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Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
Available online 6 June 2024
2405-8440/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Review article
The inuence of Cybercrime and legal awareness on the behavior
of university of Jordan students
Ismaeel Alhadidi
a
, Aman Nweiran
b
,
*
, Ghofran Hilal
a
a
School of Law, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
b
Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Cybercrimes
Cybercrime law
Legal awareness
Learning
Behavior
Education
ABSTRACT
In contemporary times, there has been a rapid increase in the utilization of the Internet and in-
formation technology by students. As a result, educational instructors worldwide have encoun-
tered a signicant issue due to an unprecedented level of reliance and, to a large extent,
dependency on such technology. Furthermore, akin to any analogous emerging social phenom-
enon, this dependency on technology has engendered novel spectrums of unlawful and illicit
conduct. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the impact of Cybercrime and Legal
Awareness on the behavior of young individuals in society, incorporating both theoretical and
empirical perspectives. To address the matter under consideration, a quantitative investigation
was undertaken utilizing a questionnaire administered to a population comprising a random
sample of 2000 students enrolled at the University of Jordan as the subject of our case study. The
ndings of our study demonstrate a robust and incontrovertible association between the degree of
legal awareness of cybercrime among students and their engagement in illicit cyber-acts. Addi-
tionally, the ndings indicate that gender and various other factors exert inuence in dissuading
students from engaging in such criminal behaviors. Consequently, this underscores the signi-
cance of implementing effective strategies to enhance students’ legal awareness regarding
cybercrime, to mitigate their involvement.
1. Introduction
The Internet can be considered the most comprehensive medium for the acquisition, dissemination, and transmission of infor-
mation in the history of human civilization [1]. According to Dogruer, Eyyam, and Menevis [2], the utilization of this medium is
crucial for facilitating communication, serving as a repository for scholarly investigation, and providing a means of entertainment.
Choudhary [3] estimates that in the present era, roughly one-third of the global population possesses Internet connectivity. According
to Shuqair [4], individuals in Jordan have been accessing and utilizing the World Wide Web since 1996. According to the data provided
by the Internet World Stats website as of March 31, 2021, the total number of Internet users in Jordan stands at 8,700,000 individuals,
accounting for approximately 85 % of the country’s overall population [5]. The substantial proportion of users in Jordan can be
attributed to the persistent endeavors towards modernization and automation across various domains, including education and the
public and private labor sectors. Moreover, this phenomenon can also be ascribed to the proliferation of smart devices, as evidenced by
the fact that over 90 % of individuals possess diverse types of smartphones, thereby availing themselves of a wide array of applications
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: i.alhadidi@ju.edu.jo (I. Alhadidi), a_rahahleh@ju.edu.jo (A. Nweiran), g.hilal@ju.edu.jo (G. Hilal).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32371
Received 18 July 2022; Received in revised form 29 May 2024; Accepted 3 June 2024
Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
2
that streamline their daily activities, particularly those pertaining to social networking and messaging [6]
In recent years, education has experienced signicant transformations due to the emergence of Information and Communications
Technology (ICT), which has had a profound impact on the overall way of life for humanity [7]. The utilization of diverse contem-
porary educational methodologies, such as online, ipped, hybrid, or blended learning modalities, has experienced an upward trend in
recent times [8]. Signicantly, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, the exclusive viable alternative for education emerged as online
teaching, since educational institutions such as schools, colleges, and universities were compelled to cease in-person operations for an
extended duration [9]. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented disruption of global education systems, as stated by
the United Nations [10]. This disruption has impacted a substantial number of learners, estimated to be around 1.6 billion, across more
than 190 countries. The global student population has been impacted by this phenomenon, affecting approximately 94 % of students
worldwide. According to The United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization [11], a signicant number of 220
million students in higher education were affected by the closure of universities during the peak of the crisis. Therefore, there has been
a transition in the eld of education from conventional pedagogy to a contemporary method of instruction, specically from in-person
classroom learning to online learning. Historically, e-learning and distance learning were regarded as supplementary modalities of
education. Nevertheless, with the ability to demonstrate its viability and effectiveness, E-learning is increasingly gaining traction in
integrating into the conventional education system and serving as a partial substitute [12].
Despite the myriad of positive implications associated with the advancement of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
in enhancing the human condition, it has concurrently opened up a novel pathway for illicit activities, thereby engendering a source of
distress and malevolence. The criminal activities perpetrated within a digital environment are commonly referred to as cybercrimes.
For the purpose of this study, cybercrimes are dened as criminal activities that are perpetrated through electronic means, specically
targeting programs, information, or data that are accessible on electronic devices or networks. Accordingly, our research objectives are
divided mainly into four categories.
1. Measuring the relationship between the University of Jordan students’ awareness of cybercrimes on the one hand and penalties
enforced by the Cybercrime Law on the other,
2. Determining if students’ awareness of cybercrime and related laws inuences their behavior when committing or being exposed to
such crimes,
3. Determining if the demographical variables (gender, academic level, school, and academic achievement (GPA)) affect students’
awareness of cybercrime and related laws,
4. Recommending appropriate measures that could help manage the students’ legal awareness of cybercrime.
Therefore, these objectives are evaluated according to the following research questions.
1. What is the overall relationship between awareness of cybercrime concepts, awareness of legal procedures, and students’
engagement in unlawful acts?
2. What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University
of Jordan’s students according to gender variable?
3. What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University
of Jordan’s students according to school variable?
4. What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University
of Jordan’s students according to academic level variable?
5. What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University
of Jordan’s students according to academic achievement (GPA) variable?
To the best of our current knowledge, our research represents the inaugural investigation into the correlation between cybercrime
legal awareness and the conduct of students in Jordanian universities, both in terms of exposure to cybercrimes and potential
engagement in such activities. Our aim is to make a scholarly contribution to the existing body of knowledge in the eld of juvenile
behavioral patterns related to cybercrimes, with a specic focus on the legal aspects. Section 2 of the paper presents an overview of the
current state of cybercrimes in Jordan, drawing upon the most recent ofcial statistics. Additionally, it offers an analysis of the leg-
islative measures implemented in Jordan to combat cybercrimes. In addition, we conducted a comprehensive examination of the
pertinent literature concerning the assessment of legal awareness on cybercrimes in Jordan, while also referencing prominent inter-
national studies on the subject matter. The methodology employed in this study is expounded upon in Section 3. Section 4 of this paper
presents a comprehensive analysis of the ndings obtained from our study. Subsequently, section 5 and Section 6 provides study
limitations and a synthesis of the conclusions drawn from research results, along with recommendations for future research.
2. Background and literature review
The legal awareness of cybercrimes, including the identication of actions that qualify as cybercrimes and the corresponding
I. Alhadidi et al.
Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
3
penalties, is a crucial element in safeguarding the condentiality of information in the digital realm. This preservation of privacy rights
is a fundamental principle upheld by numerous legislations across the globe. The enactment of cybercrime laws serves as a crucial
approach to addressing cybercrimes, as they are designed to facilitate the investigation, prosecution, and imposition of penalties on
individuals who engage in illegal activities on the Internet [13]. Hence, we shall initiate our scholarly discourse by elucidating the
legislative framework governing cyber infringements in Jordan, followed by an examination of the prevailing academic literature on
this subject.
2.1. Cybercrimes and Cybercrime law in Jordan
The implementation of proactive cybersecurity measures is imperative, particularly in developing countries like Jordan, where the
incidence of cybercrimes is rapidly increasing. Approximately one million cybercrimes are perpetrated annually in Jordan, yet only a
mere 5 % of these offenses are ofcially reported to the relevant authorities. Figure (1) depicts a comprehensive overview of various
categories of cybercrimes reported in Jordan during the period spanning from 2013 to 2022. Based on a cursory examination, it can be
asserted that the incidence of cybercrimes has been steadily increasing. According to ofcial records, the number of reported
cybercrimes in 2013 amounted to 1320 cases. Over the course of a decade, this gure has experienced a signicant increase, reaching
approximately 16027 incidents in 2022, representing a multiplication factor of approximately 12.
Based on the most recent data provided by the Anti-Cyber Crimes Unit (Fig. 2), certain crimes exhibit a higher level of concern
compared to others, primarily due to their frequency of occurrence. In 2022, there was a notable surge in reported incidents of
cybercrimes involving threats, extortion, defamation, slander, and contempt. The total number of such crimes reached 8529, repre-
senting a signicant increase compared to previous years.
Upon closer examination of the chart presented in Figure (3), it becomes evident that cybercrimes such as threats, extortion, insult,
defamation, and mail theft continue to prevail as the most prevalent occurrences. The incidence of these criminal activities experi-
enced an increase from 474 cases in 2013–3284 cases in 2020. Additionally, it is observed that crimes associated with communication
applications exhibit a subsequent trend, displaying a consistent rise from 401 incidents in 2013–2687 incidents in 2020.
One noteworthy observation is that the Unit has recorded the fewest instances of cybercrimes targeting families and children. For
example, the act of spoiling a conjugal bond is a relatively infrequent offense in comparison to other specied criminal activities. In
2013, the total number of cases amounted to a mere 101, while in 2020, this gure experienced a modest increase to 156. In contrast to
previous years, where a convergence in the occurrence of crimes was observed, there was a notable increase in 2017, with the number
of reported crimes reaching 1011. This represents a signicant rise compared to the gures of 187 in 2016 and 210 in 2018. Another
illustrative instance pertains to the offense of online child abuse, which culminated in a recent apprehension. There were specic years,
namely 2017 and 2018, during which instances of this crime were documented, and the occurrence rate was observed to be nonex-
istent. The occurrence of this criminal activity reached its peak in the year 2016, with a total of 51 reported instances. It is noteworthy
to observe that, despite the severity of cybercrimes targeting families and children, the statistical data for the year 2022 indicates a
relatively low incidence of such offenses. Consequently, the Unit has categorized these crimes under the miscellaneous category. It can
be argued that crimes of this nature, whether they are cyber-related or not, tend to be frequently underreported rather than infre-
quently committed due to their discreet nature, as they occur within the connes of familial relationships.
Many countries across the globe have dedicated signicant resources towards combating cybercrimes due to their substantial
detrimental effects on the economy. According to Morgan [14], it was projected that global cybercrime expenses would reach $6
trillion by the conclusion of 2021, with an anticipated increase to $10.5 trillion by 2025. Consequently, legislators, who are unable to
remain passive, are compelled to take measures to address these criminal activities. The legislative authority in Jordan has only
recently demonstrated a heightened focus on addressing concerns related to cyberspace by enacting legislation aimed at regulating
cybercrimes. The Electronic Transactions Law No. 85 of 2001 in Jordan is the initial legislation aimed at regulating cyber and
computer-related crimes, albeit indirectly. According to Faqir [15], the legislation primarily emphasized electronic transactions in the
domain of commerce and civil matters, rather than criminal aspects. This law was repealed by the Law No. 15 of 2015 concerning
Fig. 1. Number of handled by the cyber crime unit in Jordan.
I. Alhadidi et al.
Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
4
Electronic Transactions. In the year 2010, the country of Jordan implemented a temporary legislation called Information Systems
Crimes Law No. 30. This law was then converted into a permanent legislation known as Cybercrime Law No. 27 of 2015, which served
as the framework for our study. Nevertheless, the aforementioned legislation was revoked pursuant to the enactment of the Cybercrime
Law No. 17 of 2023. The recently enacted legislation on Cybercrime has resulted in heightened prescribed sanctions and the incor-
poration of novel manifestations of Cybercrimes. Given that our questionnaire was designed with reference to the law prior to
alteration, we will maintain our reference to it.
Prior to this modication, the circumstances were less transparent compared to the current state. More specically, the Jordanian
legislators permit the presence of skepticism when it comes to the criminalization of certain activities occurring in the eld of cy-
berspace. The adoption of a position by legislators has resulted in an increased perception of stability in the legal standing of in-
dividuals within the society. The acts that are deemed reprehensible are explicitly dened through unambiguous Articles that do not
necessitate any further interpretation. According to Article 15 of Cybercrime Law No. 27 of 2015, individuals who engage in the
violation of any enforced law through online or electronic means will be subject to punishment as provided by law. The Cybercrime
Law is a response to the need for regulation in light of the widespread technological advancements that have impacted global society.
The rapid and ongoing transformation of virtual cyberspace has necessitated the establishment of a delicate equilibrium between
conventional legislative frameworks that address criminal offenses and the emergence of novel forms of criminal conduct facilitated by
computers and smart devices.
Revisiting the previous denition of cybercrimes, it is evident that these crimes are perpetrated through electronic methods and
involve the exploitation of vulnerabilities in information systems or networks. This may include targeting programs, data, or infor-
mation stored on electronic devices or within digital networks [16]. On the one hand, certain cybercriminal activities can be readily
subject to prosecution due to the inherent adaptability of existing conventional laws, which allows for prosecution regardless of the
specic context in which the crime occurs. On the other hand, there exist certain actions that necessitate legislative intervention to
enable their investigation within the purview of the respective legal framework. For instance, the transmission of explicit visual
materials to individuals below the legal age, minors, will not incur legal consequences unless the perpetrator violates provisions
outlined in the Cybercrime Law. The absence of legal provisions in the “conventional” Penal Code to criminalize this conduct
necessitated the creation of the Cybercrime Law, specically Article 15, to address this gap. Conversely, certain criminal offenses
continue to be subject to legal sanctions irrespective of the methods employed in their commission. For instance, when dealing with
certain criminal activities that pose a threat to the security of the State, which were perpetrated through electronic channels,
particularly via social media platforms such as Facebook, the Court did not refrain from imposing penalties for these condemnable acts,
Fig. 2. Types of handled by the cyber crime unit in 2022.
Fig. 3. Types of cybercrimes handled by the cyber crime unit in Jordan.
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Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
5
as the legal provisions governing such matters exhibit a degree of exibility.
Furthermore, certain actions are deemed impermissible when enacted in a real-world setting, yet they are not subject to the same
restrictions when executed in a virtual environment. The most evident illustration pertains to the act of theft. As per the provisions of
the Jordanian Penal Code, it is stipulated that the object subject to theft must possess a tangible and physical nature. Therefore, acts of
theft targeting electronic currency, data, or information are not subject to the conventional provisions governing theft-related offenses.
Consequently, the implementation of legislative measures to penalize such actions is highly desirable. By implementing this measure,
we effectively mitigate the occurrence of specic actions that were previously “permitted” due to the lack of adequate legal regulations
prohibiting them. This line of reasoning adheres to the principle of "Nullum crimen and nulla poena sine lege" [17] in its logical legal
progression. Electronic fraud is governed by the same principles as crimes involving physical or intangible evidence. The aforemen-
tioned rationale holds true within the sphere of acts of vandalism. The interpretation of Article 445 of the Penal Code does not
currently encompass the destruction of immaterial information and programs. However, it is possible to modify the wording of the
Article to accommodate such an interpretation. The text’s historical context restricts the possibility of a comprehensive and
all-encompassing interpretation [18]. Hence, the occurrence of a distinctive incriminating text is unavoidable. Thus, instances of such
texts can be observed in Articles 3 and 4 of the Cybercrime Law.
Moreover, upon initial examination, it can be argued that the criminal offense of document falsication, as stipulated in Articles
262–265 of the Penal Code, does not encompass instances of falsication pertaining to electronic documents. Indeed, upon further
examination, it becomes evident that these articles pertain to tangible records and tools. Undoubtedly, the discernment of the legislator
becomes apparent as they deliberate on the placement of this offense within the second chapter of the fth part of the Penal Code,
specically categorized under "the Breach of Public Trust Offenses." The primary objective of the legislator, during the drafting process,
was to criminalize any deception occurring in any document based on material support [19]. In the majority of cases and in practical
terms, public trust is given to material documents. However, it is important to highlight that in the present era, it is conceivable to
envision a scenario where falsication could impact intangible documents and the relevant Articles could be applied to such cases
under specic circumstances which was stipulated by the provisions of the Electronic Transactions Law no. 15 of 2015. However, it
would be impractical to employ these articles in the context of drawing denitive conclusions through examination or replication of
these intangible documents. Cases of this nature require the presence of designated texts to ensure the enforcement of appropriate
measures and penalties for such actions.
The Cybercrime Law does not mandate the implementation of technical protection measures on information systems or websites as
a prerequisite for granting them legal protection. Despite the absence of information security systems, they are protected by the law
[20]. Unauthorized access to an information system or website is subject to legal consequences as stipulated by the Cybercrime Law in
accordance with Article 3. Hence, for the purpose of elucidating the cybercrimes delineated in the Cybercrime Law, it is instructive to
refer to the following table which presents diverse categories of cybercrimes along with their corresponding penalties.
2.2. Review of related literature
Lately, the study of cybercrimes has garnered signicant attention on an international and national scale, owing to the escalating
prevalence of such offenses. This section aims to present and analyze the latest research ndings pertaining to the awareness of
cybercrime in Jordan and abroad. On an international level, a study conducted by Moallem [21] examined the level of student
awareness and attitudes towards cyber security and the associated risks in Silicon Valley, California, which is renowned for its
technological advancements. Despite the awareness among college students regarding the potential surveillance of their online ac-
tivities and the vulnerability of their data, empirical analysis indicates a lack of knowledge regarding effective data security measures.
Furthermore, it is evident that educational institutions lack a proactive approach to enhancing awareness among college students,
thereby limiting their understanding of these matters and their ability to safeguard themselves against potential cybercrimes. A
noteworthy study conducted at Nigerian universities by Garba, Siraj, Othman, and Musa [22] revealed that the students of the
aforementioned study possessed a rudimentary understanding of cybersecurity, yet lacked awareness regarding data protection
measures. Furthermore, it was evident that the majority of colleges lack a comprehensive cybersecurity awareness program aimed at
augmenting students’ understanding of self-protection against potential threats.
A study conducted by Alghareeb and Alameer [23] investigated the extent of youth’s awareness regarding the concept of infor-
mation crimes and their knowledge of the corresponding penal system in different regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The study
demonstrated a clear correlation between individuals’ knowledge of the penal system and their engagement in illicit activities
facilitated by contemporary technologies. Fifty percent of the participants in the study indicated that they possess knowledge
regarding the utilization of electronic devices. The study further demonstrated that possessing knowledge regarding regulations and
penalties pertaining to the prevention of information crimes played a signicant role in mitigating detrimental behaviors within the
realm of information technology. In a recent investigation conducted by Alzubaidi [24], a scholarly examination was undertaken to
evaluate the existing level of cyber-security awareness within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The research focused on the investigation
of cyber-security practices, the level of consciousness regarding this matter, and the act of reporting incidents. The results suggest that
the degree of awareness among participants from Saudi Arabia concerning cybercrimes is of a moderate nature. Furthermore, it was
noted that a substantial percentage (70.8 %) of the participants did not disclose any instances of being subjected to cybercrimes. The
present discovery indicates that individuals may demonstrate a deciency in trust towards diverse entities, including the eGovernment
portal, police, and Saudi CERT. Moreover, individuals might exhibit a limited comprehension of the functions fullled by these or-
ganizations, or experience reluctance in reporting occurrences of cybercriminal activities. The ndings of a study conducted by Alharbi
and Tassaddiq [25] on the assessment of Cybersecurity awareness among the undergraduate students of Majmaah University in the
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6
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, demonstrated that cybersecurity awareness and training program for students should be included in the
security management plan to ensure that all users know how to recognize the most common cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities.
On a national level, in a study conducted by Manasrah, Akour, and Alsukhni [26], a survey was administered to college students
enrolled in three public universities in Jordan. The objective of the study was to assess the level of awareness and attitudes among these
students regarding spam emails as a form of cyberattack. The ndings of the study indicate that despite the awareness among Jor-
danian students regarding the issues and detrimental effects of spam emails, these unsolicited messages are still able to inltrate their
inboxes. A more recent study conducted by AlZeben and AlKharabsheh [27] aimed to assess the extent of students’ awareness at
Al-Balqa Applied University in Jordan regarding the adverse consequences of cybercrimes. The ndings of the investigation indicated a
minimal incidence of students’ exposure to cybercrime, juxtaposed with a notable degree of cybercrime awareness. Another recent
study conducted by Alsawalqa [28] examined the phenomenon of cyberbullying as a form of cybercrime specically among students at
Table 1
Cybercrimes and their Punishments according to the Jordanian Cybercrime Law.
Crime Article Description Punishment
Unauthorized Access Article 3/A/
Cybercrime Law
•Access that is taking place without having the
permission of the person in charge or gained by an
unauthorized person, but it does not matter if the
perpetrator has complete control over the system or not.
What matters is that the perpetrator manages to enter
into the web or information system without having
permission to do so.
•A prison sentence (one week- 3
months) or a ne (100–200 JD) or
both
Article 3/B, C/
Cybercrime Law
•The purpose of the access provided in Article 3/A is to
delete, remove, add, destroy, leak out, damage, block,
edit, change, transfer, copy data, stop or disable the
functioning of an information network or system or an
electronic website, or pretend to be its owner.
•A prison sentence (3 months–1 year)
or a ne (200–1000 JD) or both
Intercepting and Tapping
Electronic Messages
Article 5/
Cybercrime Law
•Being able to read, hear, acquire, or hinder the delivery
of an electronic message, modify its contents partially or
completely, or delete it during its transmission via the
web or any information system.
•A prison sentence (3 months - one
year) or a ne (200–1000 JD) or both
Financial Transactions, Credit
Card Transactions, and
Banking Transactions Crimes
Article 6/
Cybercrime Law
•Unauthorized access via a computer network or
computer system to data or information related to credit
cards or data pertaining to nancial or banking
transactions.
•A prison sentence (1 year - 3 years)
combined with a ne (500–2000 JD)
Aggravating circumstances in
crimes involving nancial
aspects
Article 7/
Cybercrime Law
•Committing one of the acts provided in Articles 3, 5, and
6 on websites or computer systems that are related to the
transfer of funds; the provision of payment services,
clearing, and settlements; or any service provided by
banks or nancial institutions.
•A prison sentence with hard labor for
no less than 5 years combined with a
ne (5000–15000 JD)
Sexual Abuse of Children and
vulnerable people
Article 9/A
Cybercrime Law
•Intentionally sending or publishing any pornographic
materials to a child in visual, oral, or written forms.
•A prison sentence (3 months - 1 year)
combined with a ne (300–5000 JD)
Article 9/B
Cybercrime Law
•Developing, preparing, saving, processing, showing,
printing, and promoting sexual acts to children or
persons suffering from mental or psychological
disabilities, or inciting them to commit crimes.
•A prison of no less than 2 years
combined with a ne (1000–5000 JD)
Article 9/C
Cybercrime Law
•Using an information system or the web to exploit a
person under 18 years of age or a person suffering from
mental or psychological disabilities for prostitution and
pornography.
•A prison sentence with temporary
hard labor combined with a ne
(5000–15000 JD)
Prostitution Contents Article 10/
Cybercrime Law
•Using an information system or the web or establishing a
website that facilitates prostitution (like displaying
electronic photos and videos containing pornography,
publishing, distributing, producing, providing,
purchasing, selling, importing related objects).
•A prison sentence of no less than 6
months combined with a ne
(300–5000 JD)
Defamation, Slander, and
Denigration of People
Article 11/
Cybercrime Law
•Sending, resending, or publishing data through the web
or websites embodying the defamation, slander, and
denigration of any person.
•A prison sentence of no less than 3
months combined with a ne)
100–2000 JD)
National Security and National
Economy Crimes
Article 12/A
Cybercrime Law
•Unauthorized access to data or information unavailable
to the public concerning national security, international
affairs, public security, or the national economy.
•A prison sentence of no less than 4
months combined with a ne
(500–5000 JD)
Article 12/B
Cybercrime Law
•Unauthorized access provided by Article 12/A to cancel,
delete, destroy, modify, change, transfer, copy, or
release content.
•A prison sentence with temporary
hard labor combined with a ne of no
less than 500 JD
Article 12/C
Cybercrime Law
•Unauthorized access to websites unavailable to the
public concerning national security, international
affairs, public security, or national economy.
•A prison sentence of no less than 4
months combined with a ne
(500–5000 JD)
Article 12/D
Cybercrime Law
•Unauthorized access of the type described in Article 12/
C to cancel, delete, destroy, modify, change, transfer,
copy, or release content.
•A prison sentence with temporary
hard labor combined with a ne
(1000–5000 JD)
I. Alhadidi et al.
Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
7
the University of Jordan amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The ndings obtained from the questionnaire indicate that cyberbullying has
a signicant impact on the self-esteem of students with East and Southeast Asian backgrounds who have experienced victimization
through bullying. The prevalence of bullying and cyberbullying was found to be higher among males compared to females. The in-
dividuals engaging in cyberbullying acknowledged that their primary motivation was amusement, and they expressed a lack of
awareness regarding the classication of their harsh or aggressive actions as instances of bullying.
Based on the above review of the existing literature, it is observed that the majority of these studies primarily concentrate on the
analysis of student’s level of awareness regarding cybercrimes. Nevertheless, our study not only focuses on the examination of the legal
dimensions of cybercrime awareness but also provides a seamless connection between this legal awareness and the subsequent impact
on students’ behaviors related to such crimes.
3. Methodology
The study utilized a descriptive survey methodology as the most suitable approach to achieve the study’s objectives, which is to
analyze the level of students’ awareness of cybercrimes and their penalties stated by the Jordanian cybercrime law (see Table 1).
3.1. Participants
The population of the study comprised 2000 students, encompassing individuals of both genders, attending various schools,
representing different academic levels (year of study), and exhibiting diverse levels of academic achievement (GPAs). Enrollment in
this study was entirely voluntary. Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the study population. The proportion of female
participants in this study is approximately 66.6 %, while males constitute 33.4 % of the total respondents. The higher representation of
female participants can be attributed to their higher performance in the General Secondary Certicate Examination (Tawjihi). A
national report indicates that 59.5 % of individuals who completed the Tawjihi requirements were female students [29].
According to Table 2, the largest proportion of participants enrolled in medical schools was 42.2 %, while humanities and scientic
schools accounted for 32.5 % and 25.4 % respectively. In relation to the variable of academic level, it was observed that 31.2 % of the
participants were freshmen, while sophomores, juniors, and seniors accounted for 28.3 %, 25.9 %, and 14.6 % of the sample,
respectively. Table 2 also shows a signicant proportion of the participants, specically 38 %, possessed a Grade Point Average (GPA)
of 3.50 or higher. Conversely, students with a GPA falling within the range of 1–1.49 constituted the smallest percentage of the overall
population, amounting to merely 1.2 %.
3.2. Research tools
The research utilized a questionnaire to collect data on the extent of University of Jordan students’ awareness regarding cyber-
crimes and the associated legal framework. The study was granted ethical approval by the University of Jordan, allowing the re-
searchers to proceed with the study. Subsequently, the distribution of the questionnaire to students was facilitated through the
implementation of a feedback activity on the Moodle platform, thereby ensuring the acquisition of a substantial and diverse sample of
students in a manner that adhered to ethical principles and maximized efciency. Therefore, the questionnaire was administered to
students enrolled in multiple mandatory courses during the First Semester of the 2021/2022 academic year. The selection of these
courses was based on the inclusion of students from various specializations, ensuring a diverse participant pool.
The study implemented measures to guarantee anonymous participation, thereby enabling each student to complete the ques-
tionnaire only once. Before commencing the data collection procedure, written consent was obtained from all students who agreed to
Table (2)
The Population of the Study.
Variables
Levels Frequency Percentage
Gender Male 669 33.4
Female 1331 66.6
School Medical 843 42.2
Scientic 508 25.4
Humanities 649 32.5
Academic Level (Year) Freshman 623 31.2
Sophomore 566 28.3
Junior 518 25.9
Senior 293 14.6
Academic achievement (GPA) 1–1,49 23 1.2
1,5 -1,99 28 1.4
2–2,49 132 6.6
2,5–2,99 338 16.9
3–3,49 720 36.0
3,5 and more 759 38.0
Total 2000
I. Alhadidi et al.
Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
8
participate. This research does not make any reference to the research participants, as the identities of all participating students have
been safeguarded. The study’s objective was explicitly articulated in the introductory section of the questionnaire. The questionnaire
comprised a total of 37 questions covering various aspects of cybersecurity. These aspects encompassed demographic information,
with 4 questions dedicated to this aspect. Additionally, the questionnaire explored participants’ awareness of the concept of cyber-
crime, with 13 questions dedicated to this area. Furthermore, participants’ familiarity with legal procedures related to cybersecurity
was assessed through 11 questions. The questionnaire also inquired about unlawful acts committed by students, with 4 questions
dedicated to this topic. Lastly, participants were asked about their exposure to unlawful acts, with 5 questions dedicated to this aspect.
3.3. Data analysis and interpretation
After the data were obtained, they were analyzed using SPSS (version 25). The use of such software was intended to nd certain
statistical observations based on the variables of the study, observations which might in turn help better describe, summarize, and
analyze the data.
3.3.1. Validity and reliability
3.3.1.1. Validity. The face validity of the study was tested by having the questionnaire reviewed by eight competent specialist re-
viewers. Per their observations and remarks, adjustments were made. The nal version of the questionnaire was later distributed to the
population.
3.3.1.2. Reliability. The Cronbach’s alpha coefcient was used to test the reliability of the instrument of this study. According to the
test, reliability is considered poor when the value of the coefcient is less than 0.60. Sekaran & Bougie [30] assumed that the lowest
acceptable value of Cronbach’s alpha coefcient is 0.70. Reliability is thought of as good if it is 0.80 or more. Listed in Table 3 are the
Cronbach’s alpha test results for each subscale in the study (see Table 4).
According to the Cronbach’s alpha test results, the coefcients of the subscales included in the questionnaire are between 0.749 and
0.859, which is above 0.7 and means that they are acceptable. As for the research instrument, the Cronbach’s alpha coefcient
amounted to 0.789. This acceptable value indicates the internal consistency and reliability among the items and accordingly provides a
suitable basis for statistical analysis. It also warrants the validity of the instrument for analyzing the results and answering the
questions of the study.
3.3.2. The goodness-of-t of the study data
In order to test the goodness-of-t of the study data for statistical analysis, a normality test was conducted to check whether the data
follow a normal distribution by using the One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov text. The results are presented in Table (4).
Table (4) shows that the One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test value of statistical signicance for all subscales was higher than the
tabulated level of signicance
α
≤0.05, which indicates that all the subscales follow a normal distribution. Based on the Central Limit
Theorem (which states that for any sample size that is greater than 30, has a population mean
μ
, and has variance
σ
2
; the distribution of
sample means approximates normal distribution).
4. Results and discussion
This section answers the results of the research questions, and its related hypotheses, as follows.
4.1. First: results related to the rst research question
What is the overall relationship between awareness of cybercrime concepts, awareness of legal procedures, and students’
engagement in unlawful acts?
In response to this question, the following hypothesises has been suggested:
The rst main hypothesis (H
01
): There is no correlation between awareness of cybercrime concepts and awareness of legal
procedures.
Table (3)
The Cronbach’s alpha coefcient values for the subscales and the instrument.
Subscales
# Questions Cronbach’s Alpha
Awareness of cybercrime concepts 13 0.749
Awareness of legal procedures 11 0.813
Unlawful acts done by students 4 0.859
Unlawful acts to which students are exposed 5 0.753
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.789
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
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9
The second main hypothesis (H
02
): There is no correlation between awareness of legal procedures and students’ unlawful acts.
The third main hypothesis (H
03
): There is no correlation between awareness of cybercrime concepts and the unlawful acts to which
students are exposed.
In order to test the rst, second, and third hypotheses, a correlation matrix for the study subscales was extracted, and the results are
presented in Table (5) as follows.
A signicant correlation of 0.380 at the level of
α
≤0.01 is seen in Table (5) between awareness of cybercrime concepts and
awareness of legal procedures. This means that we must reject the rst main hypothesis and support the alternative hypothesis, which
states that there is a correlation between awareness of cybercrime concepts and awareness of legal procedures.
That is because individuals who are aware of the notion of cybercrimes, their elements, and their attendant penalties feel compelled
to look for practical information; that is, procedures. It is inevitable that individuals who familiarize themselves with cybercrimes and
the punishment that is meted out to cybercriminals become curious about the legal procedures that make such acts more concrete. The
way they do this is through doing their own research about the legal procedures that one should follow in the event of committing a
cybercrime. But curiosity is not the only factor that leads to awareness of the legal procedures in this context, as personal experiences
can also lead to more awareness. This experience is not only conned to the victim who is looking for the legal procedures that put into
effect the pertinent laws against the criminal, but it can also apply to the offender. The latter is directly apprised of the legal pro-
ceedings put into practice by law enforcement ofcials.
On the one hand, the second main hypothesis that states that there is no correlation between awareness of legal procedures and
students’ unlawful acts is accepted, as shown in Table 5. The result of this hypothesis reveals that students might commit cybercrimes
regardless of their being aware of the legal measures taken against such offenses. That is caused by the idea that students who commit
such crimes are not necessarily conscious enough of the illegality of what they do and of the consequences of their acts. If students were
aware of the legal procedures that are put into effect as a result of their unlawful acts, there would be a correlation between unlawful
acts and the legal procedures that ensue. On the other hand, it also seems that sufcient awareness does not necessarily deter offenders
from committing cybercrimes, as some students already know about the consequences of such unlawful acts but continue to do them.
The nature of the crime committed online differs from real-world crime. When committing a crime online, for example, not seeing
the victim, how the victim reacts, and how much the crime affects him or her gives offenders the feeling that they are anonymous and
will not be punished for whatever they do. The chances of being caught committing a crime online are signicantly lower than in real
life. As a result, offenders are more likely to break the law and engage in cybercrime [31]. It is explained according to the theory of
differential association that criminal behavior is a non-inherited behavior that a person acquires by learning [32]. This indicates that a
person does not become a criminal without previous criminal experience, such as the one who does not become a mechanic without
prior knowledge and sufcient training in mechanics. This explains the commission of the crime despite awareness of it and its
consequences.
A phenomenon worthy of attention is the recurrence of crime, as the person who commits a crime is judged, and after the sentence
period has expired, we nd that the criminal returns to the criminal act again (NIJ). Hamdan [33] claried in her study that recidivism
is concentrated among young people less than 25–34 years old, and this is consistent with the study of Saleh [34] and Al-Majdoub [35],
whose study indicated that recidivism is concentrated among young people.
Table (5) also shows a statistically signicant correlation of 0.047 at
α
≤0.05 level of signicance between awareness of cybercrime
concepts and unlawful acts to which students are exposed. The third main hypothesis is therefore rejected and replaced with the
alternative hypothesis which states that there is a correlation between awareness of cybercrime concepts and unlawful acts to which
Table (4)
Test one sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov.
Subscales One Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Statistical signicance
Awareness of cybercrime concepts 1.179 0.124
Awareness of legal procedures 1.220 0.102
Unlawful acts done by students 1.179 0.124
Unlawful acts to which students were exposed 1.274 0.078
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
Table (5)
Pearson correlation matrix concerning the study.
Subscales Awareness of cybercrime
concepts
Awareness of legal
procedures
Unlawful acts done by
students
Unlawful acts to which students
are exposed
Awareness of cybercrime concepts 1
Awareness of legal procedures 0.380
b
1
Unlawful acts done by students 0.0470
a
−0.009 1
Unlawful acts to which students
are exposed
0.0470
a
−0.001 0.536
b
1
a
Correlation is signicant at (0.05).
b
Correlation is signicant at (0.01).
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
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students are exposed. This means that students do not care about following the right path even when they are aware that path leads to
ensuring their own safety. Indeed, people, in general, do aim at protecting themselves, their lovely ones, their property, and their
interests in the broadest sense of the word. Despite that, students fall into the trap and suffer from the harm they cause to themselves
and others by cybercrimes. This could be explained by the fact that the harm that they cause is immaterial, and students therefore are
more vulnerable to these crimes. In addition, the extent of the prejudice generated by these crimes is in most cases insignicant, which
makes students more tempted to take risks such as following the instructions included in an e-mail of a suspicious origin. Moreover,
playing on the emotional chord of students may be one of the reasons they fall into the trap of cybercrimes. In fact, it is easy to
manipulate the feelings of young students and make them disempowered puppets in the hands of perpetrators. Finally, another
explanation for this phenomenon could be that young students are curious to discover the unknown.
4.2. Second: results related to the second research question
What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University of
Jordan’s students according to gender variable?
In response to this question, the fourth hypothesis has been suggested, which states that there are no statistically signicant dif-
ferences at the 0.05 level of signicance concerning the four subscales of the study that can be attributed to gender. In order to test the
fourth hypothesis, the Independent Samples Test was used, and the results are listed in Table 6 as follows.
Table (6) indicates that the t-test value for the subscale of awareness of cybercrime concepts amounted to 2.806, with a 0.005
statistical signicance less than the tabulated signicance level of 0.05. This indicates statistically signicant differences for the
subscale of awareness of cybercrime concepts that can be attributed to gender. By taking the means into consideration, we notice that
the differences were in favor of males with a means of 3.617. On the other hand, the t-test value of the subscale of awareness of legal
procedures was −5.088, with a 0.000 statistical signicance less than 0.05. This indicates statistically signicant differences for the
subscale of awareness of legal procedures that can be attributed to gender. When we factor in the means, we notice that the differences
were in favor of females with a mean value of 3.733.
We can also notice that the t-test value for the subscale of unlawful acts done by students is 7.748 with a statistical signicance of
0.000. This means that there are statistically signicant differences between the subscale of unlawful acts done by students that can be
attributed to gender. We also nd that the means differences were in favor of males with a mean value of 2.060. The table also shows
the t-test value of 3.566 for the subscale of unlawful acts to which students are exposed, with a statistical signicance of 0.000, less than
the agreed-upon signicance 0.05. This refers to statistically signicant differences for the subscale of unlawful acts to which students
are exposed that can be attributed to gender. By further examining the means, we nd that the differences were in favor of males with a
mean value of 2.300.
It is possible that the higher rate of awareness of cyber threats among male students can be attributed to personal experiences. That
does not necessarily mean that a male student may have committed or has been a victim of such crimes. Their personal experiences
might also be the result of obtaining this kind of knowledge from a family member or a close acquaintance who has committed a
cybercrime, especially because most of the offenders of those crimes are males. This unquestionably tips the scales in favor of males
when comparing the number of male and female offenders.
According to the CEP confederation, there is a group of offenders that do not see their behavior as harmful at all. These are mainly
young men who are very good at computers. In their online community, they can convince each other that hacking a bank, for example,
is just a bit of fun [36].
Table (6)
Fourth hypothesis test results - independent samples test.
Awareness of cybercrime concepts
Gender Mean t- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Male 3.617 2.806 0.005
Female 3.539
Awareness of legal procedures
Gender Mean t- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Male 3.565 5.088- 0.000
Female 3.733
Unlawful acts done by students
Gender Mean t- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Male 2.060 7.748 0.000
Female 1.755
Unlawful acts to which students are exposed
Gender Mean t- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Male 2.300 3.566 0.000
Female 2.170
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
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These ndings are consistent with Fatokun, Hamid, Norman, & Fatokun [37], who showed that male students are more condent in
their cybercrime skills than their female counterparts. The researchers attributed this to the fact that male students have more
computer skills than female students.
It is possible to explain the unlawful acts that males do or to which they are exposed can be attributed to the low self-control in
young males, as studies by Smith [38] and Nakhaie, Silverman, & LaGrange [39] conrmed that males tend to have less self-control
compared to females.
According to the self-control theory (SCT) in "A General Theory of Crime" [40], which is considered one of the most dominant
theories and has signicantly contributed to the advancement of criminological knowledge, low self-control is a major cause of crime.
This nding was conrmed by empirical studies that test the link between low self-control and measures of crime [41] [42] [43] [44].
According to SCT, those with low self-control are characterized by impulsiveness; a high risk-seeking potential; self-centeredness and
insensitivity to others; and physicality where their behavior can be described as unrelated to caution and predictive of consequences
and far from rationality [45]. Also, socialization has an important role in committing reckless behavior, as Jordanian society is a
patriarchal society in which males are allowed to engage in reckless acts, which are forbidden for females, as this provides a suitable
environment for males to commit reckless behavior, and this is what was emphasized in Tawaiha study [46]. In addition, Titi’s [47]
study conrms the result that men are more likely to be victims compared to women.
As for females’ awareness of the legal procedures that result from perpetrating cybercrime, this may be attributed to the fact that
females are generally more afraid than males and therefore more careful as well, as was found by Fatokun, Hamid, Norman, & Fatokun
[48] that male students are more negligent about the consequences of violating cybersecurity laws and rules. This conclusion supports
Titi’s [49] ndings that women are more aware of cyber regulations than men.
4.3. Third: results related to the third research question
What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University of
Jordan’s students according to school variable?
In response to this question, the fth hypothesis has been suggested, which states that There are no statistically signicant dif-
ferences at the 0.05 level of signicance concerning the four subscales of the study that can be attributed to the school in which the
student is enrolled. In order to test the fth hypothesis, the One Way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was conducted, and the results are
listed in Table (7) as follows.
Table (7) indicates that the F-values for the subscale’s awareness of cybercrime concepts and unlawful acts to which students are
exposed are F8.233, and F6.552, respectively, with a value of statistical signicance of 0.00 <0.05. This indicates that there are
statistically signicant differences between the two subscales. In order to detect the differences, the Scheff´
e Test was used. The results
can be seen in Table (8) below.
Results in Table (8) indicate differences in the subscale of awareness of cybercrime concepts between the humanities and medical
schools. These differences are in favor of the humanities schools with the mean value of 3.630, whereas the mean for medical schools is
3.507. The results also indicate differences in the subscale of unlawful acts to which students were exposed between students of the
humanities and medical schools. By observing the means, we nd that the differences are in favor of the humanities with a mean value
of 2.293, whereas the means for medical schools amounted to 2.147.
These results can be attributed to the long duration of time spent on social media by students of the humanities, as they need fewer
study hours and have more free time available in comparison with students in scientic schools. This means that they are more likely to
be exposed to unlawful acts than other students. Moreover, the nature of the topics taught in the schools of the humanities focus on
social issues, which in turn increases the possibility of tackling the issue of cybercrimes in classrooms. Finally, more students from the
humanities schools participate in extracurricular activities than their counterparts in scientic schools. This fact makes it more possible
to raise students’ awareness of cybercrimes through such extracurricular activities.
4.4. Fourth: results related to the fourth research question
What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, and Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the Uni-
versity of Jordan’s students according to academic level variable?
In response to this question, the sixth hypothesis has been suggested, which states that there are no statistically signicant
Table (7)
Fifth hypothesis test results.
Subscales F- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Awareness of cybercrime concepts 8.233 0.000
Awareness of legal procedures 1.969 0.140
Unlawful acts done by students 2.907 0.055
Unlawful acts to which students are exposed 6.552 0.001
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
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differences at the 0.05 level of signicance concerning the four subscales of the study that can be attributed to their academic level
(year of study). In order to test the sixth hypothesis, the One Way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was conducted, and the results are
listed in Table (9) as follows.
Table (9) indicates that the F-value for the subscale awareness of cybercrime concepts is 2.885, with a value of statistical signif-
icance of 0.035 <0.05. This indicates that there are statistically signicant differences for this subscale that can be attributed to
students’ academic level. In order to detect the differences, the Scheff´
e Test was used. The results are seen in Table (10).
Results in Table (10) show a statistically signicant difference in the subscale of awareness of cybercrime concepts between
sophomores and juniors on the one hand, and seniors and sophomores on the other. By observing the means, we nd that the dif-
ferences are in favor of seniors with a means value of 3.764, whereas the means values for sophomores and juniors were 3.638 and
3.709, respectively.
The increased level of awareness of cybercrime concepts is the outcome of experience that accumulates over time in general and
during school years in particular. As students grow older, they become more conscious of issues they barely knew of. It is not surprising
that seniors are more aware of the legal consequences of committing cybercrimes than younger students, as seniors may have had
personal experiences in this context or may have heard about illegal cyber incidents. It is worth mentioning that seniors have the
ability to deal with as many of their fellow students as they can, which in turn contributes to the accumulation of knowledge and
experience.
4.5. Fifth: results related to the fth research question
What are the statistically signicant differences at the level of signicance (
α
=0.05) regarding (Awareness of cybercrime concepts,
Awareness of legal procedures, Unlawful acts done by students, Unlawful acts to which students are exposed), among the University of
Jordan’s students according to academic achievement (GPA) variable?
In response to this question the seventh hypothesis has been suggested, which states that there are no statistically signicant
differences at the 0.05 level of signicance concerning the four subscales of the study that can be attributed to the student’s GPA. In
order to test the seventh hypothesis, the One Way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was conducted, and the results are listed in Table (11)
as follows.
Table (11) shows that the F-values regarding the subscales of awareness of cybercrime concepts, awareness of legal procedures, and
unlawful acts done by students amounted to 5.843, 6.345,4.440, respectively. A statistically signicant difference is determined at
0.000, which is less than the tabulated level of signicance 0.05 for these subscales that can be attributed to students’ GPAs. In order to
detect the differences, the Scheff´
e Test was used. The results can be seen in Table (12).
The results in Table (12) indicate that there are differences in the subscale of awareness of cybercrime concepts between students
with GPAs 1–1.49 and 2.00–2.49; 1-1.49-2.50-2.99; 1–1.49, 3.00–3.49; and 1–1.49, 3.50 or more. By taking the means into consid-
eration, we nd that the differences are in favor of the GPA category 3.00–3.49, with a mean value of 3.569. On the other hand, the
Table (8)
Results of the Meta-Analysis to Detect Differences between the Subscales Awareness of Cybercrime Concepts and Unlawful Acts to which the students
are Exposed that Can be Attributed to Field of School in which Students are Enrolled.
Awareness of cybercrime concepts
Mean Medical Scientic Humanities
Medical 3.507 1
Scientic 3.579 0720. (0.094) 1
Humanistic 3.630 0.124
a
(0.000) 0.051 (0.339) 1
Unlawful Acts to Which Students Are Exposed
Mean Medical Scientic Humanities
Medical 2.147 1
Scientic 2.222 0.075 (0.222) 1
Humanistic 2.293
a
(0.145)
(0.002)
0.070 (0.308) 1
( ) Statistical signicance(Sig).
a
The mean is signicant at (0.05) level of signicance.
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
Table (9)
Sixth hypothesis test results.
Scales F- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Awareness of cybercrime concepts 2.048 0.105
Awareness of legal procedures 2.885 0.035
Unlawful acts done by students 1.288 0.277
Unlawful acts to which students were exposed 1.550 0.200
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
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means for the GPA categories 2.00–2.49, 2.50–2.99, 3.50 or more amounted to 3.530, 3.558, and 3.540, respectively.
The results also indicate differences in the subscale of awareness of legal procedures between the GPA categories of 1.50–1.99,
2.50–2.99; 1.50–1.99, 3.00–3.49; 1.50–1.99, 3.50 and above; 2.00–2.49, 2.50–2.99; and 2.00–2.49, 3.00–3.49. By observing the
means, we nd that the differences are in favor of the GPA category 3.00–3.49, with a mean value of 3.732. On the other hand, the
means for the GPA categories 2.00–2.50, 3.50, and above amounted to 3.728, and 3.660, respectively.
Moreover, the results indicate differences in the subscale of unlawful acts done by students between GPA categories 2.00–2.49,
3.00–3.49, and categories 2.00–2.49, 3.50 or more. The difference in the mean value is in favor of the GPA category 3.00–3.49, which
was 1.842, whereas the mean for GPA categories 2.00–2.49, 3.50 or more amounted to 1.793.
Table (10)
Results of the Meta-Analysis to detect differences in the elements of the study, according to the academic level variable.
Awareness of legal procedures
Mean Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior
Freshman 3.645 1
Sophomore 3.638 0.007 (0.998) 1
Junior 3.709 070690.
)0.432)
a
1270. (0.098) 1
Senior 3.764 11924 (0.124)
a
12670 (0.098) 05601 (0.754) 1
( ) Statistical signicance(Sig).
a
The mean is signicant at (0.05) level of signicance.
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
Table (11)
Seventh hypothesis test results.
Scales F- value test Statistical signicance (.Sig)
Awareness of cybercrime concepts 5.843 0.000
Awareness of legal procedures 6.345 0.000
Unlawful acts done by students 4.440 0.001
Unlawful acts to which students were exposed 1.489 0.190
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
Table (12)
Results of the Meta-Analysis to detect differences in the elements of (awareness of cybercrime concepts, awareness of legal procedures, and unlawful
acts done by students), according to GPA variable.
Awareness of cybercrime concepts
Mean 1–1.49 1.50–1.99 2–2.49 2.50–2.99 3–3.49 3.50 and more
1.00–1.49 4.174 1
1.50–1.99 3.750 0.424 (0.257) 1
2.00–2.49 3.530
a
0.644 (0.000) 0.220 (0.667) 1
2.50–2.99 3.558
a
0.606 (0.000) 0.181 (0.781) 0.038 (0.996) 1
3.00–3.49 3.569
a
0.604 (0.000) 0.181 (0.771) 0.039 (0.992) 0.011 (0.998) 1
3.5 and more 3.540
a
0.634 (0.000) 0.220 (0.634) 0.010 (0.998) 0.027 (0.991) 0.039 (0.969) 1
Awareness of legal procedures
Mean 1–1.49 1.50–1.99 2–2.49 2.50–2.99 3–3.49 3.50 and more
1.00–1.49 3.478 1
1.50–1.99 3.214 0.264 (0.875) 1
2.00–2.49 3.477 0.009 (0.998) 0.263 (0.656) 1
2.50–2.99 3.728 0.250 (0.737)
a
0.516 (0.016)
a
0.251 (0.032) 1
3.00–3.49 3.732 0.254 (0.708)
a
0.518 (0.011)
a
0.256 (0.011) 0.008 (0.998) 1
3.5 and more 3.660 0.182 (0.911)
a
0.446 (0.050) 0.183 (0.173) 0.068 (0.820) 0.072 (0.561) 1
Unlawful acts to which students were exposed
Mean 1–1.49 1.50–1.99 2–2.49 2.50–2.99 3–3.49 3.50 and more
1.00–1.49 1.957 1
1.50–1.99 2.143 0.186 (0.987) 1
2.00–2.49 2.121 0.165 (0.980) 0.517 (0.998) 1
2.50–2.99 1.899 0.057 (0.998) 0.243 (0.824) 0.022 (0.249) 1
3.00–3.49 1.842 0.115 (0.995) 0.301 (0.627)
a
0.280 (0.030) 0.058 (0.995) 1
3.5 and more 1.793 0.163 (0.974) 0.350 (0.454)
a
0.328 (0.004) 0.106 (0.585) 0.048 (0.941) 1
a
The mean is signicant at (0.05) level of signicance.
Source: The data were extracted using the SPSS statistical software platform.
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This result shows that students with sufcient awareness mainly possess intellectual abilities and persevere to achieve the best
results. These students with high GPAs appear to be the most knowledgeable of the concept of cybercrime and any relevant legal
procedures. In addition, they admitted to having done unlawful acts. This shows that the better academically students are, the more
conscious they are. Students whose academic records are excellent are best equipped to understand the electronic and legal contexts
that they inhabit. Since those students admitted to having committed unlawful acts means that committing cybercrimes is not
necessarily connected with ignorance of such topics. Indeed, students may be aware of the penalties of cybercrimes, yet this does not
deter them from committing those crimes.
The majority of previous research has primarily investigated the extent to which students are aware of cybercrimes, or the potential
correlation between their awareness and the level of deterrence. Thus, our study aims to examine the connection between awareness
and student behavior from a legal perspective, specically within the context of Jordan. This analysis contributes to the empirical
understanding of the factors that inuence a student’s likelihood to engage in cybercriminal activities, as well as the role of legal
awareness in this scenario.
5. Limitations and future scope
The present study is subject to certain limitations with respect to the sample size, as it solely comprised 2000 students from the
University of Jordan. Consequently, the generalizability of the ndings may be compromised. Furthermore, a thorough investigation
of external factors that could potentially impact students’ awareness and behavior to cybercrimes was lacking. The study’s exclusive
concentration on a solitary university restricts the inclusion of a wider contextual understanding of cybercrime awareness. The
questionnaire employed in the study may have failed to encompass all pertinent dimensions, and employing a combination of diverse
methodologies and measures would yield a more exhaustive evaluation. It is of utmost importance to acknowledge these constraints in
order to ensure precise analysis and to provide guidance for future investigations aimed at addressing these deciencies, thereby
enhancing comprehension of the topic. Acknowledging these constraints is crucial for precise analysis and guiding future research to
address these deciencies, thereby enhancing comprehension of the topic. Despite focusing on University of Jordan students, future
work aims to overcome this limitation by replicating the study across various universities in Jordan for improved result generaliz-
ability. The study emphasizes the need for tailored educational programs at the University of Jordan to enhance students’ legal
awareness of cybercrimes, underlining the importance of evaluating the short and long-term effectiveness of these programs in
inuencing student behavior.
6. Conclusion and recommendations
In this paper, results show the signicance of enhancing students’ understanding of cybercrime and related legislation as a means to
prevent their engagement in unlawful cyber activities and minimize their vulnerability to such offenses. This study additionally offers a
comprehensive examination of the concept of cybercrime and the corresponding legislation, as perceived by students at the University
of Jordan. It explores the inuence of this legal awareness on their behavior. It also reveals that there exists variation in the level of
awareness among students, which can be attributed to factors such as gender, academic level, academic achievement (as measured by
GPA), and the type of school attended (scientic, medical, or humanities). It is worth mentioning that students deliberately engage in
illicit behaviors despite possessing knowledge of the legal ramications. The unexpected outcome can be attributed to the limited
number of cyber criminals who face prosecution, as well as the lack of awareness among cybercrime victims regarding their legal rights
or their reluctance to engage in legal proceedings. The aforementioned circumstances contribute to a lack of societal adherence to
cybercrime legislation, particularly among younger individuals who tend to exhibit impulsive behavior and rarely consider the
ramications of their actions.
These ndings should raise concerns, as the lack of efcient punitive measures does not result in a reduction in criminal activity.
The potential risk arises from the implementation of legal prosecutions following the adoption of amendments to cybercrime legis-
lation. Legislators may subsequently opt to enhance the facilitation of prosecution by increasing victims’ comprehension regarding the
implementation of penal provisions. Furthermore, legislators have the authority to allocate specialized units of the judicial police with
the purpose of deterring such offenses and subsequently referring them to the appropriate judicial authorities. Insufcient awareness of
the concept of cybercrime among university students hinders their ability to effectively prevent engagement in unlawful activities.
Hence, the integration of the cybercrime concept into the curriculum of select academic disciplines that focus on practical compe-
tencies may warrant the inclusion of dedicated instructional sessions. Furthermore, the inclusion of these concepts in university re-
quirements is warranted given their signicance. In light of this matter, it is imperative to deliberate upon alternative strategies that
can bolster the deterrence of cybercrime. One possible approach to achieve this objective is to educate students about concrete in-
stances that highlight the legal repercussions faced by individuals involved in cybercrime. The utilization of real-life scenarios in
storytelling has a greater impact on individuals compared to abstract concepts. Additionally, the incorporation of gamication
learning techniques serves to enhance students’ engagement levels and foster the development of desired behaviors.
The study has additionally revealed that students enrolled in humanities schools exhibit a comparatively more relaxed attitude
towards engaging in cybercrimes, in contrast to their peers attending other academic institutions. This phenomenon may be ascribed to
the greater availability of leisure time among the former group, which increases the likelihood of engaging in unlawful activities driven
by curiosity or the pursuit of novelty. Consequently, it is crucial to allocate greater emphasis towards these students by incorporating
cybercrime-related topics into their academic syllabus, thereby augmenting their level of awareness. Furthermore, the utilization of
extracurricular activities can serve as a means to enhance students’ understanding of cybercrimes and the severity associated with
I. Alhadidi et al.
Heliyon 10 (2024) e32371
15
them. The university has the potential to address the issue by implementing a regulatory board or entity responsible for monitoring
cybercrimes committed by students on social media platforms. Subsequently, the institution has the capacity to disseminate or publish
cases of said transgressions and their corresponding sanctions in the guise of cautionary advisories, with the aim of dissuading students
from engaging in such illicit activities.
The research ndings indicate that there is a higher prevalence of male involvement in cybercriminal activities compared to fe-
males. This necessitates prioritizing the reformation of male students’ conduct over that of female students, as the latter exhibit a
greater inclination to adhere to legal norms and the penal code. This can be achieved through various forms of media across both
physical and digital platforms that individuals regularly engage with.
Funding statement
This research did not receive any specic grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-prot sectors.
Ethics declarations
This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Jordan, with the approval number:
179/2024.
All participants provided informed consent to participate in the study.
All participants provided informed consent for the publication of their anonymised case details and images.
Data availability
The data that support the ndings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon request.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ismaeel Alhadidi: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Aman Nweiran: Writing – original
draft, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Ghofran Hilal: Writing –
review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing nancial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
inuence the work reported in the paper which titled “The Inuence of Cybercrime and Legal Awareness on the Behavior of University
of Jordan Students“
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32371.
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