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EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 1
1
2
EUROPEAN JOURNAL
OF
TRANSFORMATION STUDIES
2023
Vol. 11, No. 2
© by Europe Our House, Tbilisi
e-ISSN 2298-0997
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 1
3
Arkadiusz Modrzejewski
University of Gdansk, Poland
modrzejewski@ug.edu.pl
Editors
Tamar Gamkrelidze
Europe Our House, Tbilisi, Georgia
Tatiana Tökölyová
University College of International and Public Affairs in Bratislava, Slovakia
Rafał Raczyński
Research Institute for European Policy, Poland
Jaroslav Mihálik – deputy editor
Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Trnava, Slovakia
Edita Poórová – copy editor
Gdansk Medical University
Andrii Kutsyk – assistant editor
Lesya Ukrainka Eastern European National University, Lutsk, Ukraine
Editorial Advisory Board
Prof. Jakub Potulski, University of Gdansk, Poland – chairperson
Prof. Slavomír Gálik, University of Ss.Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovakia
Prof. Wojciech Forysinski, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famangusta, Northern Cyprus
Prof. Danuta Plecka, University of Gdansk, Poland
Prof. Anatoliy Kruglashov, Chernivtsi National University, Ukraine
Prof. Malkhaz Matsaberidze, Ivane Javakashvili Tbilisi State University
Prof. Ruizan Mekvabidze, Gori State Teaching University, Georgia
Prof. Lucia Mokrá, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia
Prof. Andras Bozoki, Central European University in Budapest, Hungary
Prof. Tereza - Brînduşa Palade, National University of Political and Public Administration in Bucharest, Romania
Prof. Elif Çolakoğlu, Atatürk University in Erzurum, Turkey
Prof. Valeriu Mosneaga, Moldova State University in Chişinău, Republic of Moldova
Prof. Andrei Taranu, National University of Political Science and Public Administration in Bucharest, Romania Prof.
Tetyana Nagornyak, National University of Kyiv Mohyla Academy in Kiev, Ukraine
Prof. Alexandre Kukhianidze, Tbilisi State University, Georgia
Prof. Nana Akhalaia, Gori State Teaching University, Georgia
Prof. Jana Reschová, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic
Prof. Jolanta Urbanovič, Mykolo Romerio University in Vilnius, Lithuania
Prof. Josef Dolista, CEVRO Institut College in Prague, Czech Republic
Prof. Teodora Kaleynska, Veliko Turnovo University, Bulgaria
Prof. Daniela La Foresta, University of Naples Federico II, Italy
Prof. Polina Golovátina-Mora, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Columbia
Prof. Peter Horváth, University of Ss.Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovakia
Prof. Marek Hrubec, Center of Global Studies, Academy of Science of the Czech Republic and Charles University in
Prague
Prof. Ana Campina, Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal
Prof. David J.Jackson, Bowling Green State University, USA
Prof. Tuan A. Hoang, USSH, Vietnam National University in Hanoi
Prof. Carlos Rodrigues, Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal
Dr. Justyna Schulz, University of Bremen, Germany
Dr. Małgorzata Patok, Sorbonne - Université Paris Descartes, France
Dr. René Cuperus, the Netherlands Institute of International Relations, the Netherlands
Dr. Jerzy Kaźmierczyk, University of Economy in Poznań, Poland
Dr. Agnes Horvath, Tokaj University, Hungary
Dr. Sanja Zlatanović, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Belgrade, Serbia
DTP
Patrycja Nieczuja-Ostrowska
Cover design
Paweł Nieczuja-Ostrowski
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
CONTENTS
Tomáš Janči
Examining The Influence Of I-Voting On Electoral Engagement In Estonia 5
Stela Olejárová
Slovakia's National Identity And Its Power: Historical Narratives,
Myths And Political Consequences 16
Saliha Çelik, Harun Uçak
Virtual Land Resources In Türkiye’s Crop Trade 31
Rafał Raczyński
Review Of Polish-Icelandic Political Relations In 1945–1989 – A Polish Perspective 44
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
Cultural Landscape As The Identity Of Phenomenon 72
Andrii Kutsyk, Valentyna Hodlevska
Ukrainian Civil Society And Volodymyr Zelenskyy: In Terms Of Cooperation,
Contradictions And Challenges 2019–2023 106
Zuzanna Szutta, Piotr Topolski,
Urszula Ostrowska, Wawrzyniec Bednarz
Analysis Of The Media Discourse Surrounding The 2021
Polish-Belarusian Border Crisis 125
Katarzyna Maciejewska-Mieszkowska
European Parliament Elections In The Publicperception Of Poles 144
Anastasiia Sychova
Collaborative Clusters As A Part Of New Security Architecture:
A Global Perspective 156
Dominika Rafalska
“It Surpasses Our Comprehension”.
Post-War Poland In Foreign Press Of The 40s. 185
Sabína Gáliková Tolnaiová, Slavomír Gálik
Slovak Media (Not Only) At The Time Of Covid-19: Weaknesses,
Problems And Their Factors 193
Snezana Djordjevic
Squatting Movement And Practice Of Procurement Housing For Poor People 213
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
Roman Martyniuk, Oleksii Datsiuk, Mykola Romanov, Tetiana Khomych
The Constitutional Referendum In Kyrgyzstan On April 11, 2021,
Or The Restoration Of Post-Soviet Authoritarianism 235
Tamar Karaia
The Threatening Shadow of Soviet Archives in Contemporary Georgia 263
Ruizan Mekvabidze, Roman Smietanski
Exploration Of An Employability Platform For The Educational Policy
Of Georgia Through Synergy Of The Potential Actors:
What Do They Think And What Can They Not Regulate? 279
Vladimeri Napetvaridze
Decoding The Transformation Of Three Decades Of Ai Research:
A Social Science Perspective 293
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
72
CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AS THE IDENTITY
OF PHENOMENON
Tatiana Tökölyová
University of St. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Faculty of Social Sciences
Institute of Political Sciences and Public Administration
Bučianska 4/A, 917 01 Trnava, Slovakia
tatiana.tokolyova@ucm.sk
Ivana Pondelíková
University of St. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Faculty of Arts
Department of British and American Studies
J. Herdu 2, 917 01 Trnava, Slovakia
ivana.pondelikova@ucm.sk
Abstract
As a foundation of national identity, a cultural landscape can be perceived
sensually or spiritually. Associating a country with art, memory, and identity opens
up the possibility of a new perception of a particular place as a cultural landscape.
The theoretical and methodological basis of the text encompasses Hofstede‟s
cultural dimensions and Pecníková‟s [2020] typology of the country as a cultural
landscape presented as 1) a real landscape; 2) a fantastic landscape; 3) an ideal
landscape. The aim, therefore, is to test the applicability of Pecníková‟s typology to a
case country – New Zealand, commonly referred to as a Pacific country.
Key words: cultural landscape, identity, New Zealand, Pacific.
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
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1. INTRODUCTION
Today‟s globalized world is characterized by a high dynamic of changes bringing
new questions connected with the survival of human communities [Kozárová, Ištok
2015] that adapt the landscape according to newly formed conditions and thus
shape the identity of the land and nation. Identity is the key to understanding
human beings, their thoughts, and opinions, but also to the perception of the life of
the communities in which they live.
Cultural landscape as a scientific field of cultural studies interconnects concepts of
identity, history, and cultural memory of a land. Besides material expression, an
intangible component is included i.e. people‟s way of thinking, their feelings, acting,
and sense of belonging (identity), as well as cultural and historical events that
fundamentally influenced its formation [Pecníková 2020; Gbúrová 1996]. It is a
concept of ideology defined as a complex of temporal layers of the memories of the
chain of generations of people who live there, memories that are expressed in
architecture, painting, music, landscape, and so on. By linking land with identity,
we open up a new perspective of perceiving a specific place as a cultural landscape.
Countries around the world have nicknames (e.g. New Zealand – Land of the Long
White Cloud) that seem to be based on cultural stereotypes, but often come from
intellectually interesting phenomena that define the nature of the cultural
landscape. Globalization has resulted in joining the cultural landscape with a
territorial identity. “The link between landscape and identity is one of the most
powerful feelings in human beings. [...] Increasingly attention is being paid to the
critical role landscape plays in our sense of place, identity and belonging”. [Taylor
2015a:12]. The phenomenon of identity as we know it today did not exist in the pre-
modernist period, e.g. in an agrarian society, people were bounded by social class,
religion, and local ties to the lord of the manor [Pondelíková 2022:33; Gelner 1993;
Gieben, Hall 1993]. The changes began with the rise of industrial society; these
older ties dissolved, and society needed a different kind of glue to hold it together
[Fukuyama 2012]. This glue was typically formed of language and culture, as they
created new bonds so that people could communicate with each other and live
together in a pluralistic, multicultural, and modern society. Identity is a key to
understanding human beings, their thoughts, and views (referred also as individual
identity), but also to perceiving the life of the communities in which they live
(collective identity, as a base for political and national identity).
National identity is an essential form, followed by transnational, cultural,
transcultural, and ethnic or religious identity in the context of studying the cultural
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
74
landscape. Within cultural studies, several approaches and perceptions of culture
and its dimensions have been developed, such as the theories of Edward T. Hall,
Geert Hofstede, and Fons Trompenaars. For the purposes of this study, Hofstede‟s
6-D model will be applied, which describes in detail the ways, manifestations, and
norms of behaviour in individual cultures. The identity of a country (national
identity) and its people is generated by the physical, climatic, ecological, and
geographical qualities of a given space, which, through their natural or
anthropogenic configuration, make individuals aware of the place where they live
and give them a sense of belonging [Walls 2022].
The cultural turn (70s – 90s of the 20th century) caused that various scientific
disciplines, which have culture integrated into their research have interlinked the
acquired knowledge. These are mainly cultural and political studies, sociology,
anthropology, philosophy, economics, and geography. The interest was no longer
only in objects of culture (artworks, artifacts), but research focused on a deeper
study of culture(s) through the interpretation of symbols, meanings, social
relations, cultural differences, and landscape.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE OVERVIEW
A cultural landscape is a rather unexplored scientific field of cultural studies.
It connects the concept of identity, history, and cultural memory of a land. “Cultural
landscapes are the places where human culture is on display where our human
landscape is our unwritten biography, reflecting our tastes, our values, our aspiration,
and even our fears in tangible visible form”. [Taylor 2015a:12]. In addition to
material expression, there is an intangible component in the cultural landscape; i.e.
people‟s way of thinking, their feelings, acting, sense of belonging (identity), as well
as cultural and historical events that fundamentally influenced its formation
[Pecníková 2020:45; Gbúrová 2015:9]. As a personal (individual) identity reflects an
individual‟s membership of different groups within a community, it is closely linked
to collective identity, i.e. social group identity. Therefore, Tajfel and Turner claim
that it is essential to understand the link between personal and group identity
[Tajfel, Turner 1979:34] reflected often by political participation. This can indicate
acceptance of national institutions, rules, customs, traditions, and symbols that
shape collective identities [Gbúrová 1996:33]. The study of collective identities is a
significant area of interest in political science. In Europe, the primary political
identities are national and civic identities, while in the South Pacific, national and
regional identities are used as forms of identification associated with the Pacific
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
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region [Hau‟ofa 1998]. This standpoint is critical for this research from political-
science point of view.
The study and research of the cultural landscape are only in its beginnings,
however theoretical background has been established by Minca [2013], Norberg-
Schulz [2010], Schama [2007], Pecníková [2020; 2022; 2023], Heinrichová [2012],
etc. The cultural landscape is an ideological concept that represents what is
important to a given society as well as a materialized system, which includes verbal,
visual, and physical aspects of human existence, creating space for the
multidimensional and dynamic development of the world [Minca 2013]. Moreover,
the cultural landscape also captures what the society wants or does not want to
keep in the cultural memory, but it is part of it.
Nowadays, the term landscape has become ambiguous as it overlaps various
structures, images, and diverse elements, which are often contradictory in terms of
typology. Furthermore, the cultural landscape is a concept that is best elaborated
within the framework of cultural geography. It is based on a postmodern approach,
which perceives culture in the broadest sense of the word, which is based on its
universality and apparent infinity of meanings. Therefore, cultural geography does
not pay much attention to culture as such but perceives the transformation of the
environment under the influence of man as a priority [Pecníková 2020:53].
A cultural landscape can be perceived sensually or spiritually. Connecting a land
with art, memory, and identity opens the possibility of a new perception of a certain
place as a cultural landscape. The landscape can be read as a social document or
as an anthropological interpretation of a cultural text with many meanings
[Pecníková 2020:47]. We can perceive the cultural landscape through its socio-
cultural sphere, language, visual art, architecture, natural phenomena, or lives of
personalities who made their mark with their works of art whether music or
literature. The cultural landscape can be examined as a linguistic landscape
[Saduov 2021], a literary cultural landscape [Bohušová 2021; Javorčíková 2021], a
musical cultural landscape [Pondelíková 2021], a touristic cultural landscape
[Tökölyová 2021], or an urban cultural landscape [Pecníková 2021; 2023]. A place
(referred to within an identity of place) is an essential element of studying the
cultural landscape. The place can be defined as a natural landscape, or urban
landscape which means a city, a part of a city, any space without borders, or
significant cultural sight. Human beings are those who shape the cultural
landscape, they give it its vitality and value, thus forming the landscape‟s identity,
i.e. identity of place [Malík 2017]. On the other hand, the place contributes to
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
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creating a national and cultural identity of the landscape‟s inhabitants. Humans
are perceivers of the landscape and receptors of the various stimuli coming from the
place where they live [Gbúrová 1996].
The place means recognizing how people use different places to fulfil their needs,
whether for living, work, or relaxation thus creating a “sense of place”, which is “an
important aspect in cultural context by integrating users with the place” [Mohammad
et al. 2013]. Mohammad, Saruwono, and Hairi [2013] explore the place via three
dimensions and state that the place acquires its sense through people‟s experience,
response, and perception (psychological dimension), representation of people‟s
beliefs and memories (spiritual dimension), and images in films, books, or articles
(visual dimension; intangible heritage) that shape human‟s perception and
expectations from the place. The place is not created just by objects, but the area
acquires its spirit through meaningful activities and people‟s experiences perceived
through all senses. The place, natural or urban, is in an ongoing process. “In
general, the earth is the „scene‟ on which our everyday life takes place. It can be
transformed and controlled to a certain extent, which results in a friendly
relationship. From the natural landscape, it becomes a cultural landscape, that is, an
environment where one has found his meaningful place within the whole”. [Norberg-
Schulz 2010:40].
Nowadays, a distinction is made between natural and urban landscaping. The
identity of the natural landscape lies in the coherence of its elements, wisely
interwoven by nature. With regard to natural landscapes, there is a tendency to
protect, conserve, maintain or restore areas in order to preserve them for future
generations. The care of the natural landscape is urgent because it is essential to
maintain the balance and harmony between the natural and urban areas. The
identity of the urban landscape is more complex, as it is formed not only by a
correlation of elements, but mainly by the way in which the impact of human
actions overlaps with the original environment. Soukupová [2017] defines the city
as a cultural landscape as a complex of temporal layers of the memory of the chain
of generations of its inhabitants, the memory embodied in architecture, sculpture,
painting, music, landscaping, etc. (tangible heritage). At the same time, however, it
represents a complex of images that have existed and continue to exist in ethnic,
generational, social, opinion, local and other modifications [Soukupová 2007]. The
city is first and foremost a social space; it expresses the connection between society
and place, between objects, phenomena and processes that have been connected
with it [Pecníková 2023; Taylor 2015b].
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
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The natural or urban landscape is a key factor in the creation of cultural identity.
Nature, its structure, the genius loci of a place, the cohesive space, the heritage and
the architectural objects are the elements that together create the identity of a
landscape. It is therefore essential to look for the added value of a place as a key
part of understanding its identity and character. To Relph [1987], place is reflected
in the concept of identity as the expression of adapting, assimilating,
accommodating and socializing. The identity of a cultural landscape is created by
personal connotations and memories that are manifested in symbols and signs.
They give meaning to codes that help to identify with a particular culture. At the
same time, the cultural landscape reflects the dreams, ideas and projects of people
who share a common cultural memory, the same sense of belonging at a given time
and in a given political situation, when they manifest themselves in this form
[Pecníková 2020; Gbúrová 1996:33; Hau‟ofa 1998]. The identity of a cultural
landscape is also based on oral history, which is not based on written documents
from a given period, but on the testimony of people who have real experience. In
addition, Norberg-Schulz emphasizes that “history has a fundamental function in the
formation of the art of place, which implies permanence and change, while other
artistic expressions derive especially from positions typical of the permanence and
change they were conceived. The art of place is the art of totality” [Norberg-Schulz
2000:221].
Landscape is perceived not only as a material, artistic, or historical place, but also
as a social and cultural construct, being the result of various human activities.
Visual expressions help to understand the socially created landscape. The concept
of landscape is broader and includes not only monuments, places, or squares, but
it is an expression of cultural values, social behaviour and individual actions in a
given place at a given time. According to Pecníková [2020: 51–53] the cultural
landscape can take various forms such as:
a) artistic imagination with a focus on interpreting a particular part of the land.
The scenery has a certain structure, which creates the impression that the
scenery evokes. It can resemble a work of art, or a literary work (artistic
description).
b) figurative landscape complements e.g. architectural designs and fills the space
between buildings, or around them. Not only the building itself is designed but
also the space around it. This approach is associated with the creation of an
urban landscape (also called a cityscape), which is the opposite of a natural
landscape. Cityscape scope is much smaller than in the case of landscape
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
78
architecture, which includes management, construction, and planning over a
longer period of time and over a wider area.
c) genius loci is the spirit of a place, which determines its character. It is the way
we see and read the landscape. In the past, people‟s physical survival depended
on a “good” place to live, where they were not threatened by natural disasters,
and where they were relatively safe. However, a place with genius loci means a
unique character or a certain atmosphere that it carries. Therefore, in places
with genius loci, we also observe the symbolic value that it represents, as well as
the relationship of man to the place and its transformation over the ages.
d) landscape as a communication system reflects social relations. It is about the
relations between man and the environment, but also about the manifestation of
interpersonal relations in the environment. It is not only about the division of the
land according to the owners, but also about the fact that the entire history is
reflected in the land in visual, meaningful, or symbolic references. Even the
entire cultural landscape can be a symbol that carries a specific meaning.
e) carrier of cultural codes means that architecture and transformation of the
landscape are considered permanent transmitters and carriers of cultural codes.
The form and meaning of an architectural work reflect the inner, spiritual
dimension of its creators while reflecting the aesthetic structure of the city.
f) a cultural landscape as a product of culture(s) can be explored through
architectural forms, use, function, meaning, and representation, based on
aesthetic, political, ethical, historical, economic, social, semiotic, and other
criteria.
The cultural landscape is constantly transforming, responding to human needs,
preferences, and ideologies that change in space and time. The global organizations
such as UNESCO, IUCN, ICOMOS, and the Council of Europe urge to protection,
preservation, sustainability, and development of the cultural landscape and enrich
cultural, territorial, and national identity, because the destruction of unique
cultural landscapes, lack of development policies and adherence to measures lead
to irreversible damages [Pecníková 2021:6; Gbúrová 1996; Oikonomopoulou et al.
2023]. Cultural heritage is an inseparable part of the study of the cultural
landscape. The ancient civilizations did not separate the landscape from nature but
transformed it based on their religion and the gods they worshipped. In the case of
New Zealand, which is characterized by a dynamic landscape that is shaped by
earthquakes, floods, landslides, and tsunamis, we can observe the deep influence of
these events on the relationships between Māori, the Indigenous peoples of
Aotearoa with their ancestral landscapes [Wilkonson et al. 2021]. Therefore, we
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
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agree with Schama that the landscape can be perceived as a “way of life” as it
reflects events, personalities, and their influence, which shaped its identity and
character. Such a landscape may, in fact, be “a text” in which generations inscribe
their recurring imagination [Schama 2007:11].
A country‟s ability to promote some of its distinctiveness depends on the strength of
its brand [Anholt 2004], as evidenced by New Zealand‟s success (below) in
competing with others in the diversity of its natural beauty, standard of living, and
cultural characteristics. The official website for the 100 % Pure New Zealand
campaign therefore states that the brand is one of the best examples of this: “The
symbol of Brand New Zealand is the fern (see Figure 3 below). It appears in our
Tourism New Zealand corporate logo. It‟s a registered country of origin mark used by
tourism and trade operators to promote New Zealand internationally and within New
Zealand” [Travel Trade New Zealand online].
3. METHODOLOGY
This article examines how the cultural landscape could be employed to understand
New Zealand‟s national identity. The impetus for investigating this matter stemmed
from global trends in the importance of national identity within political and
cultural sciences, caused by the growing challenge of global impacts on the Pacific
Island. Consequently, the primary objective of this research is to facilitate the
creation of a blueprint for analysing national identity (and national cultural
landscape) based on Hofstede‟s model of cultural dimensions and Pecníková‟s
typology of the country as a cultural landscape. For this purpose, the study
incorporates three variables: Variable 1: place, Variable 2: cultural landscape, and
Variable 3: national identity. Our research draws from the concepts of national and
Pacific identity. Such factors are reflected in the main goal: Research for
applicability of the cultural landscape model to possibilities to research the national
identity of a chosen country fulfilled through two research incentives:
Research incentive 1 (RI1): to apply Hofstede‟s cultural dimensions to New
Zealand‟s cultural landscape. The aim is to test the applicability of Hofstede‟s
dimensions to New Zealand as a suitable case study.
Research incentive 2 (RI2): to test Pecníková‟s model on the chosen nation
branding campaign, „100 % Pure New Zealand‟, which is one of the highest-ranked
campaigns promoting cultural landscapes.
To test the stated RIs, the research questions were set out:
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
80
Q1: In the chapter devoted to the theoretical framework, to recognize and identify
the key concepts of theorists concerning cultural landscape issues that frame
national identity policies and contribute to the process of nation-building.
Q2: The objective of the chapter focused on key findings is to identify the essential
aspects of Pecníková‟s model and examine its applicability in testing Hofstede‟s
model of cultural dimensions.
Q3: Pecníková‟s model will be applied to a selected case study country, specifically
New Zealand, to verify the manifestation of the „real, fantastic, and ideal‟ country
phenomenon in Aotearoa. This analysis is presented in the chapter dedicated to
key findings, with a focus on the „100 % Pure New Zealand‟ campaign.
Conclusions are drawn about this model‟s suitability for analysing national identity,
considering both material and spiritual heritage. The methodology employs a case
study approach to create measurable or observable forms from these constructs,
based on an established theoretical foundation. The research presented in this
paper is based on the assumption, presented in Q3, that the cultural landscape is
the primary reflection of national identity.
Therefore, to achieve the stated aim of our research, we focus on the official New
Zealand campaign known as „100 % Pure New Zealand‟ (hereafter referred to as the
„Campaign‟). This campaign is a) long-term, allowing for evaluation (launched in
1999–2000); b) a national campaign that determines, among other things, tourism
activities to make the country more attractive abroad; and c) one of the world's most
successful tourism campaigns [Morgan et al. 2002; Smith 2015; Kaefer 2016]. The
text discusses the main pillars of New Zealand‟s national identity as expressed in
official documents. However, some critical voices have emerged in the analyses, as
noted by Dorsey et al. [2004] and Morgan et al. [2002]. Additionally, New Zealand‟s
„pure‟ brand image is based on the concepts of nature and diversity, which are
represented by the three aspects of being clean, green, and unique when compared
to other countries [Hayes and Lovelock, 2017]. This campaign could be defined as a
framework campaign that encompasses the most critical aspects of the country‟s
uniqueness on a global scale. The video „The Story of Evolving 100 % Pure NZ‟
explains the interlink between the aspects involved in national identity building and
their connection to the national strategy of tourism, also known as „eco-tourism‟
[Bell 2008:346]. It emphasises how Tourism New Zealand has developed the 100 %
Pure New Zealand identity to more accurately represent the country. The aim was
to utilise the rich history of New Zealand design and visual expression. The updated
identity showcases the incorporation of people, culture and landscapes, which are
EJTS European Journal of Transformation Studies 2023, V. 11, No. 2
81
central to the New Zealand travel experience [Kaefer 2016 n. p.]. According to Kaefer
[2016], the success of this campaign should also take into account the prominent
appearance of New Zealand‟s landscapes in the Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit
movies. Therefore, in the context of this campaign, we will analyse New Zealand as
a fantastic country.
4. KEY FINDINGS
In the presented study the authors apply Pecníková‟s idea of the cultural landscape
and define Aotearoa as a real country, a fantastic country, and an ideal country.
Cultural dimensions are an important tool in the study of culture and national
identity reflected in nation-branding campaigns. These dimensions provide insight
into the cultural context of origin, emphasizing the significance of understanding
one‟s cultural background, therefore the theoretical section delves into the detailed
examination of Hofstede‟s dimensions. Despite the objections to Hofstede‟s research
that many cultural and national aspects are simplified [Pecníková 2013:4], his
findings became the starting point for the research of Aotearoa‟s identity. We
completed Hofstede‟s research with our own findings based on studying the cultural
landscape, thus connecting sociological research with cultural one.
For our research, Pecníková‟s model applicability is tested (Q2), referring to the fact
that there exists a cultural landscape between the past and the future. It reflects
history, visions, interventions of authorities, hopes, and expectations of society. A
cultural landscape can be seen as a manifestation of power in time and space as
those who had power could influence and interfere with it much more easily than
those who did not. Humans have ideas, needs, and preferences on how to “order
nature” according to their wishes, and thus the cultural landscape functions as an
aesthetic norm. Cultivating the natural landscape has different forms [Pecníková
2020:47]
1
:
a) real – a land of fact, space, place, city, and territory;
b) fantastic – a land to which a certain symbolic or spiritual meaning is ascribed,
as well as a cultural legacy of myths, legends, and symbols;
1
The inspiration for the presented case study of New Zealand was driven by Javorčíková‟s
[2021] identity study of selected cities (Stratford, London, Oxford, and Toronto) related to the
phenomenon of William Shakespeare. The real landscape of William Shakespeare is Stratford,
which is his birthplace and the place of death of the Bard of Avon. His life and work are
reminded by many tangible and intangible, authentic cultural artifacts. The fantastic landscape
is Shakespeare‟s London as many tourist artifacts are inauthentic replicas of the original
unpreserved monuments, e.g. The Globe Theatre which is a replica of the original. According to
Javorčíková‟s [2021:81] findings, Toronto represents an ideal landscape as Shakespeare‟s life,
work, and reputation as a classic and valuable author are constantly activated here in order to
create the image of Toronto as a cultural destination of North America.
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c) ideal – a land that meets certain characteristics of the “ideal” of a given time, an
attempt to transform the environment according to a given ideal that manifests
itself e.g. in architecture, where a certain style prevails, which is considered
dominant.
Moreover, it consists of several dimensions [Heinrichová 2012]:
a) time dimension means to understand what processes the cultural landscape
has gone through;
b) space dimension means the location and size of the cultural landscape;
c) economic dimension means its economic and business development;
d) technical dimension means that the type of country is determined
by its sophisticated technical development, remains, or current works that define
the landscape;
e) socio-cultural dimension is the least explored, it covers the cultural richness
of the territory, cultural development, cultural events, and the emergence
of a specific culture.
Understanding a cultural landscape requires identifying its inhabitants, which can
be done by examining the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede. According to
him, dimensions are aspects of culture that can be measured in relation to other
cultures [Hofstede et al. 2010:31]. Hofstede is considered a pioneer of comparative
intercultural research. A large survey was conducted in the 1960s and 1970s
that examined value differences among IBM‟s employees. From a sample of
10 000 respondents from more than 50 countries (later, he included another
23 countries in the research), Hofstede was able to identify cultural dimensions. His
work has later become a paradigm in the field of cross-cultural studies. His
6-D model describes in detail the ways, manifestations, and norms of behaviour in
individual cultures. Based on this model, it is possible to create characteristics of a
particular country and its national identity. Among the aforementioned dimensions
belong:
1. Individualism versus collectivism are the two extreme poles of the same
scale, both describing the extent to which people integrate into groups. In
individualistic countries, people are not dependent on others in society. “I”
consciousness prevails. They act in accordance with their own desires and goals,
which means that they place their own success over the collective one. On the other
hand, people from collectivist countries see themselves as part of a community or a
group that is important to them. “We” consciousness prevails and therefore group
welfare and success are more significant than individual success and well-being.
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2. Power distance refers to power inequality in societies. It divides people into
superiors and subordinates. The high power distance index reflects that members
of a society accept and expect an uneven distribution of power in society.
Conversely, a low degree of power distance means equal relationships in society.
3. Masculinity versus femininity expresses the distribution of male and female
roles in society. In masculine societies, assertiveness and toughness are preferred
in connection to material success, while in feminine societies modesty and interest
in quality of life are preferred.
4. Uncertainty avoidance points to how society tolerates uncertainty and how
they behave in unknown, surprising, or unstructured situations. Strong
uncertainty avoidance cultures try to minimize ambiguity; therefore, they require
clear rules and laws. They have a high tendency to emotionality, anxiety, or
neuroticism. The opposite type, cultures where the avoidance of uncertainty is
weak, have fewer rules. They are more phlegmatic and comfortable with ambiguity
and chaos.
5. Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation focuses on how much
value society imposes on the future and the past. Long-running societies are future-
oriented. They support preparation for the future and perceive traditions as
something adaptable. That is why they are characterized by a certain degree of
adaptiveness. Short-term-oriented societies are, on the other hand, committed to
traditions, values, and dignity. In other words, they are devoted to cultural elements
of the past as the past is sacrosanct. They are characterized by respecting
traditions and social obligations and are therefore resistant to change.
6. Indulgence versus restraint focuses on the extent to which people control
their desire based on where they were raised. Indulgence refers to relatively weak
control over one‟s gratification of basic and natural human desires and enjoyment
of life. Restraint is related to strong control of gratification which regulates and
restricts it by social norms.
This paper presents a study of the cultural landscape in the context of the typology
of Aotearoa as 1) a real country – a really existing land with specific pillars of its
nation-branding joined with Polynesia; 2) a fantastic country – a country to which a
certain symbolic or spiritual meaning is ascribed, a cultural legacy of myths,
legends, symbols of Aotearoa as a part of country‟s branding campaigning
worldwide – made famous through The Hobbit or Lord of the Rings; 3) an ideal
country – a country that meets certain characteristics of the “ideal” at a given time,
an attempt to transform the environment according to a given ideal, as proved by
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anti-nuclear green position altogether with Taonga and Māori vivid in Polynesia –
based national identity.
New Zealand is chosen as a case country due to following reasons. New Zealand
(“Aotearoa”) is generally reported as a Pacific country in an official nation – branding
and national identity concept (reflected o.i. in the “100% Pure New Zealand”
campaign) [Winter-Smith 2023; MFA&T 2021:3, 5; Fraenkel 2012, e.g.]. According
to O‟Brien et al., “New Zealand‟s identity in the South Pacific tends to differ
significantly from its identity on the global stage. Identity is influenced by such things
as originality, values, reputation, relationships and transformational change in the
international system” [2018:55]. Furthermore, researching a cultural landscape
requires knowledge of its inhabitants‟ identity. Hofstede‟s intercultural research
served as the basis for investigating the national identity of Aotearoa, which details
the typical ways, manifestations, and behavioural norms of New Zealand‟s cultures.
These findings could prove valuable for further research into recent ethnic
developments in the country and its region-based policies. Currently, the process of
socio-spatial transformation of place identity is reaching its peak. Therefore,
concepts such as tradition, individuality, and identity have become fundamental
and highly sensitive factors in the social environment. As a result, identity has
become a complex concept in both the Pacific and New Zealand, evolving under
changes in the ethnic composition of society and regional migration patterns.
To answer Q2, we tested the application of Hofstede‟s cultural dimensions in the
case of New Zealand to verify the theoretical basis of Pecníková‟s model. It is
important to consider culture as a collective phenomenon since individuals living in
a shared social environment identify with it. The distinguishing factor between
groups of people is the collective programming of the mind. [Hofstede – Hofstede –
Minkov, 2010]. National culture comprises values, norms, customs, traditions, and
learned patterns of behaviour. These elements are transmitted from generation to
generation and are shared by almost all members of a given society. In today‟s
globalised world, it is crucial to understand the differences in behaviour and value
preferences among people from different cultures. Understanding one‟s own culture,
as well as the cultures of other nations, is crucial for correctly addressing questions
that arise in international relations. Each culture has its own set of cultural
standards, which are general ways of perceiving, thinking, and evaluating that most
members of a certain group consider typical and behave accordingly. Intercultural
differences are an inevitable aspect of life, and accepting them is crucial for effective
communication. Intercultural communication requires specific knowledge and
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abilities that can be explored through the concept of intercultural intelligence
[Dančišinová, Kozárová 2021]. This skill is essential for studying culture, the
cultural landscape, and identity.
Graph 1. New Zealand according to Hofstede‟s cultural dimensions
Source: Hofstede-insights online.
Power distance refers to the extent to which individuals are considered equal in
society. In this regard, New Zealand scores very low, as they believe in the fair
distribution of power and the minimization of inequalities in their society. People in
New Zealand expect consultation, discussion, and frequent sharing of information.
Communication is also informal, direct, and participative. In terms of individualism,
New Zealand scores high, indicating that its people value fulfilling personal dreams
and desires as a path to happiness. Emphasis is also placed on spending money
according to personal will, which is confirmed by the dimension of indulgence.
Aotearoa scores 75 on this scale, suggesting a culture of indulgence where people
are unwilling to deny themselves pleasure for fear of an uncertain future. The
people of New Zealand possess a positive attitude and tend towards optimism. The
level of uncertainty avoidance in a culture reflects the degree to which its members
feel threatened by unknown situations. In the case of New Zealanders, it is difficult
to evaluate this characteristic as they did not exhibit any clear preferences. The
progress and development of society in Aotearoa is linked to its success-oriented
nature, as evidenced by its high score of 58 in the masculinity dimension. A higher
score in this dimension indicates that society is more competitive and success-
driven. Individuals are often taught these values in schools and apply them in their
professional lives. Hofstede‟s research suggests that New Zealand is a normative
culture, where members value fact verification and information analysis. They also
hold their traditions, symbols, and values in high regard. To address the primary
research objective, which is encapsulated in the Research Incentive, it is necessary
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to explore the three key aspects of the cultural landscape of New Zealand: a) as a
real country, b) as a fantastic country, and c) as an ideal country (Q3).
4.1 Aotearoa as a real country
An attempt to identify a shared set of values and perspectives is the definition of
cultural identity. A distinctive feature of this shared identity is the close connection
and affinity with the land, which is expressed by some through a love of sport,
particularly rugby. It is important to note that any attempt at a universal, all-
encompassing definition must consider geography and history, particularly the
Treaty of Waitangi, as these factors play a significant role in shaping New Zealand‟s
identity. New Zealand‟s culture has been influenced by its geographical isolation
and subsequent immigration, resulting in a diverse and multicultural society.
Picture 1. Map of New Zealand with tourist destinations
under “100% Pure New Zealand” Campaign
Source: Watermarkcreative online.
The idea of a common Polynesian homeland with the only indigenous people, the
Māori, affirms Te Reo Māori as the original language of New Zealand, giving the
language a unique cultural identity and the basis of the nation‟s identity. Similarly,
when visiting New Zealand, tourists may encounter New Zealand English that has
been heavily influenced by Te Reo Māori. This is particularly evident in the naming
of places, animals, and plants that were previously unknown to English speakers.
Additionally, Māori words for clothing, weapons, food, and other items have been
adopted into everyday use in non-Māori contexts. Currently, there are
approximately 230 words of Māori origin used in New Zealand English. These
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include kiwi, pohutukawa (New Zealand Christmas tree), Aotearoa (New Zealand),
kia ora (hello; one of the graphical versions of Kia Ora see below – Picture 5) used in
everyday language across society), haere mai (welcome), korero (to speak or story),
mana (influence, reputation), Pākehā (people of non-Māori origin, especially those of
European origin), and tāngata whenua (“people of the land”, the Māori) [Orsman
1997; English – Māori Dictionary and Index online]. According to the Māori Language
Commission, Māori is the primary language of New Zealand [Haar et al. 2019: 6–9].
Te Reo Māori is recognised as the official language of New Zealand and its indigenous
people, alongside English and sign language, by the Māori Language Act 1987.
Therefore, for considering “Aotearoa as a real country” primarily two key segments
need to be explored and joined within this dimension of cultural landscape: Tangata
Whenua and Taonga. This argument is based on the fact that New Zealand
identifies as a Pacific nation, with Māori (Tangata Whenua) being one of its pillars.
“Māori and Pacific peoples have shared histories as navigators, explorers, and
innovators who traversed te Moana-nui-ā-Kiwa in search of new lands … Their customs,
values, beliefs, and languages point to paths that have crossed many times”.
[Ministry for Pacific Peoples, 2022:16]. Protecting its Pacific heritage and Polynesian
people is one of its primary responsibilities. Tangata Whenua is a term denoting
Māori people and Taonga as the very base of their heritage [Te Ara – Encyclopedia of
New Zealand 2013]. The Māori language holds significant social power in
strengthening the national identity of Māori youth through their connection to
place. In Māori tradition, a place can refer to a river, mountain, or a traditional
community gathering place. This is exemplified by the universal use of the „Kia Ora‟
greeting, which is often used in Māori tourism campaigns to express a sense of
place identity. Tourists visit New Zealand for its unique nature as well as the Māori
culture and customs. The Māori culture is an integral part of New Zealand society
and is essential to the country‟s Polynesian identity.
Picture 2. The Hongi – a traditional Māori Greeting, at Tamaki Māori Village Rotorua
Source: Māorilifestyles online.
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Picture 3. Promotion of the “Tangata Whenua: Waikato” of Michael King
and Barry Barclay‟s landmark 1970s Māori documentary series Tangata Whenua
(picture is illustrating The Great Trees and The Carvin)
Source: New Zealand on Screen online.
Picture 4. The first picture of a short film Tangata Whenua – People of the Land
as “an invitation to look beyond the obvious to the subtle beauty of the truth
about our origin, purpose, identity, and sense of belonging”
Source: Vimeo online.
Picture 5 illustrates the fundamental role of Māori culture in New Zealand‟s identity
and society, as evidenced by one of the versions of the national greeting. The
tourism campaign focuses on highlighting the importance of Māori culture to the
nation‟s identity.
Picture 5. One of the versions of traditional Māori greeting
Source: Māoritourism New Zealand online.
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As analysed in this section, the Māori language is a significant social force in
strengthening the national self-recognition of Māori. They represent the most
significant element of its regional identity transmitted more broadly across the
Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean serves as a unifying factor for the diverse cultures,
laws, and traditions that are geographically and environmentally connected,
creating an intra-regional identity. New Zealand is united with other Pacific Island
Countries (PICs) due to regional proximity, similarity in economic, social, and
security issues, as well as cultural proximity in terms of recognizing a common
homeland culture and Polynesian culture. Hau‟ofa [1998] examined Pacific identity
through cultural manifestations such as literature and language. He used the
metaphor of the ocean to express transformation and create a sense of regional
identity.
The second argument is the understanding of Taonga. The Māori dictionary‟s
(online) modern definition refers to Taonga in Māori culture as a valuable thing,
whether tangible or intangible, including socially or culturally valuable objects,
resources, phenomena, ideas, and techniques. Tangible Taonga refers to socially or
culturally valuable objects, resources, phenomena, ideas, and techniques. This
includes heirlooms, artifacts, natural resources like geothermal springs, and access
to resources such as water rights and land fisheries. Intangible examples may
include language, spiritual beliefs, or cultural traditions. Tourists may experience
Māoritanga culture today through many New Zealand museums that feature Whare
taonga, or „treasure houses‟, and through the Ministry for Culture and Heritage,
also known as Te Manatū Taonga, or in any daily public services by the national
government (Picture 6).
Picture 6. New Zealand passport
Source: NZherald online.
Picture 6 shows one of the examples of how national identity is displayed in
everyday government services. The New Zealand passport features the country‟s
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coat of arms on the cover, along with the purpose of the booklet stated in both
English and Te Reo Māori translations. A silver fern – so recognised globally as a
country‟s symbol – is also displayed down the side, making it easily recognizable to
New Zealanders (Kiwis).
Another example is Māori tourism. It is founded on the concept of Taonga, which
encompasses both tangible and intangible cultural treasures. Tangible Taonga
includes artifacts, architecture, land, fishing, and natural resources such as
geothermal springs. These material aspects serve as expressions and anchors of the
intangible Taonga that are associated with the place. In general, the absence of land
means the absence of Taonga, which in turn means the absence of Tangata
Whenua and Aotearoa.
The logo below represents the connection between tangible and intangible Taonga.
The fish depicted can be interpreted as a symbol of the richness of nature, which is
home to Tangata Whenua. The graphic representation of the fish also resembles the
shape of a canoe, expressing the idea of understanding the Taonga – the river – as
an expression of the identity of the place. It is not only a place to live but also a
source of livelihood and a connection between different parts of the country.
Picture 7. Logo of NZ Māori Tourism Company
Source: Māoritourism New Zealand online.
From this research point of view, Māori are seen as key in protecting the cultural
(i.e. natural) Polynesian and Pacific heritage as “Māori culture makes New Zealand
unique in a globalized world and is a central part of our sense of place, identifying us
as a nation. Whereas the term “national heritage” includes history, taonga, places
and symbols of nationality.” [Ministry for Culture & Heritage 2013:7] Māori culture
and the presentation of their customs is, besides the unique nature, one of the
reasons why tourists visit New Zealand as the Māori element is extremely lively in
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all areas of life in New Zealand society. The country‟s growing ethnic diversity is
thus clearly linked to the process of protecting the heritage of the Pacific and
Polynesian peoples. According to Spoonley [2000:4], these Pacific communities
develop new cultural forms and identities, they express multiple identities to
multiple places.
Finally, it is important to understand that New Zealand‟s nation-branding is rooted
in indigenous people and their role in society, pure nature, and relaxation.
Additionally, the strategy of nation branding through developing and promoting
tourism is related to the original indigenous peoples. In the case of New Zealand,
the primary brand is “100 % Pure NZ” (one hundred percent pure New Zealand; see
below). This brand not only promotes tourism linked to cultural heritage but also
represents the country‟s anti-nuclear policy and nuclear-free Pacific stance in
international relations. The brand offers “100 % pure relaxation, 100 % pure
welcome, 100 % pure adrenalin, and 100 % pure you”, all connected back to the
core premise of 100 % Pure New Zealand [Tourism New Zealand online]. Picture 8
illustrates an innovative strategy for showcasing the nation‟s identity, concurrently
acknowledging the circumstances of indigenous communities, notably the Māori
population, within the context of New Zealand‟s tourism. It is important to note that
the Māori people are not a „new‟ minority and are entitled to different conditions
and treatment due to their historical significance.
Picture 8. Indigenous culture and traditions as used in nation-branding
Source: Tourism NZ unveils new campaign with updated 100 % Pure identity via
Whybin\TBWA Sydney. In: Campaingbrief online.
Giannopoulos et al. [2011] reported that in today‟s globalized world, countries
compete for the attention and confidence of potential visitors, investors, and
representatives of other countries. A positive branding strategy can be a
comparative advantage for a country in international relations. Tourism is one of
the most visible and tangible manifestations of good nation-branding. These
activities can be categorised as nation-branding activities [Arts and Culture In:
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NewZealand online]. In this context, they are identified as one of the most effective
instruments of country‟s diplomacy. This is evidenced by the example of New
Zealand – the country presented through its relationship with the environment, as
symbolised by the “100 % Pure New Zealand” campaign with examples shown below.
The chosen posters below (Picture 9) illustrate the content of this campaigning
made by a) Tangata Whenua (shown by a poster from 1999 campaigning), b) natural
beauties (posters illustrating a diverse range of natural landscapes including snow-
capped mountains, sweeping beaches, ancient volcanic peaks and craters, lush
native forests, lakes and fjords and unique geothermal areas), and also c) respect to
diversity and d) sports (with a picture mainly of the national rugby team)
2
.
Picture 9. Examples of “100 % Pure New Zealand” campaign
3
Sources: Art and Object online; Travelandtourworld online; Sportslogos online;
Allblacks online.
“New Zealand is one of the most respected and desirable countries in the world and
the Pure NZ brand successfully represents many of the positive images, assumptions
and expectations people have of the country. The tourism campaign around the Pure
2
Revenue streams such as merchandising and sponsorship, including lucrative long-term kit
partnerships with Adidas and Altrad, continue to be driven by strong national pride in New
Zealand‟s rugby heritage and globally recognised brand. These brand-focused revenue streams
are a greater contributor to the All Blacks‟ overall value than broadcasting and match revenues.
The New Zealand All Blacks have continued to assert their dominance as the world‟s most
valuable rugby team brand. See more at: https://brandfinance.com/press-releases/new-
zealand-all-blacks-are-worlds-most-valuable-rugby-brand-at-us282-million
3
Logo “New Zealand Black Ferns” is the logo for New Zealand women‟s national rugby union
team and comprises a national symbol of a fern.
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NZ brand has undoubtedly been a success and has helped to make New Zealand one
of the most highly sought after tourist destinations and one that is high on people‟s
„must-visit‟ lists with proving the preliminary results yet, when stating that “Our 100 %
Pure New Zealand campaign (...) is changed and evolved but still aims to make New
Zealand one of the most desirable destinations in the world for our target market
4
.
The markets are different (...) the message is the same: It’s our special combination
of activities, landscape, people and culture that makes New Zealand a unique
holiday experience. We call that experience 100 % Pure New Zealand. (...) We continue
to market New Zealand internationally as a tourism destination through our 100 % Pure
New Zealand campaign. It‟s at the heart of our advertising, international PR, online
marketing, events, and sponsorships”. [Travel Trade New Zealand online]. The growing
ethnic diversity in New Zealand has influenced its national identity. And globally, “New
Zealand‟s diverse and exciting cultural life is very attractive to overseas investors,
performers and audiences (...). Programmes such as Sistema Aotearoa and Te Matatini‟s
kapa haka events demonstrate how cultural experiences can provide social and economic
benefits to families and communities”. [Ministry for Culture & Heritage 2013:7] In areas
such as Māori culture and the country‟s beauties also via film industry (as seen in
movies like Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit, as shown in Picture 10), which
comprises the second form of New Zealand‟s cultural heritage (a fantastic country).
4.2. Aotearoa as a fantastic country – A Middle-Earth
This section analyses New Zealand as a country to which a certain symbolic or
spiritual meaning is ascribed, a cultural legacy of myths, legends, and symbols of
Aotearoa as a part of the country‟s branding campaigning worldwide – made famous
through The Hobbit or Lord of the Rings and got an unofficial new nickname – The
Middle-Earth. This is an effect of on-screen tourism (also as screen or film tourism)
as a specific type of touristic activities by tourists who travel to a destination as a
result of a film or TV drama series. [Li et al. 2016].
Warwick Frost and Jenifer Frost [2020] claim that Aotearoa‟s film history began
with the new phenomenon of Pavlova Westerns, films set in the 19th century
American West but filmed in New Zealand (mainly Good for Nothing and Slow
West). These films create a different image and sense of place for rural New
Zealand, drawing on heritage sites from New Zealand‟s 19th century history,
particularly those associated with the gold rushes and these films highlight New
4
From a local perspective, however, the campaign has become a catalyst for environmental
criticism. See e.g.: Dorsey et al. 2004
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
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Zealand‟s frontier history, creating a new version of the cultural landscape post
Lord of the Rings. As well as being home to Middle-earth, on-screen tourism in
Aotearoa started its history with films including King Kong, The Piano, The Last
Samurai (starring Tom Cruise) and The Chronicles of Narnia have all been filmed in
New Zealand.
Picture 10. Famous movie as a tool for nation-branding
Source: Home-of-middle-earth. In: NewZealand online.
As stated by the official website [www.newzealand.com], the official touristic strategy of
the country is built not only on beautiful nature, culture, and level of well-being but
also on the idea of the most famous moves made in the country. The promotion makes
the country attractive by “New Zealand‟s dramatic scenery, consisting of golden plains,
towering mountains and enchanting valleys, plays a part in creating the mythical world
of Middle-earth™ as seen in The Lord of the Rings™ and The Hobbit Trilogy™. When you
visit Middle-earth™ you can explore the many film locations and join tours and activities
for the chance to see the film locations for yourself and step inside the imaginative mind
of Tolkien”. [Home of Middle Earth In: NewZealand online]. The website offers various
attractions, destinations, and activities joined with the movie.
For tourist-focused branding, also Hobbiton was built up and as claimed by the
website, “One filming location to rule them all – Hobbiton™ stands out as an incredibly
unique and immersive experience for Tolkien fans. But if you‟re interested in the
movie-making geniuses that brought Middle-earth™ to life, you must also visit the
Wētā Workshop Experience in Wellington, a 90-minute guided tour that takes you
behind-the-scenes of the movie magic”. [Home of Middle Earth In: NewZealand online].
Traditionally, tourists have been viewed as passive consumers of media. It is
important to note that not only movies, such as Twilight and Italian Volterra, and
music, such as the Beatles and Liverpool, but also other forms of popular media
can significantly impact tourists‟ experiences in their destinations. This
convergence of tourism and media products is a noteworthy phenomenon. The
trend indicates an increase in the number of filmic representations created by
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tourists and semi-professional travellers during their visits to locations associated
with movies. These representations are often shared on social media platforms and
are typically selfie-oriented. This type of content, as seen in the case of New
Zealand, has the potential to impact not only tourist behaviour but also national
branding. To Williams [2020], media tourism, fan pilgrimages, and food tourism joined
in a fan tourism allow fans to form and maintain effective connections with fan objects
and to occupy important sites. And one of the effects the Hobbitton village may be
considered. The village was built specifically for The Lord of the Rings trilogy and
visitors can literally “step into Middle-earth and the lush green pastures of the Shire,
experience the thrill of the Hobbit holes, visit the Green Dragon Inn and discover where
Frodo and Bilbo‟s adventures first began.” [Arts and Culture In: NewZealand online].
Picture 11. “Fantastic” offer for the Aotearoa visitors
Source: Home-of-middle-earth. In: NewZealand online
This video by TNZ channel invoked the magic of Middle-earth saying “this TNZ
television and cinema commercial tells a compelling story of how the cinematic
fantasy world of Middle-earth, as revealed in the upcoming fantasy adventure
motion picture The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, is in fact the reality of New
Zealand. It targets all potential travellers to New Zealand portraying the country‟s
stunning scenery and unique activities and experiences, coupled with Middle-
earth-themed narration” [Tourism New Zealand 2012].
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Picture 12. Advertising using a fantasy name of New Zealand (the Middle-Earth)
Source: Advert Gallery online.
Picture 13. Examples of Advertising Times built on Lord of the Rings strategy
Sources: The New York Times online; CBC Radio online; Facebook
Impact of this screen tourism on the sample of two film series, The Lord of the
Rings and The Hobbit (both filmed in New Zealand) on New Zealand‟s brand and
economy was analysed by Li et al. [2016]. They combine econometric and
computable general equilibrium modelling techniques. The results of the
research interestingly show that “The results show that The Lord of the Rings did
not significantly impact on the tourism and economy of New Zealand, while the
Hobbit Trilogy had a significant positive impact, which may be due to effective
marketing strategies and media convergence” [Li et al. 2016 n.p.].
4.3. Aotearoa as an ideal country
This section discusses New Zealand‟s appeal as a tourist destination, its high
quality of life, and its excellent business environment, based on various rankings
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and ratings. These are the ratings that focus on the country as a) a tourist
destination, b) a country with a high quality of life, and c) a country with an
excellent business environment. The term „ideal‟ in this context refers to a country
that possesses certain characteristics deemed desirable at a given time. It may
involve attempts to transform the environment in accordance with a particular
ideal, as evidenced by the anti-nuclear green movement, Polynesia‟s ethnic
diversity, or the level of well-being.
Readers of Britain‟s Telegraph newspaper voted New Zealand „world‟s best country‟
for 2019, a repeat from 2015 [New Zealand – the best country In: The Telegraph
online]. The 26 identified reasons relate to the above aspects of New Zealand‟s
acumen – namely, the connection between the real and the fantasy landscape. We
can divide the reasons into two categories:
a) Real landscape – geographical conditions. Here readers appreciated the beaches
of Lake Taupo, the city of New Plymouth, home to the famous Mt Taranaki and
Goblin Forest, the city of Christchurch, or taking the TranzAlpine train to
Greymouth, a beautiful place on the west coast where rainforest meets seascapes
and dramatic mountain views. This category also includes a hike along the
Milford Track or other walks (within the Great Walks network on both islands).
Fauna and flora can also be included in this section, led by New Zealand‟s
original parrot – the kakapo, but also birds such as the hihi, saddleback and
takahe.
b) Real landscape – cultural uniqueness as a combination of indigenous and
modern culture. Here travellers appreciated the culture of New Zealand, which
they perceived as a living and dynamic part of society, which they could see for
example when visiting the Māori Marae or at one of the cultural shows in
Rotorua (the city is perceived as the Māori cultural centre). There was also an
opportunity to visit the village of Te Puia in the Whakarewarewa Thermal Valley,
home to the New Zealand Māori Institute of Arts and Crafts.
Visitors can experience that Māori culture is an essential part of New Zealand
society and the country‟s Polynesian identity. According to a US media survey,
Aotearoa was voted the second-best country in the world in 2023. The report by US
News & World gathers data from people worldwide for various categories. The
attributes of adventure, agility, cultural impact, entrepreneurship, heritage, movers,
open for business, power, quality of life, and social purpose were grouped into
10 sub-categories to rank the top countries. Aotearoa (New Zealand) was ranked
eighth overall. The UK was rated the best country in the world, with New Zealand
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
98
coming in second, according to US tourists who voted [NewsHub online 2023]. The
country also scores highly in categories such as safety, food culture, emphasis on
healthcare and quality of life, great work-life balance, diversity, hospitality, and a
straightforward visa process [Gorga 2023].
Graph 2. New Zealand in 2022 Best Countries Ranking
Source: US News online.
In 2023, the country has been positioned in the top ten of The Prosperity Index
[Ministry of Business, innovation and Employment 2023]. Since 2009, New Zealand
has demonstrated consistent economic strength and financial prosperity. The
Prosperity Index, which covers 96 % of the world‟s population and 99 % of global
GDP, is the only global index that uses measures based on wealth and well-being,
providing a more comprehensive picture of global prosperity than any other tool of
its kind. New Zealand also ranks in the top five for social capital when the results
are broken down. The report indicates that the country performs well in terms of
governance, investment environment, and natural environment.
Another index that could be used to assess New Zealand as an “ideal” country is the
Legatum Prosperity Index. It is a tool that provides a unique insight into how
prosperity is shaped and developed around the world.
It shows that however, New Zealand is ranked 10th (out of more than 160 countries)
in the overall Prosperity Index in 2023, it has dropped 3 places since 2011. New
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99
Zealand is strongest in Social Capital and Governance, but data show it is weakest
in Safety & Security. The biggest improvement from a decade ago has been reported
in social capital.
Graph 3. New Zealand and development of its prosperity index from 2013-2023
Source: Prosperity online.
This may show New Zealand‟s a sustainable reputation of green and clean natural
environment and the 100 % pure campaign has been successful in promoting this
image and brand to the world and it resulted into country‟s image of “a country
more committed to protecting the environment than other developed nations”
[Rudzitis, Bird 2011]. The cultural uniqueness of the country and natural wealth
makes a real connection of material and intangible aspects of Taonga, thus
acquiring the character and function of the social construct also in accordance with
the theory of social identity as it integrates:
(1) characteristics of the environment – the country best known to Tangata Whenua;
(2) human uses of the environment – a significant moment of nature protection, New
Zealand as a green anti-nuclear country;
(3) constructed meanings – strong location to the micro-region, use of Māori city
names; and
(4) attachment and satisfaction – as the spiritual dimension of expressing the identity
of a place.
The campaign of changing a motto of “100 % Pure New Zealand” to “100 % Pure
Middle Earth” (see section of Aotearoa as fantastic country campaign above) was
more visualised also with diplomatic services for visitors as they can choose to
have a “Welcome to Middle-earth” stamp added to their passport (Picture 14)
that makes feeling and experience of fantasy a real.
Tatiana Tökölyová, Ivana Pondelíková
100
Picture 14. The Custom Service at the Wellington International Airport gives
stamps to the passports
Source: New Zealand Herald online
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The landscape is the manifestation of a long and intimate relationship between
human beings and nature. It is like an inscription on which, man has written his
story, more or less deep and accurate [Mansouri 2005:71]. Nowadays, exploring
and examining cultural landscape is based on understanding land as a living,
changing, transforming thus dynamic creature affected by human deeds and
lifestyle, which affect civilization, culture, and human life, through its formation
and memories that have been recorded over time. As Cosgrove argues, all
landscapes are symbolic, because they are symbols of collective cultural concepts
[Cosgrove 1989]. Symbols have been produced by humans in the environment and
they have different forms; a landscape with dominant cultural symbols – a cultural
landscape and a landscape of a city within which there are symbols of human
lifestyle – urban or city cultural landscape. There exist a great variety of landscapes
that are representative of the different regions of the world, which UNESCO pays
attention to under the World Heritage Cultural Landscapes program. The role
of UNESCO is to protect, preserve, revitalize, and keep the authenticity and
integrity of a landscape.
Hofstede‟s intercultural research became the starting point for the investigation of
Aotearoa national identity (RI1), which describes in detail the ways, manifestations,
and norms of behaviour typical for New Zealand‟s cultures. Our findings could be
valuable in the further research of recent ethic developments in the country and her
region-based and region-oriented policies. The main findings lie in declaring
the validity of applying Pecníková‟s idea of the cultural landscape (RI2). This defines
Aotearoa as 1) a real country – a really existing land with specific pillars of its
nation-branding joined with Polynesia; 2) a fantastic country – a country to which a
certain symbolic or spiritual meaning is ascribed, a cultural legacy of myths,
legends, symbols of Aotearoa as a part of country‟s branding campaigning
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worldwide – made famous through The Hobbit or Lord of the Rings; 3) an ideal
country – a country that meets certain characteristics of the “ideal” at a given time,
an attempt to transform the environment according to a given ideal, as proved by
anti-nuclear green position altogether with Taonga and Māori vivid in Polynesia –
based national identity. In the case of New Zealand, the key brand is “100 % Pure
NZ”, which not only synthesises a tourism linked to cultural heritage, but is also
carried into international relations as a brand focused on anti-nuclear policy and a
nuclear-free Pacific, identifying the country as offering 100 % pure: relaxation,
welcome, adrenaline and 100 % pure personalised advantages and relax.
The research was based on the theoretical foundation of the perception of identity of
the authors from this geographical environment. We assumed that identity consists
of a set of signs that characterise the state, resulting from its history, ethnic or
cultural aspects. It represents the acceptance and representation of the nation‟s
common origins and manifestations. This theoretical starting point was also applied
to the argument about the shift in the perception of identity from national to
regional. This line of argument was based on the research and analysis of New
Zealand‟s motivations in the process of building its identity based on the original
Māori population, Te Reo Māori, beautiful landscape, and quality of life. At present,
the concept of national identity is being transformed into a trans-regional concept,
defined not only by geography (e.g., “we are united by the Pacific”), but also by
cultural factors such as cultural diversity, languages, traditions, and decision-
making models. This, the Pacific is perceived in New Zealand as a unifying and
defining aspect that expresses territorial, cultural, and economic ties. This
understanding transforms the original cultural identity into a geographical
modification, making the Pacific Ocean a cultural link that represents the identity of
the region in its multidimensional diversity. This research could be inspirational for
small state‟s national identity research.
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