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EDITED BY
Jesus Ramón-Llin,
University of Valencia, Spain
REVIEWED BY
Athanasios A. Dalamitros,
Aristotle University, Greece
María Carrasco-Poyatos,
University of Almeria, Spain
*CORRESPONDENCE
Álvaro Bustamante-Sánchez
alvaro.bustamante@universidadeuropea.es
RECEIVED 29 February 2024
ACCEPTED 15 May 2024
PUBLISHED 10 June 2024
CITATION
Conde-Ripoll R, Escudero-Tena A and
Bustamante-Sánchez Á (2024) Pre and post-
competitive anxiety and self-confidence and
their relationship with technical-tactical
performance in high-level men’s padel players.
Front. Sports Act. Living 6:1393980.
doi: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
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© 2024 Conde-Ripoll, Escudero-Tena and
Bustamante-Sánchez. This is an open-access
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original author(s) and the copyright owner(s)
are credited and that the original publication in
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which does not comply with these terms.
Pre and post-competitive anxiety
and self-confidence and their
relationship with technical-
tactical performance in high-level
men’s padel players
Rafael Conde-Ripoll, Adrián Escudero-Tena and
Álvaro Bustamante-Sánchez*
Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Introduction: This study aimed to analyze the variations in pre- and post-
competitive anxiety and self-confidence considering match outcomes, the
performance according to the result and the correlation among performance
and psychological variables.
Methods: The sample consisted on 12 matches in which 11 high-level padel
players from Finland (top 24) voluntarily participated. CSAI-2R and STAI-S were
used to assess psychological variables and technical-tactical performance was
evaluated by a certified padel coach.
Results: Losing players presented higher cognitive (p= .004), somatic ( p= .020)
and state (p= .001) anxiety and lower selfconfidence ( p= .014), and winning
players showed higher state anxiety (p= .022), after than before the matches.
Post-match, winning players exhibited higher self-confidence (p= .015) than
losing players. Winning players made more winners (p= .010) than losing
players. There are direct correlations between unforced errors and post-state
anxiety (p= .015), unforced errors and state anxiety (p= .009) and winners
and cognitive anxiety (p= .033), in winning players; between generators of
forced error and post-cognitive anxiety (p= .034), forced errors and cognitive
anxiety in losing players (p= .001). There are indirect correlations between
forced errors and pre-cognitive anxiety (p= .009), winners and somatic
anxiety (p=.046), unforced errors and state anxiety (p= .042) in losing players.
Discussion: The outcomes imply the need for intervention programs to equip
players, especially those facing defeat, with tools for anxiety management and
self-confidence enhancement. Likewise, coaches are advised to incorporate
exercises that promote the occurrence of winners.
KEYWORDS
psychology, match analysis, racket sports, CSAI-2R, STAI-S
Introduction
The sport of padel is witnessing exponential growth worldwide, with participation
from more than 80 nations affiliated with the International Padel Federation (1). This
expansion has prompted a marked rise in scholarly investigations, particularly focused
on assessing technical and tactical performance (2–4).
Mental toughness, as evidenced by its capacity to enable athletes to uphold or enhance
performance during challenging circumstances (5), holds a particular significance in the
context of sports psychology. Within this domain, anxiety is seen as a concept
TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 10 June 2024
|
DOI 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 01 frontiersin.org
characterized by an emotional reaction to a perceived threat,
blending physiological arousal and cognitive apprehensions (6).
In a competitive scenario, a distinction can be made between a
stable personality disposition termed trait anxiety (7), and the
transient symptoms encountered during a specific competition,
referred to as state anxiety (8). Cognitive anxiety encompasses
adverse anticipations of success or self-evaluation, negative
thinking, reduced self-worth, pessimistic inner dialogues, fear of
failure, diminished self-belief, performance worries, visions of
failure, challenges in concentration, and disrupted attention
(9–11). Somatic anxiety is linked to autonomic arousal, presented
as increased heart rate or muscle tension, contributing to
negative sensations like nervousness, breathing difficulties,
heightened blood pressure, dry throat, muscle strain, rapid
heartbeat, clammy palms, and a sensation of butterflies in the
stomach (9,11,12). Self-confidence, defined as a player’s
conviction in his/her ability to perform effectively in competition
(13), is a facet studied within this construct to gauge the athlete’s
comprehensive sense of accomplishment (14).
In this sense, competitive anxiety and self-confidence, specially
prior to competition, has been extensively studied in recent decades
(15–17). Research has shown that athletes with elevated anxiety
levels often demonstrate poorer performance in competitions in
comparison to those with lower anxiety levels (18–20).
Additionally, there exists a direct correlation between the player’s
self-confidence and his/her performance in sports (20,21). Once
the competition is over, athletes from different sports such as
football, basketball and volleyball show lower levels of
competitive anxiety than moments prior to the event (22–24).
The same happened to taekwondo athletes, who also showed
higher levels of self-confidence at this stage (25). However, to the
best of our knowledge, there is only one study, in tennis, which
distinguishes winning vs. losing players regarding post-
competitive anxiety and self-confidence, with the former showing
notably reduced cognitive anxiety and elevated self-confidence
compared to the latter (16).
A key performance indicator shaping match results in
professional padel is the effectiveness of the ultimate shot
(26–28). From these investigations, it has been established that a
point in the game can culminate through a winner, a forced
error or an unforced error. A winner occurs when a player
secures the point directly (i.e., after the ball bounces correctly on
the opposing side after crossing the net, the ball bounces for a
second time; or the ball strikes the opponent’s body before being
out). Conversely, a forced error happens when a player loses the
points due to difficulty in executing a shot or being poorly
positioned following the opponent’s shot. Finally, an unforced
error arises when a player loses the point despite facing a
relatively straightforward situation with favorable space-time
conditions (27). Winning pairs commit more winners and less
unforced errors than losing pairs (2,29,30). Nevertheless, while
previous articles dissect each method of concluding the point
separately, our research not only does so but also advocates for
the adoption of technical-tactical performance ratios. These ratios
are advantageous as they remain unaffected by the number of
points, games, or sets. Moreover, regarding the court area,
winners are mainly executed from the net area (30) while errors,
regardless of the type, are evenly distributed between the net and
the back of the court. In absolute terms, overheads and volleys
are the primary sources of winners (31), whereas forced errors
often result from volleys, and unforced errors mainly arise from
volleys and groundstrokes with no wall (26).
Upon reviewing the scientific literature, the combination of
mental preparation and performance in padel has received
limited attention, with only a few studies exploring
precompetitive anxiety and self-confidence (32–34) and none of
them studying post-competitive anxiety and self-confidence.
Understanding the interplay between a player’s anxiety, self-
confidence, and performance holds substantial value for players,
coaches, and sports psychologists. This insight can enable players
to adapt their playing style, while coaches and psychologists can
customize feedback and training sessions accordingly. The aims
of the present investigation were to analyze: (1) the differences
between pre and post-competitive anxiety and self-confidence
during matches in high level men’s padel players from Finland as
a function of the result,(2) the differences between winning and
losing players regarding anxiety and self-confidence as a function
of the moment (pre or post-match),(3) the technical-tactical
performance according to the result and (4) the correlation
among technical-tactical performance, anxiety and self-
confidence. Therefore, the following hypotheses were put
forward: (1) match winning players will show higher levels of
self-confidence and lower levels of anxiety in the post-match
compared to pre-match; the opposite will happen in the match
losing players, (2) before and after the match, respectively, match
winning players will display higher levels of self-confidence and
lower levels of anxiety than match losing players, (3) match
winning players will make more winners and generators of
forced errors, and less forced and unforced errors than match
losing players, (4) there will be a direct correlation between
winners and self-confidence in match winning players, whereas
in match losing players, there will be a direct correlation between
errors and anxiety, and an indirect correlation between errors
and self-confidence.
Material and methods
Study design
The design of this research is framed under an empirical
methodology and more specifically it is a study with a descriptive
strategy. On one hand, questionnaires are applied (psychological
variables) (35) and, on the other hand, matches are observed, the
latter being nomothetic, punctual and multidimensional
(technical-tactical performance variables) (36).
Sample and participants
We analyzed 12 matches in which 1,514 points were disputed.
Following a convenience sampling, these matches were played by a
Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 02 frontiersin.org
total of 11 men’s high-level padel players (27.91 (5.03) years old
and 4.64 (1.86) years of competitive experience) from Finland
who voluntarily participated in the present study. This represents
almost 50% of the total target population. An observational study
of elite athletes from volleyball included 14 athletes who were in
preparation for competing in important events, representing a
similar sample size in a similar context (high-level athletes prior
to competition) (37). The STROBE flow chart (Figure 1) was
used to ensure that the clear assessment of participants (38). All
participants were ranked top 24 in Finland. None of the athletes
had any physical injuries nor were they taking any medication at
the time of the measurements. In addition, none of the
participants had any reason that prevented them from
participating in the study.
The study was in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration (39).
Participants were treated ethically under the American Psychological
Association code of ethics regarding consent, anonymity and
responses. Previously, the current investigation had been approved
by the Ethics Committee of the European University of Madrid
with the code CIPI/22.303. So as to respect the principles of
voluntariness and confidentiality, each player was required to sign
an informed consent form that clearly explained the objectives of
the research and their voluntary participation in it.
Study variables
To carry out this study, the following variables were taken into
account:
- Psychological variables: somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, self-
confidence (9,11,13) and state anxiety (40). CSAI-2R
questionnaire was used to measure somatic and cognitive
anxiety and self-confidence of players (41) and STAI-S
questionnaire was used to measure their state anxiety (42).
These questionnaires have been used in previous research in
padel (34). All questionnaires were completed in a quiet
room with controlled temperature of 20°C. Participants
completed the questionnaires in English, as it is the only
language that both researchers and athletes are fluent in.
Participants were not allowed to speak during the
assessments. In the analysis of the CSAI-2R instrument,
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were obtained, showing
reliability scores of .75 (for pre), .72 (for post) for cognitive
anxiety, .84 (for pre), .90 (for post) for somatic anxiety, and
.72 (for pre), .88 (for post) for self-confidence, all meeting
acceptable standards (43–45).
- Technical-tactical performance variables [defined based on their
categorical core and degree of openness (46)]:
- Effectiveness of the last shot: a difference was made between
winner, forced error and unforced error (27).
- Forced error generator: shot which induces a forced error in the
opposing pair (47).
In addition, technical-tactical performance ratios were
calculated using the above mentioned technical-tactical
performance variables. It is worth noting that the effectiveness
of the shots is considered a performance indicator in
racket sports (48).
FIGURE 1
STROBE flowchart. Adapted from https://www.strobe-statement.org/.
Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 03 frontiersin.org
Procedure
The questionnaires were administered to the players between
30 and 45 min prior to the start of each practice match,
following the same criteria to that used by Conde-Ripoll et al.
(34). 15–30 min after the practice match is over, the
questionnaires were administered for post-competitive anxiety
and self-confidence.
During each practice match, which followed the International
Padel Federation rules, a certified padel coach with more than 10
years of experience, recorded the technical-tactical performance
study variables through an ad-hoc instrument in Excel, following
similar criteria than previous research (49,50). At the end of the
collection process, an intra-observer reliability analysis was
performed to ensure the veracity of the data collected. The
observer reanalyzed a random sample of 3 matches (matches
were previously recorded) to ensure enough relevant data to
represent 10%–20% of the study sample (51). The mean intra-
observer reliability was.90, considered almost perfect (52). In
addition, another observer, a doctor in sports sciences, with more
than 20 JCR scientific articles published related to the topic of
study, also analyzed a random sample of 3 matches to calculate
the average inter-observer reliability, which was.84 (52).
Statistical analysis
Shapiro-Wilk (considering n= 11 athletes) and a Kolgomorov-
Smirnov (considering n= 1,514 points) tests were used to test the
normality of the distribution of the data and it indicated that it
is non-parametric. Then, a descriptive analysis was performed to
obtain information on the number of times each study variable
occurred (median and interquartile range).
Next, inferential analyzes were then conducted, including
Wilcoxon signed-rank and Mann-Whitney′sU-tests.
Additionally, effect sizes [r] were calculated for the non-
parametric tests, which were classified as follows: .5 is a large
effect, .3 is a medium effect and .1 is a small effect (53,54).
Finally, a bivariate correlation analysis among psychological
and technical-tactical performance variables in different contexts
using Spearman’s correlation.
All data were analyzed using the statistical package SPSS
for Macintosh v.25.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, United States)
and a pvalue of less than .05 was considered to be
statistically significant.
Results
As can be seen in Table 1, regarding differences between before
and after the matches, losing players showed a significant surge in
cognitive, somatic and state anxiety alongside a significant decline
in self-confidence; whereas winning players only displayed a
significant increase in state anxiety. Besides, match-winning
players significantly exhibited more self-confidence post-match
compared to losers.
Evidenced in Table 2, winning players significantly produced
more winners than losing players per match. The same occurred
in every single technical-tactical performance ratio [for example:
TABLE 1 Anxiety and self-confidence according to the moment (pre and post) and match outcome.
Match outcome Variable Pre median (IQR) Post median (IQR) Pre vs.
post-
measure
Winning
vs. losing
players
pre
Winning
vs. losing
players
post
Winning
vs. losing
players
pre-post
pES pES pES pES
Winning player CA 1.50 (.60) 1.60 (75) .407 .169 .361 .132 .457 .107 .064 .267
Losing player 1.30 (.40) 1.70 (.60) .004* .592
Winning player SA 1.29 (.43) 1.43 (.29) .731 .070 .328 .141 .323 .143 .124 .222
Losing player 1.43 (.54) 1.50 (1.32) .020* .475
Winning player SC 3.20 (.60) 3.20 (.60) .746 .066 .123 .222 .015* .353 .093 .242
Losing player 3.00 (.40) 3.00 (.80) .014* .503
Winning player STA 5.50 (3.00) 6.00 (5.00) .022* .466 .338 .138 .112 .229 .192 .188
Losing player 6.00 (5.00) 8.50 (7.00) .001* .685
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-confidence; STA, state anxiety; p,p-value; ES, effect size.
*p< .05.
TABLE 2 Differences in technical-tactical performance of the padel
players according to the match outcome.
Variable Winning
players
Losing
players
pES
Median IQR Median IQR
W 13.50 7.00 9.00 6.00 .010* .373
GFE 8.00 4.00 7.50 5.00 .298 .150
FE 7.00 5.00 9.00 4.00 .110 .231
UE 9.50 5.00 12.00 6.00 .356 .133
W/UE 1.31 0.82 0.91 0.55 .001* .460
(W + GFE)/UE 2.10 1.22 1.63 0.95 .002* .442
W/(FE + UE) 0.85 0.51 0.49 0.25 .001* .502
(W + GFE)/(FE + UE) 1.33 0.75 0.83 0.36 <.001* .515
W, winner; GFE, generator of forced error; FE, forced error; UE, unforced error; SD,
standard deviation; p,p-value; ES, effect size.
*p< .05.
Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 04 frontiersin.org
winner/unforced error or (winner plus generator of forced error)/
unforced error].
As depicted in Table 3, there are indirect correlations between
somatic and cognitive anxiety, between state anxiety and self-
confidence, in winning players; and between forced errors and
cognitive anxiety in losing players.
In addition, there are direct correlations between state anxiety
and somatic anxiety in winning players; between state anxiety and
cognitive anxiety, and between state anxiety and somatic anxiety, in
losing players.
As shown in Table 4, there are indirect correlations between
state anxiety and self-confidence in winning players; and between
self-confidence and cognitive anxiety, between self-confidence
and somatic anxiety, between state anxiety and self-confidence, in
losing players.
In addition, there are direct correlations between state anxiety
and cognitive anxiety, between unforced errors and state anxiety, in
winning players; and between somatic anxiety and cognitive
anxiety, between state anxiety and somatic anxiety, between
generators of forced error and cognitive anxiety, in losing players.
Highlighted in Table 5, there are indirect correlations between
self-confidence and somatic anxiety in winning players; and
between winners and somatic anxiety, between unforced errors
and state anxiety in losing players.
In addition, there are direct correlations between somatic
anxiety and cognitive anxiety, state anxiety and somatic anxiety,
winners and cognitive anxiety, unforced errors and state anxiety
in winning players; and between somatic anxiety and cognitive
anxiety, between state anxiety and cognitive anxiety, between
forced errors and cognitive anxiety in losing players.
Illustrated in Table 6, there are direct correlations between
unforced errors and generators of forced error, and between
unforced errors and forced errors, in winning players; and
between unforced errors and winners in losing players.
TABLE 3 Correlations between the pre-competitive values of the psychological and technical-tactical performance variables, in winning and losing
players.
Winning players
CA SA SC STA W GFE FE UE
CA 1 −.558** −.094 .056 −.211 .029 .104 .295
SA 1 −.281 .456* .090 .194 −.035 −.217
SC 1 −.662** .146 .063 −.332 .019
STA 1 −.259 −.018 .299 −.097
Losing players
CA SA SC STA W GFE FE UE
CA 1 .377 −.305 .458* .066 .225 −.524** .247
SA 1 .022 .500* .111 −.057 .181 .160
SC 1 −.186 .356 −.207 .080 .136
STA 1 −.033 .236 .070 −.049
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-confidence; STA, state anxiety; W, winner; GFE, generator of forced error; FE, forced error; UE, unforced error.
*p< .05.
**p< .01.
TABLE 4 Correlations between the post-competitive values of the psychological variables, and technical-tactical performance variables, in winning and
losing players.
Winning players
CA SA SC STA W GFE FE UE
CA 1 −.221 −.054 .621** .098 .077 .020 .299
SA 1 −.361 .082 .153 .147 −.085 −.122
SC 1 −.533** .126 −.025 −.172 −.201
STA 1 .197 .094 .316 .490*
Losing players
CA SA SC STA W GFE FE UE
CA 1 .602** −.586** .285 −.146 .433* .180 −.131
SA 1 −.412* .619** −.233 .089 .189 −.167
SC 1 −.444* .240 −.247 −.203 .049
STA 1 −.313 .182 .227 −.299
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-confidence; STA, state anxiety; W, winner; GFE, generator of forced error; FE, forced error; UE, unforced error.
*p< .05.
**p< .01.
Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 05 frontiersin.org
Discussion
Our initial hypothesis suggested that winning pairs would
exhibit higher self-confidence and lower anxiety in the post-
match, compared to pre-match; while losing players would show
the opposite pattern. Our findings partially supported this
hypothesis. Winning players displayed higher state anxiety post-
match, possibly due to unmet performance expectations or
individual variability within winning pairs. Conversely, losing
players demonstrated expected increases in anxiety and decreases
in self-confidence post-match, potentially due to
underperformance and emotional distress. This contrasts with
prior research on singles tennis players on official competition
(16). Overall, these findings highlight the contrasting impact of
victory and defeat, indicating that while winning might not
necessarily yield favorable effects, the repercussions of losing
could be considerably detrimental to players. Consequently,
coaches and players are prompted to participate in psychological
training to skillfully manage the outcomes of triumph and loss
(55), facilitating their continual evolution and growth as athletes.
Additionally, recognizing padel as a partner sport emphasizes the
interdependence between players, where individual performance
directly affects the overall outcome, underscoring the importance
of effective communication, trust, and mutual support within pairs.
The second hypothesis that match-winning players would
exhibit higher self-confidence and lower anxiety before and after
the practice match, compared to match-losing players, was
partially supported. Prior to the match, no significant differences
were found, consistent with previous research (34). Post-match,
only self-confidence showed significant differences, with match-
winning players exhibiting higher levels. This could be due to the
fact that the increase of self-confidence is linked, among other
factors, to positive performance results (56). In this line, Fuentes-
García et al. (16) observed higher post-match self-confidence
among winning elite junior tennis players compared to losers.
Additionally, it was third hypothesized that match-winning
players would make more winners and forced error generators,
and fewer forced and unforced errors compared to match-losing
players. This hypothesis was partially supported. Significant
differences were found in the number of winners, aligning with
prior research (29,30), highlighting the importance of winners as
a key performance indicator in padel. Athletes should collaborate
closely with their coaches to enhance strategies for increasing
winners during training sessions. This could involve reviewing
competitive or practice matches to discern winner shots and
their underlying reasons (57). Additionally, coaches could
implement exercises that emphasize and incentivize winners
(58,59). Although not statistically significant, winning players
produced more generators of forced error, while losing players
committed more forced and unforced errors. Regarding the
latter, losing players significantly commit more unforced errors
than winning players (2,60) in the professional level.
Additionally, winning players demonstrated technical-tactical
performance ratios, emphasizing the usefulness of such ratios for
TABLE 5 Correlations between values of the psychological (post minus pre) and technical-tactical performan ce variables in match winning and losing
players.
Winning players
CA SA SC STA W GFE FE UE
CA 1 .502* −.177 .296 .435* .097 −.077 .155
SA 1 −.592** .499* .078 −.129 −.049 .248
SC 1 −.350 .042 −.093 .188 −.154
STA 1 .336 .099 .157 .520**
Losing players
CA SA SC STA W GFE FE UE
CA 1 .483* −.377 .492* −.195 .274 .643** −.402
SA 1 −.314 .264 −.410* .106 .162 −.384
SC 1 −.254 −.007 −.155 −.256 −.076
STA 1 −.382 .047 .240 −.418*
CA, cognitive anxiety; SA, somatic anxiety; SC, self-confidence; STA, state anxiety; W, winner; GFE, generator of forced error; FE, forced error; UE, unforced error.
*p< .05.
**p< .01.
TABLE 6 Correlations between technical-tactical performance variables,
in match winning and losing players.
Winning players
Winner
shot
Generator of
forced error
Forced
error
Unforced
error
Winner shot 1 .090 .042 .318
Generator of
forced error
1 .245 .432*
Forced error 1 .511*
Unforced
error
1
Losing players
Winner
shot
Generator of
forced error
Forced
error
Unforced
error
Winner shot 1 .329 .246 .512*
Generator of
forced error
1 .251 .119
Forced error 1 −.020
Unforced
error
1
*p< .05
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Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 06 frontiersin.org
evaluating padel players, as they are independent of the number of
points, games, or sets. To illustrate, making 10 winners in a 6/0 6/0
match where each game is won at 40/0 (48 points in total) is not
equivalent to achieving the same feat in a 7/6(5)—6/7(5)—7/6(5)
match where each game is won at a golden point and each
tiebreak was won 7/5 (120 points in total).
As a final hypothesis, it was established that there would be a
direct correlation between winners and self-confidence in winning
players, whereas in losing players, there would be a direct
correlation between errors and anxiety, and an indirect correlation
between errors and self-confidence. Acceptance of this hypothesis
was partial. Winning players showed direct correlations between
the number of winners and cognitive anxiety. This suggests that
executing winners may evoke a heightened level of mental
engagement, reflecting the complexity of the task. Likewise,
significant direct correlations were found between generators of
forced error and post-cognitive anxiety in losing players. This
could be due to the defensive skills of the opponents, the winning
players, who actively tried to reach even the most challenging
shots. Significant direct correlations were found between unforced
errors and state and post-state anxiety in winning players.
Committing unforced errors may contribute to heightened state
anxiety among winning players, since they may not like the idea
of giving “free”points to the opponents through avoidable errors.
And heightened anxiety levels indicate a decrease in sports
performance (61,62) and anticipation efficiency (63). Hence,
these players could benefit from working closely with a sport
psychologist, to develop resilience strategies to effectively cope
with the frustration of pressure stemming from errors (64),
emphasizing techniques such as reframing perspectives on
mistakes. Significant direct correlations were found between
forced errors and cognitive anxiety in the losing players. The
rationale behind this observation might be losing players’
emotional reactions to their failure in executing demanding shots,
potentially influencing their perception of the effective technical-
tactical maneuvers executed by winning players. Hence, coaches
and sport psychologists could implement targeted training
sessions focusing on stress management techniques and simulated
match scenarios that replicate high-pressure situations (65).
Indirect correlations were found between forced errors and pre-
cognitive anxiety, and between unforced errors and state anxiety,
among the losing players. When losing players make mistakes
that they feel they can control and improve upon during practice
matches, they may feel more responsible for those mistakes.
Tailored approaches may assist in reframing perceptions of errors
(66,67) and pre-competition nervousness, ultimately aiding
players in better managing their anxieties during matches.
Furthermore, indirect correlations were found between winners
and somatic anxiety among losing players. In fact, anxiety has
been shown to impair sports performance (68–70).
Practical applications
It is important to consider these results when structuring
personalized training programs for each athlete and formulating
task-specific training exercises. For example, doing exercises which
make the athlete feel a higher level of self-confidence (71)anda
lower level of anxiety after losing a practice match, especially if
there is a tournament in the upcoming days may be of great
importance for the future performance in that competition.
Furthermore, coaches are instigated to integrate pressure training
into their sessions with athletes to enhance athletes’performance
in competition (65). This approach involves exposing athletes to
pressure scenarios during practice, fostering their ability to
perform proficiently under pressure (59), which can be defined as
the athlete’s heightened sense of the importance of performing
well (72). It is essential to highlight that in padel, players are
consistently required to make rapid decisions within brief
timeframes (73) and the capability to manage pressure situations
directly affects one’sperformance(74–76). Thus, coaches can
implement consequences (such as judgement, forfeits, rewards),
establish demands, and planned disruption during pressure
training (77,78). In this line, research indicates that consequences
induce higher levels of pressure compared to demands (77), and
an example of a consequence could be the head coach monitoring
players’padel technical-tactical performance.
Strengths
This study presents several strengths. Firstly, it pioneers
research in padel by delving into pre- and post-competitive
anxiety alongside self-confidence. Secondly, it stands as the initial
study in padel to establish a correlation between technical-tactical
performance and anxiety/self-confidence. Thirdly, its findings
hold substantial practical implications for coaches and sports
psychologists, particularly considering the differences in
psychological variables in practice match losing players.
Limitations and future studies
Despite employing a similar methodology to recent research in
the domain, it is essential to underscore certain inherent limitations
within this study. In future studies, researchers are encouraged to
examine whether anxiety and self-confidence responses manifest
similarly in both sexes. Although the questionnaires employed
are valid and reliable, one specific limitation is that self-
confidence and anxiety are assessed through self-perception, and
some measurements of internal load (hormones such as cortisol,
autonomic modulation or cortical arousal) could enhance the
comprehension of the relationship between technical-tactical
performance and anxiety/s`elf-confidence. Future research should
consider athletes from different levels (beginners, amateur,
professional players…).
Conclusion
Losing players demonstrated elevated cognitive, somatic, and
state anxiety, along with reduced self-confidence, while winning
Conde-Ripoll et al. 10.3389/fspor.2024.1393980
Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 07 frontiersin.org
players experienced an increase in state anxiety post-match
compared to their pre-match levels. Post-match, self-confidence
was higher among winning players. In terms of technical-tactical
performance variables, winning players made more winners than
losing players. They also outperformed the losing players in every
technical-tactical performance ratio. Besides, direct correlations
were observed between unforced errors and state anxiety (both
post-, and pre-post), and between winners and cognitive anxiety
(pre-post) in winning players; between generator of forced errors
and post-cognitive anxiety, and between forced errors and
cognitive anxiety (pre-post) in losing players. Indirect
correlations were observed between forced errors and
pre-cognitive anxiety, between winners and somatic anxiety
(pre-post), between unforced errors and state anxiety (pre-post)
in losing players. Players are encouraged to develop their mental
skills to manage errors and defeat. Likewise, coaches are
encouraged to include pressure training and promote the
appearance of winners in simulated matches.
Data availability statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this
article will be made available by the authors, without undue
reservation.
Ethics statement
The studies involving humans were approved by Ethics
Committee of the Universidad Europea de Madrid with the code
CIPI/22.303. The studies were conducted in accordance with the
local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants
provided their written informed consent to participate in
this study.
Author contributions
RC-R: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation,
Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing –original draft,
Writing –review & editing. AE-T: Conceptualization,
Supervision, Validation, Writing –original draft. ÁB-S:
Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation,
Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation,
Writing –original draft, Writing –review & editing, Resources.
Funding
The author(s) declare financial support was received for the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
This study has been financed by the Universidad Europea de
Madrid, through an internal competitive project with code CIPI/
22.303, with a total amount of 3500€.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The handling editor JR declared a past co-authorship with the
author AE.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors
and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations,
or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product
that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its
manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
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