Vegetable Oils in Maintaining Health

Abstract

Pure vegetable oils are digested very quickly and contribute to the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Thanks to the antioxidants and monosaturated fatty acids they contain, they reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. There are at least seven vegetable oils that bring health benefits and facilitate obtaining the correct ratio of good fats: linseed oil, sesame oil, walnut oil, olive oil, coconut oil or rapeseed oil. Olive oil, so rich in unsaturated fatty acids, in numerous antioxidant substances and in mineral salts, is very tasty and effective in the treatment of a wide range of ailments, including hepatic or rheumatic ones. It has the power to protect the heart, keep blood pressure under control and helps to evacuate gallstones. It is an oil with a low level of acidity that helps improve digestion. Flaxseed oil is a source of Omega-3 fatty acids and should be consumed raw, in small quantities. It reduces
inflammation and improves mood, alternating dopamine and serotonin levels. Rapeseed oil has the fewest saturated fats and 10 times more Omega-6 fatty
acids than olive oil. Walnut oil is a good protector of the heart. Through the intake of minerals, this oil can be used by diabetics, anemics or people with a very busy work schedule. Sesame oil, like other oils, contains vitamin E, essential fatty acids, but also lecithin and minerals. Coconut oil is considered the healthiest vegetable oil. Contains lauric acid, with antiviral and antibacterial properties. The consumption of coconut oil prevents cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and overweight.

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J Med Clin Nurs Stud, 2024 www.oaskpublishers.com
Review Article
Vegetable Oils in Maintaining Health
Lucian Calugar, Ioana Grozea and Monica Butnariu*
University of Life Sciences “King Mihai I” from Timisoara, 300645, Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania
*Corresponding author
Monica Butnariu, University of Life Sciences “King Mihai I” from Timisoara, 300645, Calea Aradului 119, Timis, Romania.
Received: April 04, 2024; Accepted: June 11, 2024; Published: June 15, 2024
Journal of Medical and Clinical Nursing Studies
Page: 1 of 7
Citation: Lucian Calugar, Ioana Grozea and Monica Butnariu. Vegetable Oils in Maintaining Health. J Med Clin Nurs Stud. 2024. 2(2): 1-7.
DOI: doi.org/10.61440/JMCNS.2024.v2.53
ISSN: 3029-0872
ABSTRACT
Pure vegetable oils are digested very quickly and contribute to the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Thanks to the antioxidants and
monosaturated fatty acids they contain, they reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. There are at least seven vegetable oils that bring health benets and
facilitate obtaining the correct ratio of good fats: linseed oil, sesame oil, walnut oil, olive oil, coconut oil or rapeseed oil. Olive oil, so rich in unsaturated
fatty acids, in numerous antioxidant substances and in mineral salts, is very tasty and eective in the treatment of a wide range of ailments, including
hepatic or rheumatic ones. It has the power to protect the heart, keep blood pressure under control and helps to evacuate gallstones. It is an oil with a low
level of acidity that helps improve digestion. Flaxseed oil is a source of Omega-3 fatty acids and should be consumed raw, in small quantities. It reduces
inammation and improves mood, alternating dopamine and serotonin levels. Rapeseed oil has the fewest saturated fats and 10 times more Omega-6 fatty
acids than olive oil. Walnut oil is a good protector of the heart. Through the intake of minerals, this oil can be used by diabetics, anemics or people with a
very busy work schedule. Sesame oil, like other oils, contains vitamin E, essential fatty acids, but also lecithin and minerals. Coconut oil is considered the
healthiest vegetable oil. Contains lauric acid, with antiviral and antibacterial properties. The consumption of coconut oil prevents cardiovascular diseases,
diabetes and overweight.
Keywords: Vegetable Oils, Saturated Fatty Acids, Mono and
Polyunsaturated Acids, Carotenes, Phytosterols, Vitamins
Introduction
Vegetable oils are liquid fats obtained from plants such as
sunower seeds, soybeans, olives, coconuts and avocados. They
are used in food and for many other purposes such as cooking,
frying and preserving food. However, the health impact of
vegetable oils can be complex and depends on the type of oil
and how it is used. In general, substances that are liquid at room
temperature are dened as “vegetable oils” and those that are
solid at room temperature as “vegetable fats”.
Vegetable oils are composed of triglycerides, unlike waxes,
which lack glycerin. Although oil can be extracted from various
parts of a plant, in practice it is mainly extracted from the seeds.
Oils are liquid substances, with a higher or lower viscosity, of
natural origin (vegetable, animal or mineral) or results from
laboratory or industrial processes. They are lighter than water
and do not dissolve in water [1].
The term oil (with the obsolete variants oloi, uloi, untdelemn)
comes from the Latin language - oleum and from the ancient
Greek - elaion. In most European languages the term is quite
close in writing and pronunciation to these old words - source;
the languages of the countries at the extremes of the European
continent are an exception: in Spanish - aceite; in Russian maslo,
in Turkish (but also in Bulgarian) - zeytingi / zehtin. The old
Romanian term untdelemn (wood butter) indicates olive oil,
which was the typical oil of ancient times, but also the most
appreciated oil of the present times.
The fact that in the contemporary language are called oils and
some liquid fats of animal origin, shows that under the name of
oil are understood those fats which at ambient temperature have
a liquid state, while we consider as fats those which at ambient
temperature are solid; for each of these names, the source is also
added (sh oil, whale / seal oil, hoof oil), and in the case of
fats, specic terms have even been established: pig / bird lard,
beef / sheep tallow. Even for vegetable oils (which represent
the majority of these liquid fats) the species of origin is added:
walnut / sesame / pumpkin / saower / sunower / olive oil, etc
[2].
The uses of oils are numerous: food uses a large part of the
production of oils (so-called edible oils), but large quantities
of oils are used for industrial purposes (both as lubricants for
moving mechanisms and as raw materials for a wide range
of of products from the consumer goods category - body care
substances, various household goods). Castor oil in particular
has special medicinal properties and is particularly valuable for
a wide range of uses in dermatology and skin care in general.

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The ritual uses of oil are ancient, having an important place in
all religions - among Christians, the triad of natural products on
which a large part of religious practices is based is composed
of oil, wheat and wine. For several decades, there has been a
debate on the use of agricultural resources as substitutes for
petroleum products, which are non-renewable, more precisely,
the use of vegetable oils as biofuel is encouraged; the dispute is
between those who claim that in this way non-recyclable natural
resources are left to future generations, on the one hand, and
those who consider that the use of agricultural resources for cars
is a luxury and ignore the state of hunger in which hundreds
of millions struggle of human beings, on the other hand; the
former also add the fact that oil, compared to petrol or diesel, is
a practically harmless fuel to handle, use and store [3].
The importance of fatty foods in human nutrition is given by the
much higher contribution of fats to the caloric balance compared
to carbohydrates and proteins: 1 gram of lipids provides 9.3
kilocalories - kcal (or 37.8 kilojoules - kJ), compared to only
4 .1 kcal (16.8 kJ as supplied by 1 gram of carbohydrates /
carbohydrates or proteins). Fats have many other inuences in
ensuring the balanced functioning of the body and maintaining
some of its functions in good condition.
For consumers in the temperate zone, the following optimal
proportions of nutrients in the daily ration are recommended:
carbohydrates / carbohydrates - 50...50%, proteins - 15...20%,
lipids - 30...35%. Regarding the total amount of energy units
accumulated throughout a day, a general average value of
2000 kcal is considered, mentioned as a reference (for an adult
consumer) on almost all food product labels. Of course, this
value is higher for men (2300-2900 kcal) and lower for women
(1800-2200 kcal). Compared to these recommended values, the
following should also be considered: the nature of the activity
carried out (heavy physical activity requires a higher energy
intake), age, height, body mass, metabolism, etc [4].
In chemistry works it is shown that oils and fats are mostly
made up of triglycerides, which are esters made up of a glycerol
molecule and three fatty acids (several other components form
the so-called unsaponiable parts - phosphatides, steroids,
waxes); the three categories of fatty acids are:
- saturated fatty acids (specic to meat and dairy, but also in
some oils and foods subject to rening),
- mono-unsaturated fatty acids, “cis” (specic to most oils,
sh, oleaginous fruits) and
- polyunsaturated, “cis” fatty acids (specic to a few oils -
sunower, soybean, saower, but also in polyunsaturated
margarines, in some species of sh, in cereals and in some
oleaginous fruits) [5].
The “trans” fatty acids, which are written about so accusingly
and panickingly, are formed by the partial hydrogenation of
unsaturated fats, easily oxidizable and especially those in a
liquid state at normal temperature. They normally make up
5...7% of animal meat and fat, but can reach up to 30% in the
case of advanced processing products. They are considered more
harmful than saturated fats, although many consumers prefer
them to butter and cream.
The oils contain fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E) but also pigments
specic to the sources from which the oils are prepared;
through rening operations, the pigments are removed, but
other components that are very valuable are also more or less
destroyed. In oils that begin to go rancid, aldehydes, ketones,
and other oxidizing compounds develop, which adversely alter
quality to the point where they become unusable [6].
For the oils most used in food, the chemical composition in table
1 should be noted.
Table 1: Fatty Acid Content of Some Vegetable Oils
Vegetable oil Saturated acids, %
(average value)
Monounsaturated
acids (oleic), %
(average value)
Diunsaturated acids
(linoleic), % (average
value)
Triunsaturated acids
(linolenic), % (average
value)
Rapeseed (canola) oil 7.1 - 10.2 (8.2) 58.2 - 65.1 (62.2) 17.6 - 25.7 (21.2) 6.3 - 10.5 (8.4)
Corn oil 12.0 - 15.2 (13.7) 25.5 - 40.7 (33.1) 43.6 - 61.7 (52.4) 0 - 3.2 (0.8)
Sunower oil 9.9 - 12.6 (11.3) 26.6 - 40.0 (31.8) 48.7 - 60.8 (56.9) 0 - 1.3 (0.1)
Olive oil 12.1 - 22.1 (14.1) 61.1 - 82.8 (77.4) 3.3 - 15.1 (7.3) 0 - 1.6 (1.3)
Coconut oil 93.0 - 96.3 (94.7) 4.2 - 5.8 (4.6) 0 -1.5 (0.7) -
Palm oil 39.9 - 56.3 (46.7) 36.3 - 47.3 (42.5) 9.0 - 12.9 (10.9) -
Vegetable oils in particular also contain essential components
(“essential oils”) that give the specic smell: most essential oils
are removed during processing operations (“deodorization”).
Essential fatty acids are a concept that has concerned the masses
of consumers in recent years; they are called so because:1. are
absolutely necessary in the body and 2. cannot be synthesized in
the human body; in conclusion, these fatty acids must be brought
into the body together with the fats that contain them. They are
essential fatty acids: linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic
acid, etc. Why are some acids called omega acids? Fatty acids
are very long structures and have two ends: the carboxylic acid
group –COOH is at the beginning of the chain (at “alpha”) and
the methyl group –CH3 is at the opposite end, at the tail (at
“omega”), alpha and omega being the rst and the last letter of
the Greek alphabet, the phrase “alpha and omega” meaning “the
beginning and the end [7].”
Fatty acids called omega are polyunsaturated acids that have a
double C=C group placed at one of the carbon atoms in the chain:
acids called “omega-3” have that group at the third carbon atom
from the tail (it is correctly said: “omega minus three”), those called
“omega-6” have the double group placed at the sixth atom from the
tail (at “omega minus six”) and likewise for omega-7, omega 9.

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Omega fatty acids have very important roles, directly or indirectly,
in the body: for example, omega-3 ensures the proper functioning
of the brain, prevents inammation, reduces the accumulation
of triglycerides in the body and, in this way, is benecial for
those with cardiovascular diseases; omega-6 fatty acids are pro-
inammatory, activating during and after physical activity to
trigger an inammatory cascade to support the repair of damaged
cells. Excess omega-6 fatty acids in vegetable oils interfere with
the benets provided by omega-3 fatty acids and limit their eects;
excessive consumption of omega-6 fatty acids is linked to arthritis,
inammation and cancer. Omega-7 and omega-9 are not essential
acids because, under conditions of chronic lack of essential fatty
acids, the human body is able to modify some saturated acids that
take over the functions of the missing unsaturated fatty acids, as
observed in some research on vegetarians [8].
Omega-9 fatty acids are oleic acid (present in olives, for example)
and erucic acid (present in rape and mustard seeds from non-
genetically modied varieties); omega-6 fatty acids (linoleic and
arachidonic acid) are found in corn, sunower, walnut, canola,
soy, etc. oils, and omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic, etc.) are
found in sh (catsh, tuna, herring, mackerel, generally oily
sh), seafood, nuts, seeds, some plants.
Why has the problem of omega fatty acids become more acute?
Because the human diet has changed a lot in the last few centuries
and especially in the last few decades. Specialists claim that, in
the Neolithic, the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids in the
human diet was almost equal to 1 [9].
As the human diet became predominantly protein, and the protein
in meat was the result of a less diverse diet of animals used for
meat and milk, the share of fatty acids from the omega-6 group
in the diet has continuously increased to ratios that are downright
harmful for the health of consumers: even if specialists reassure
us by recommending healthy omega-6:omega-3 ratios of 4 :1,
in reality these ratios reach over 10:1 (in Western diets ratios
of 30:1 are also found), a reality evidenced by the unnatural
increase in the number of inammatory disorders.
All over the world, the share of meat and milk consumption
from farm animals, fed with concentrated feed, genetically
modied corn, products that accumulate omega-6 fatty acids
has increased; fats in the meat and milk of grass-fed animals
accumulate omega-3 fatty acids. The same is happening with
plant production, where genetically modied organisms and
non-conventional technologies are the areas that provide an
increasing share of the supply of fruits, vegetables, grains, etc.
which have an unbalanced omega-6: omega-3 ratio (in favor of
omega-6). What can consumers do? A relatively easy solution
is to ensure a variety of food sources and, speaking of oils, to
consume those oils that contain omega-3 fatty acids; rapeseed,
ax, olive, hemp oils have favorable ratios for omega-3 fatty
acids [10].
Edible oils are liquid at room temperature (with few exceptions
– the case of those with a high content of saturated fatty acids,
etc.). For the market and kitchen, the most well-known and
used oils are: sunower, olive, soybean, corn, rapeseed, palm,
ax, hemp, almond, peanut, walnut, pumpkin, coconut, grape,
sesame, saron, etc.
For practical reasons, part of the oils are used for consumption
in solid state, as margarines, which are solid emulsions of
hydrogenated or non-hydrogenated fats dispersed in water. The
preparation process creates “trans” fatty acids, a serious risk
factor for cardiovascular accidents; softer margarines are less
dangerous. The oer of fatty vegetable products also includes
vegetable butter (cocoa, for example), a semi-solid substance
with features close to those presented by milk butter [11].
For use as food, the oil is used both raw (as a “condimento «a
crudo»”, as the Italians say), but also for the thermal preparation
of food (boiling, frying, baking), or for the preparation of
mixtures from canned vegetables, meat, sh etc. In relation to the
behavior of food oils in heat, there is a lot of discussion about the
degradation of some oils under the action of heat and excessive
heating and their transformation into sources of slow or sudden
intoxication, which means serious illness of the liver, pancreas,
stomach, etc. Consumers must know the main characteristics of
the oils used [12].
Physical Characteristics of Edible Oils
Among the many characteristics that are standardized for oils,
some are particularly important to traders and especially to
consumers, namely: color, smell, density, viscosity, melting
point, smoke point, boiling point, ame behavior, resistance to
light, resistance to rancidity, technological properties (freshness,
odor transmission, melting temperature, etc.).
The organoleptic characteristics (color, smell, taste, etc.) are
determined by the features of the source: animal oils have a
much more pronounced smell than vegetable oils, but the taste
and aroma can be directed using aromatic plants, garlic, hot
peppers, etc.; density and viscosity are relatively close (all oils
being slightly lighter than water (relative density about 0.92),
and viscosity is inversely related to temperature); reference
temperatures are variable and dependent on source species, as
are light and oxidation resistances; technological properties are
largely common, with some notable exceptions.
Freshness is very important for consumers outside the production
area of a certain oil: the most typical is the case of olive oil,
which can be consumed fresh in the production area, namely on
the Mediterranean shores. In countries far from this zone, most
olive oil is several months old, when it no longer tastes like very
fresh oil; after the rst year, the oil should be used exclusively
for cooking, in no case for salads, i.e. raw [13].
Of great interest is the heat tolerance of the oil used in the
kitchen. Polyunsaturated oils such as soybean, canola, sunower,
and corn have been observed to form toxic compounds when
heated, consuming the burned oil causing atherosclerosis and
rheumatoid arthritis.
In relation to this situation, the following categories are
distinguished: a) oils suitable for cooking steak, which withstand
temperatures of 230 degrees Celsius (avocado, peanuts, rapeseed,
sunower, corn, palm, soy), b) oils suitable for cooking at high
temperature average, i.e. around 190 degrees Celsius (almond,
walnut, cotton, mustard, olive oils -virgin or rened-), c) oils
that are not good to be thermally treated (extra virgin olives and
generally ne and pressed oils cold, rst extraction). Unrened

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J Med Clin Nurs Stud, 2024
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oils should not be used for frying, but are safe enough for
cooking at moderate temperatures [14].
How Oil is Produced
In the production of edible oils, the most involved sources are
vegetable resources: seeds and oleaginous fruits. Olive oil is
obtained from the fruits of the olive tree (Olea europea), which
contain 40...60% fat, but also from the pits of olives, which
contain about 19% fat. The oil obtained from the rst cold
pressing of the fruit pulps is the extra virgin oil (“Oli d’oliva
vergini”), which is a clear, bright, light yellow liquid with greenish
shades, with a sweet, pleasant taste, without odor; cooled to 4...5
degrees Celsius it becomes cloudy, and at -20 degrees Celsius
it “freezes”, having the consistency of butter. Oils obtained
by solvent extraction and those obtained from kernels have a
greener color and are used both for cooking (frying, baking) or
for obtaining soap and other cosmetic products [15].
Sunower oil, typical of countries without olive plantations,
is obtained from dehulled seeds: cold pressing ensures the
extraction of about half of the fat content of the seeds; in the
next stage, the extraction continues with special gasoline. Crude
oils are rened to correct some shortcomings: organoleptic,
compositional, etc., to obtain the nal product, yellow in color,
clear, with a specic taste and smell. Similarly, oil is produced
from other vegetable sources: pumpkin, soybean, corn. Corn
oil has a reddish-yellow color with the typical smell of ground
corn, valued for its role in lowering cholesterol. Soybean oil is
sensitive to heat, taking on a shy smell after a while.
The technological process includes operations of: sorting,
cleaning, washing, detaching, shelling, preliminary thermal
treatments (with hot water / steam), division, pressing, settling,
separation, ltering, bleaching, deodorization, rening,
conditioning, etc. organized in technological chains appropriate
to the plant species [16].
The Variety of Consumer Oils
Various commercial oil categories (grades, classes) have been
established for each product, either at the level of countries or at
the initiative of professional bodies. The classication is done by
experts, through “very objective tests” and taking into account
certain characteristics determined in laboratories: acidity,
peroxide index, etc.
The following classication was established for olive oil:
- virgin (“Virgin Oil”): obtained by exclusively mechanical
means, has several degrees (extra virgin / virgin / ordinary
virgin);
- virgin lampant “Lampant Virgine Oil”: extracted by
mechanical means, but not suitable for consumption as
such; it is either used for industrial purposes or rened to
become t for consumption;
- rened (“Rened Olive Oil”): oil obtained by any of the
pressing methods, which was then subjected to a renement
that does not lead to changes in the glyceride structure, but
only corrects: color, taste, smell and reduces the content of
fatty acids free;
- crude (“Crude Olive Pomace Oil”): obtained from seeds
and pomace (the pulp remaining after the extraction of
virgin oil), with solvents or other methods (except for re-
esterication and mixtures); the product is subjected to
rening and after blending with virgin oil it is rebranded as
olive oil and olive pits (“Olive Pomace Oil”). [17]
The countries that joined the International Olive Council
(International Olive Council - IOC) have the following quality
categories:
- “Extra-virgin olive oil”, category that has free acidity
limited to max. 0.8%;
- “Virgin olive oil”, with free acidity limited to 1.5%;
- “Rened olive oil”: obtained without solvents and corrected
by rening; products labeled Pure olive oil or Olive oil are
rened, then blended with virgin oils to improve the taste:
- “Olive pomace oil”: from pressed pulp and seeds, rened,
modest in terms of organoleptic characteristics, with
a composition typical of olive oils, not approved by
connoisseurs; it is widely used in restaurants and kitchens
as frying oil.
In the USA, on the same structure, a list of ve categories was
created. Similar qualitative ranking schemes are possible for the
other oils as well. Vegetable oils have a number of advantages
that cannot be neglected for health [18].
Considering the fact that the chemical composition of vegetable
oils is given by the dierent content of saturated fatty acids, mono-
and polyunsaturated acids, carotenes, phytosterols, vitamins (D,
E, F and K), during this stage of the project were developed and
implemented a series of analytical methods whose corroborated
results allow the advanced characterization from the physico-
chemical point of view of camelina oils resulting from the
application of optimized extraction and purication technologies
in order to increase the yield of the process and minimize the
impact on the environment, with the purpose of diversifying the
range of bioproducts with the use of components that increase
the functional value of the oil. Thus, the screening of camelina
oils in the context of the characterization of their composition
followed the quantication of the main compounds (linoleic
acid, linolenic acid, vitamin E) that exhibit biological action at
the dermo-epidermal level demonstrated in specialized literature,
but also the determination of the iodine index - a parameter that
quanties the degree of unsaturation of the respective fat/oil;
acidity index – parameter that provides indications regarding
the presence of free fatty acids or acids formed as a result of
the degradation and burning of the oil (during the technological
process of obtaining or during the storage period); fatty acid
composition [19].
The Need and Importance of Vegetable Oils in Food
The burning point is the most important criterion in choosing
cooking oils. Oil is a vegetable fat, it can be found in any kitchen
and is used in food in various forms: for frying, in salads, in
doughs, in cakes. There are several oils that bring health benets
and that can also be used in cooking. An important factor in
choosing cooking oil is the burning point, which depends on
the degree of renement. Unrened oils (cold pressed) are
recommended to be used in cold preparations, in their raw state
they are particularly healthy, having a very high biological value
due to the content of vitamins, especially vitamin E. They must
not be subjected to heating; the optimal temperature of use is
recommended not to exceed 40 degrees Celsius [20].

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The oil you choose most often must have a balanced content of
Omega 3 and Omega 6 (one part Omega 3 and four parts Omega
6). Omega 3 has an anti-inammatory eect and prevents heart
diseases, and Omega 6 maintains the skin’s water balance and
reduces cholesterol levels. Here are some oils recommended to
be used in food:
Coconut oil, considered the healthiest vegetable oil, prevents
cardiovascular diseases, has an antiviral and antibacterial eect,
prevents diabetes and obesity. It is quickly processed by the
liver and burned as calories. It is recommended to use extra
virgin, non-hydrogenated coconut oil. It preserves the aroma of
foods with a rich and ne taste. It can also be used for frying, its
burning point being 177 degrees Celsius.
Palm oil is one of the most used oils in restaurants because it
does not lend the taste and smell of other foods cooked in the
same container and does not change its color. Having a burning
point of 235 degrees Celsius, it is indicated for frying, provided
that it is not hydrogenated. Because it has a solid consistency
(cold it resembles lard) the food cooked in it does not look very
good cold [21].
Olive oil is of high quality if it is extra virgin and cold pressed.
Due to the very high content of antioxidants, it prevents cancer,
cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, hydrates and tones the
hair, prevents stomach ulcers. At the same time, it is the only
vegetable oil that can be consumed unprocessed. Having a
burning point of 210 degrees Celsius, it can be used for frying.
Walnut oil is an oil used in salads, but it is not used in cooking,
having a burning point of 160 degrees Celsius.
Sunower oil, the most used in our country, can be used for
cooking if it is rened. It has a high vitamin E content.
Soybean oil is used both in salads and for frying.
Peanut oil is used in Asia, especially in China for cooking and in
salads. It can be bought in Chinese stores.
The oil is kept in cool places (preferably in the refrigerator) and
away from light [22].
Predictive Stability of Puried Oil
In general, the bioactive compounds obtained through
the extraction process from various sources to be used in
pharmaceutical/cosmetic formulas must present a certain
stability of the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters
to ensure their longest shelf life. The purpose of stability
assessment tests is to provide evidence on how the quality of a
bioactive substance/complex or medicinal product varies over
time under the inuence of environmental factors (temperature,
humidity, light) and to establish the period of retesting for
the investigated bioactive substance/complex, of the validity
period as well as the recommended storage conditions for both
the bioactive substance and the nished product. The notion
of stability should not be understood as a physical-chemical
property that is not allowed to change over time under the
action of environmental factors, but in the sense of a controlled,
documented and accepted change. Thus, stability studies are an
integral part of the development process of a pharmaceutical/
dermato-cosmetic product and are widely recognized as one
of the most important stages in the registration process of
pharmaceutical/cosmetic products [23].
The phenomena of instability of the preparation over time
are manifested by physical, chemical or microbiological
changes, under the inuence of environmental factors such as:
temperature in the storage space, light, microorganisms, oxygen.
Temperature variations during storage can negatively inuence
the stability of a substance (for example, at low temperatures, the
dispersion medium freezes and the lyophobic colloid separates,
and at high temperatures, coagulation and aging phenomena can
occur), light and oxygen favor photochemical degradation and
microorganisms it contaminates the lyophobic dispersions and
causes fermentation processes to occur, leading to the alteration
of the formula, the release of gases and the installation of the
occulation phenomenon [24].
Vegetable oils are hydrophobic substances, liquid at room
temperature, with a complex composition consisting of
triglycerides (the main component), fatty acids, polyphenols,
avonoids and vitamins. Due to the lipid component, vegetable
oils are susceptible to oxidative and autoxidative degradation,
even if in their structure there are small amounts of natural
antioxidants in the form of polyphenols and vitamins, which
give the oils a slight resistance to these degradation processes.
Unfortunately, each type of antioxidant, which exists naturally
in the plants from which the vegetable oils are extracted and
implicitly in the composition of the crude oils, will be inuenced
by the technological rening processes applied until obtaining
the nished product that the consumer uses as such or introduced
in various pharmaceutical/cosmetic formulas. For this reason, the
applied extraction and purication technology as well as the way
of storing vegetable oils have an important impact on oxidative
processes and the formation of potentially toxic compounds for
human health [25].
The main cause of the deterioration of vegetable oils is represented
by the reaction of oxygen with unsaturated fatty acids from
lipids, a process also called lipid autooxidation, thus leading
to changes in sensory properties (development of unpleasant
odors, rancid taste); changes in color (oxidation products of
fats determine the darkening of the color of oils); changing the
quality values through the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty
acids (such as Ω-6 and Ω-3) indispensable for the human body
and the inactivation of vitamins A, D and E; the formation of
toxic substances that, for example, if ingested, can damage the
gastric mucosa with a decrease in the coecient of digestive use
of food.
The more or less rapid development of the rancid taste depends
on the number and nature of unsaturated fatty acids, the contact
surface between lipids and air (continuous lipid phase, dispersed
or emulsion), light, temperature, the presence of certain pro-
oxidant compounds (metal ions) or natural antioxidants
(tocopherols from the oil). The triggering factors of the lipid
autooxidation process are represented by the high temperature
in the production process and in the storage spaces, light and
photosensitizing agents such as chlorophyll, myoglobin or
riboavin. In the case of enzymatically catalysed oxidative

Copyright © Lucian Calugar, et al.
J Med Clin Nurs Stud, 2024
Volume 2 | Issue 2
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processes, polyunsaturated fatty acids react with oxygen in the
presence of cyclooxygenase or lipoxygenase. In general, lipid
oxidation results in two types of oxidation products:
- primaries that include hydroperoxides. The main
degradation products of hydroperoxides are short chain
aldehydes such as: 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, hexanal, pentanal
and malondialdehyde
- secondary (results from the decomposition of the primary
ones) - include, among others, aldehydes, alkanes, alkenes,
ketones, alcohols, hydrocarbons, volatile organic acids and
epoxy compounds [26].
In the presence of atmospheric oxygen, fatty acids from
phospholipids are exposed to the phenomenon of lipid
peroxidation by extracting a hydrogen atom from the allylic
or bis-allylic position. The peroxidation process follows the
mechanism of chain reactions, which involves the three stages:
initiation, propagation and termination and which requires the
presence or formation of free radicals as reaction catalysts.
Linoleic acid, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid and their esters
produce hydroperoxides, which are reactive, unstable and readily
undergo successive decomposition to produce more stable short-
chain compounds.
Avoiding these degrading processes can be achieved by using
optimal preservation systems, by choosing the appropriate
packaging and by establishing the right storage conditions
(temperature, humidity). By monitoring these aspects, stability
studies provide useful information for formulation development,
processing and packaging. As a result of their development,
the need for changes in the production ow can be proactively
identied, such as: the addition of stabilizing excipients, the
control of the manufacturing environment, the existence of a
protective packaging system. Within this project, predictive
stability tests are carried out with the aim of identifying the
physico-chemical parameters for camelina oil that can vary over
time under the inuence of dierent environmental factors such
as temperature and humidity, based on which a retest period is
established, the validity period and the recommended storage
conditions [27].
According to the ICH guideline, stability assessment begins with
studies on the bioactive complex. A distinction is made between
forced degradation studies (stress tests) and conrmatory studies.
A forced degradation study is tested under extreme conditions
used to characterize the bioactive complex or pharmaceutical
product; to determine the degradation products and reaction
mechanisms and to develop an appropriate quantication
methodology. Conrmatory studies apply to the bioactive
substance and the pharmaceutical/cosmetic preparation, and
involve testing under conditions designed in such a way that it
is possible to generate experimental data on the basis of which it
is possible to anticipate what might happen during storage under
normal conditions and to determine if precautions are required
during formulation, manufacture and storage. A conrmatory
study can be considered a limit test and should end with an
“acceptable” or “unacceptable” change. The stability studies
of the pharmaceutical product will be designed using the
information obtained regarding the bioactive substance included
in the pharmaceutical formula of the product [28].
Taking into account all these aspects, the design of a test protocol
is of particular importance, because the results of the test program
can aect the chemistry, manufacturing and control of a part of
the further development process of the drug/cosmetic preparation.
Conclusions
Oil consumption has always been associated with health and
vigor. Modern medicine and contemporary gastronomy maintain
the same very positive views on the consumption and uses of
oils. Oils and fats are indispensable components of the diet and
perform vital functions in the body. Along with carbohydrates
and proteins, they are among the basic nutrients for the body, they
provide energy, protect against the cold, ensure the absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins and serve as avor carriers. They only
become unhealthy when we consume excess fat. Apart from
quantity, the quality of cooking oil is the most important factor.
The most important components of fats are fatty acids. Vegetable
oils are mainly characterized by important unsaturated fatty
acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as the Omega-6 fatty
acid, linoleic acid, and the Omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic
acid, are particularly important for the body. Appropriate quality
parameters can be used as temperature/time integrators for oil
quality deterioration during their maintenance under accelerated
storage conditions. For this reason, the stage preceding a stability
study is represented by the development and optimization of
analysis methods that will allow the separation, identication
and dosage of degradation products. Thus, for the stability
studies of camelina oil, the method for identifying fatty acids
and quantitative determination of linoleic and linolenic acid by
gas chromatography with mass spectrometer detector (GC-MS)
was optimized, the method for identifying γ- tocopherol by
HPLC and methods for evaluating the characteristic parameters
of the oils: refractive index, acidity index, iodine index.
Acknowledgement: None.
Conict of Interest: None.
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