grouping by main components highlights the fact that there is a discrepancy
between members of the European Union according to their development level.
The results of the ANOVA statistical test for this main component analysis are pre-
sented in Table 4.
Table 4. ANOVA.
Cluster Error FSig
Mean Square df Mean Square df
FEC 48,228.712 1 609.655 25 79.108 0.000
RE 1640.713 1 32.438 25 50.581 0.000
IMP 38,566.046 1 544.528 25 70.825 0.000
GES 24.402 1 108.457 25 0.225 0.639
GAE 106,885.001 1 1448.314 25 73.800 0.000
Looking at the data, we find that the results obtained are significant for the chosen
materiality threshold, which is confirmed by the F-statistical test values that are superior to
the tabulated values for FEC, RE, IMP, and GAE, except for GHGs, whose probability of
error is high, much higher than the significance level. What emerges from this analysis of
main components is the fact that at the European Union level, the evolution of Member
States is still overshadowed by the development power of some states, and this aspect
hinders in a certain way the future positive evolution of the European Union. Also, in the
framework of the research undertaken, the authors were concerned with highlighting the
component links between the member states of the European Union in terms of greenhouse
gas emissions, final energy consumption, energy imports, raw energy, and available energy
production from renewable sources. The observed discrepancies reveal the fact that mea-
sures to mitigate them are required within the European Union. What we must not forget
is that non-renewable energy sources worldwide are exhaustible, and substantial efforts
need to be made to achieve the energy transition. In Table 5, the state of fossil resources as
of 7 October 2023 is presented.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19
Table 3. Matrix of components.
Component
1 2
FEC 0.997 0.008
RE 0.959 −0.133
GES 0.061 0.997
IMP 0.980 0.051
GAE 0.992 0.009
For easier interpretation of the results, they are shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Analysis of key components.
According to the obtained results, we find that in component 1, there are strong pos-
itive correlations for the variables IMP, GAE, FEC, and RE, and GHG shows a weak pos-
itive correlation. In component 2, the correlation for GHG is positive and strong, and for
the other variables, there is a weak correlation, specifying that on this component, in terms
of RE, the correlation is negative. What is noteworthy is that there is a significant differ-
ence in the correlation between the variables IMP, GAE, FEC, RE, and the GHG variable.
We will continue the study using the hierarchical cluster analysis method to identify
groups that are relatively homogeneous according to the selected characteristics. Thus, in
Figure 9, the dendrogram is shown.
Figure 8. Analysis of key components.

Energies 2024,17, 2874 12 of 18
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19
Figure 9. Dendrogram.
Interpreting the results presented graphically, we find that the vast majority of Mem-
ber States of the European Union have small differences in the evolution of the variables
considered, which are represented on the scale with a value of 1. The exceptions are Bel-
gium and the Netherlands, which also make a group. Then Spain and Poland make the
next group, which group with Belgium and the Netherlands at level 2. The more devel-
oped countries, France and Italy, also form a group at level 3 and, together with Germany,
another group at level 8 according to the representation scale. In other words, we find that
this grouping by main components highlights the fact that there is a discrepancy between
members of the European Union according to their development level.
The results of the ANOVA statistical test for this main component analysis are pre-
sented in Table 4.
Table 4. ANOVA.
Cluster Error
F Sig
Mean Square df Mean Square df
FEC 48,228.712 1 609.655 25 79.108 0.000
RE 1640.713 1 32.438 25 50.581 0.000
IMP 38,566.046 1 544.528 25 70.825 0.000
GES 24.402 1 108.457 25 0.225 0.639
Figure 9. Dendrogram.
Table 5. Statement of global resources 7 October 2023.
Source U.M. Indicator Period Volume
1 Energy MWh consumption daily 339,233,647.00
2 Unregenerable MWh consumption daily 288,774,836.00
3 Regenerable MWh consumption daily 51,085,629.00
5 Petrol barrel consumption daily 69,576,746.00
6 Petrol barrel available reserves until depletion 1,389,862,761,737.00
7 Petrol day days to depletion until depletion 14,494.00
8 Natural Gas Bep available reserves until depletion 1,072,354,281,714.00
9 Natural Gas day days to depletion until depletion 56,440.00
10 Coal Bep available reserves until depletion 4,280,613,812,072.00
11 Coal day days to depletion until depletion 147,607.00
Source: real-time statistics. Accessed 7 October 2023. Data processed by authors.
It can be noted that at the time of writing this article, energy consumption from non-
renewable sources worldwide was 288,774,836 MWh, and those from renewable sources
represent only 15% of the total energy consumed daily. What we should worry about is
that non-renewable sources (oil, natural gas, and coal) are exhaustible and harmful to the
environment. Thus, if this average rate of exploitation and consumption is maintained
for about 40 years, oil resources will be exhausted, and so will natural gas resources in
about 154 years and coal in about 400 years. The use of these non-renewable energy

Energies 2024,17, 2874 13 of 18
sources is not only exhaustible but also generates greenhouse gases as a result of their
exploitation and use. In this sense, China ranks first worldwide with 29.18%, followed by
the US with 14.02%, India with 7.09% and Russia with 4.65%. Worldwide, the largest coal
producers are China, India, Indonesia, the United States (USA), Australia, and Russia, and
at the level of the European Union are Germany, Poland, the Czech Republic, Bulgaria,
Greece, and Romania. At the same time, a third of the coal used by the European Union is
imported, most of it coming from Russia. Why was coal taken as an example? Because it
provides about 40% of global electricity production; therefore, it is equally responsible for
greenhouse gas emissions. Next, we will deepen the study in the sense that, based on the
data we have, we will make the forecast regarding the achievement of the energy transition
at the level of the European Union.
We have structured in Table 6the data taken by Eurostat, based on which we calculated
the average change indices for the variable’s final consumption of energy and renewable
energy. We chose these variables because the energy transition can be fully achieved when
the two indicators mentioned reach equilibrium. Thus, the production of renewable energy
registered an upward trend during the analyzed period 2000–2021, and the final energy
consumption fluctuated, but in 2021, it remained at levels comparable to 2020.
Table 6. Renewable energy and final energy consumption in the European Union.
Indicator Value
Vc f = Final consumption value in 2021 967.90
Ver = Renewable energy value in 2021 204.61
IMt
c f
= Annual average index of change in final consumption
0.9999
IMt
er = Annual average index of change in renewable energy 1.0440
Source: Eurostat. Data processed by authors.
In order to identify what is the moment of time tuntil the two mentioned indicators
reach equilibrium, we will use an exponential equation of the following form:
Vc f ·I Mt
c f =Ver·IMt
er (1)
Substituting into the equation the values of the variables, solving the equation, and
thus determining the moment of time t, we found that renewable energy production will
cover the final energy consumption at the European Union level after 36.05 years. Of course,
this calculation is valid if the average rate of change is maintained in the coming period, but
from our point of view, these aspects are particularly worrying, and we believe that each
Member State of the European Union should guide its efforts in research, development,
and innovation so that it can ensure the increase in renewable energy production and,
consequently, the achievement of the energy transition. The results are in line with the
targets of the EU and other organizations around the world. The shift in policies, like the
latest meeting COP28 held in Dubai in 2023, marked the shift toward nuclear energy as a
mean to reach net zero emissions with the Declaration to Triple Nuclear Energy Capacity
by 2050 [
83
]. Previously, nuclear power has been depicted as dangerous, especially after
the Fukushima event, when countries like Germany shut down their entire capacity of
production from nuclear power. Moves like the one presented above can influence the
rate of transition in the sense of faster or slower transition, depending on the direction
the decision-makers consider adequate. Another aspect is presented by the scarcity of
natural resources that are needed to maintain the actual rate of transition. The energy
transition requires a massive amount of new raw materials like nickel, cobalt, lithium,
copper, and other rare earth minerals that were not previously used at this magnitude [
84
].
In addition, energy transition is supported by the digital revolution, and the use of artificial
intelligence offers proper solutions taking into account the complexity of the situation
generated by the need to connect national energy markets, supporting the energy supply
considering the reconfiguration of the energy mix at international level and energy storage
challenges [85–88].

Energies 2024,17, 2874 14 of 18
As part of the research undertaken regarding the state and evolution of energy re-
sources at the level of the European Union, specific aspects are summarized.
•
Greenhouse gas emissions have decreased and will continue to decrease as a result of
the development of the consumption of renewable energy sources.
•
The production of energy from renewable sources has increased at the level of the
European Union as a result of the development of technologies for the production of
wind, solar, and other energy.
•
However, the need for the consumption of energy resources is insufficient, there are
even periods of decrease.
•
For the future, in line with the reduction in the production of non-renewable resources,
it is necessary to undertake measures for each country aimed at developing the
production of renewable energy sources.
•
Both the comparative analysis and the one on main components highlighted the fact
that there are discrepancies between the evolution of the indicators regarding the
production and use of energy sources in the 27 member states of the European Union.
•
Based on the statistical-mathematical model used, it follows that the production of
renewable energy will be able to cover the final energy consumption at the level of the
European Union in approximately 36 years.
5. Conclusions
The energy transition is a very complex conundrum that humanity must resolve by
putting its brightest ideas at work. To solve the problem of climate change and human inter-
vention in natural mechanisms developed over millions of years, the decision-makers must
extract the most adequate solutions available. From the study conducted and presented in
this paper, some conclusions are drawn. Firstly, in order to achieve a significant increase in
energy efficiency in the context of the energy transition, significant investments are needed
in research and development of advanced technologies and energy infrastructure. It is also
important to have government policies in place to support these investments and encourage
companies and consumers to adopt more energy-efficient solutions. By combining these
efforts, we can create a more sustainable and efficient energy system that contributes to
our environmental goals and brings significant economic and social benefits. Another
conclusion that emerges is that the energy transition is vital to protect the environment
and ensure a sustainable energy system for the future. However, the limited availability of
raw materials needed to achieve it is an important problem that needs to be addressed by
developing alternative technologies and recycling existing resources. The fossil fuel sources
worldwide are exhaustible, and substantial efforts need to be made to achieve the energy
transition. Greater use of nuclear energy and hydrogen could also reduce dependence on
fossil fuels and scarce raw materials used in current technologies.
At the current stage, the development of artificial intelligence can lead to the develop-
ment of new technologies that are usable in order to achieve the goals aimed at the energy
transition. In this sense, in order to increase energy efficiency aiming at its transition, major
investments are required in the research and development of advanced technologies and
the modernization of the energy infrastructure. It also becomes important to promote
government policies aimed at the development of these investments and to encourage, to
the same extent, the economic factor and consumers to adopt effective measures in terms of
saving energy resources. Under these conditions, through combined efforts, a durable and
efficient energy system can be created, which will ensure the fulfillment of environmental
objectives and bring significant economic and social benefits. In another order of ideas, the
conclusion emerges that the energy transition is vital for protecting the environment and
ensuring a sustainable energy system in the following period.
It must be taken into account that the limited availability of raw materials, as it results
from the analysis undertaken and presented in this paper, is an important problem, which
must be addressed through the development of alternative technologies and especially the
improvement and development of renewable resources.

Energies 2024,17, 2874 15 of 18
The dynamic analysis of the indicators (data) subjected to research highlighted the
tendency to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at the level of the European Union in the
period 2000–2021. This is performed against the background of the sharp increase in the
production of energy from renewable sources in the same period.
During the research, it was highlighted that the hierarchical cluster analysis method is
an appropriate tool for identifying and understanding the internal structure of data sets,
providing a clear visualization of the relationships between elements and components.
The undertaken study highlighted the fact that fossil fuel sources worldwide are
exhaustible, a context in which increased efforts are required to ensure the energy transition
aimed at the rapid development of renewable resources. For example, the more intense use
of nuclear energy and hydrogen will lead to a reduction in dependence on fossil fuels.
The authors are aware of the limits of the research carried out considering the focus of
the study on the countries of the European Union that are deeply involved in the energy
transition process and that have always found the appropriate resources and solutions for
managing black swan events such as the COVID-19 crisis or the geopolitical tensions.
The energy transition and the increase in energy efficiency are concerns for all coun-
tries considering the international commitments assumed by the Paris Agreement. The
European Union is the undisputed leader of the energy transition, considering the political
commitment assumed by the European authorities. For this reason, the European experi-
ence can be a source of inspiration for countries from other regions as well. So, a future
direction of research is to extend the study globally and have different approaches towards
the measures undertaken by the Global North and the Global South, as the directions of
the two groups are somehow divergent, given the late developments of power shifts on the
global stage.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.; methodology, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.;
validation, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.; formal analysis, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.; investigation, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.;
resources, M.P.,
S
,
.I., C.V., V.I., D.I., C.M. and C.T.; data curation, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.; writing—original
draft preparation, M.P.,
S
,
.I. and C.V.; writing—review and editing, M.P.,
S
,
.I., C.V., V.I., D.I., C.M. and
C.T.; visualization, M.P.,
S
,
.I., C.V., V.I., D.I., C.M. and C.T.; supervision, M.P.,
S
,
.I., C.V., V.I., D.I., C.M.
and C.T.; project administration, M.P. and
S
,
.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by a grant from the Petroleum-Gas University of
Ploiesti, Romania, project number GO-GICS-11063/8 June 2023, within the Internal Grant for Scien-
tific Research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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