Ethnobotany, pharmacology and phytochemistry of medicinal plants used for management of Diabetes mellitus in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract

For decades, patients in East Africa have used herbal medicine as an alternative and affordable therapeutic option for the treatment of diseases such as Diabetes Mellitus (DM). As a result, the primary objective of this research was to thoroughly investigate the plants employed for treating DM in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of Congo and gather pertinent ethnopharmacological and ethnomedicinal knowledge that could be applied in the development of therapies for DM.
The study is aimed at critically reviewing the phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of medicinal plants used for treating diabetes in East African countries, including Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
A search for relevant articles was conducted on PubMed, ISI Web of Science, Open Theses, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and Scopus, and the identified articles were evaluated for quality, relevance, and taxonomical accuracy before undergoing review.
The study identified 140 plant species used by local communities for the management of DM in East Africa, with decoction and infusion being the most common preparation methods. The leaves, root, and stem bark were the most frequently used parts. The in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated the antidiabetic effect of medicinal plants such as Kigelia Africana, Hagenia abyssinica (Rosaceae), Physalis peruviana among other plants used for herbal treatment elicited via stimulation of insulin release, and gluconeogenesis. Phytochemicals present were mainly flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, and glycosides.
The local communities in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and the Democratic Republic of Congo use herbal medicine for managing DM, but only a fraction of these species have scientific evidence. This necessitates additional research to establish the effectiveness, safety and potentially develop novel therapeutics for the management of DM.

Full text

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Discover Applied Sciences
Review
Ethnobotany, pharmacology andphytochemistry ofmedicinal plants
used formanagement ofDiabetes mellitus inUganda, Kenya, Tanzania
andtheDemocratic Republic ofCongo
ReubenSamsonDangana1 · IbrahimBabangidaAbubakar1· TijjaniSalihuShinka1· PatrickMaduabuchiAja1·
SarahOnyenibeNwozo1
Received: 28 January 2024 / Accepted: 16 May 2024
© The Author(s) 2024 OPEN
Abstract
Ethnopharmacological relevance For decades, patients in East Africa have used herbal medicine as an alternative and
aordable therapeutic option for the treatment of diseases such as Diabetes Mellitus (DM). As a result, the primary objec-
tive of this research was to thoroughly investigate the plants employed for treating DM in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, and
the Democratic Republic of Congo and gather pertinent ethnopharmacological and ethnomedicinal knowledge that
could be applied in the development of therapies for DM.
Aim of the study The study is aimed at critically reviewing the phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of medici-
nal plants used for treating diabetes in East African countries, including Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, and the Democratic
Republic of Congo.
Method A search for relevant articles was conducted on PubMed, ISI Web of Science, Open Theses, Google Scholar,
Science Direct, and Scopus, and the identied articles were evaluated for quality, relevance, and taxonomical accuracy
before undergoing review.
Results The study identied 140 plant species used by local communities for the management of DM in East Africa, with
decoction and infusion being the most common preparation methods. The leaves, root, and stem bark were the most
frequently used parts. The invitro and invivo studies demonstrated the antidiabetic eect of medicinal plants such as
Kigelia Africana, Hagenia abyssinica (Rosaceae), Physalis peruviana among other plants used for herbal treatment elic-
ited via stimulation of insulin release, and gluconeogenesis. Phytochemicals present were mainly avonoids, alkaloids,
saponins, tannins, and glycosides.
Conclusion The local communities in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and the Democratic Republic of Congo use herbal medi-
cine for managing DM, but only a fraction of these species have scientic evidence. This necessitates additional research
to establish the eectiveness, safety and potentially develop novel therapeutics for the management of DM.
Article Highlights
• A study aimed to review the ethnomedicinal uses, pharmacology and phytochemistry of medicinal plants used for
managing diabetes in East Africa.
• The study found 140 plant species used for this purpose.
• Decoction and infusion were the most common preparation methods.
* Reuben Samson Dangana, danganareuben@kiu.ac.ug | 1Department ofBiochemistry, Kampala International University, Western
Campus, Ishaka,Bushenyi, Uganda.
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• Asteraceae and Fabaceae are the families with the most species of plants locally used for diabetes management.
• Phytochemicals present in these plants include avonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, and glycosides.
• Some plants were reported to have low toxicity on low and high dosage.
• Further research is needed to fully evaluate the safety and eectiveness of these plants for managing diabetes.
Keywords Diabetes mellitus· East Africa· Herbal medicine· Phytochemistry· Pharmacology
Abbreviations
DM Diabetes mellitus
IDF International diabetes federation
IL-1 Interleukin-1
LDL-c Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
LMICs Low- to middle-income countries
NCDs Non-communicable diseases
NF-kB Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells
Nrf2 Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2
PI3K Phosphoinositide 3-kinase
PKC-β Protein kinase C β isoform
PPAR-α Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha
PPAR-δ Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma
PPG Postprandial glucose
PTP1B Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1 B
SOD Superoxide dismutase
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
STZ Streptozotocin
T2DM Type 2 diabetes mellitus
TC Total cholesterol
TGs Triglycerides
TNF-α Tumor necrosis factor- α
VLDL-c Very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
WHO World health organization
1 Introduction
Traditional medicine has played a crucial role in healthcare for centuries, especially in developing regions [1]. However,
much of this ancestral knowledge is at risk of disappearing as it is often passed down orally and not documented. The
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends conducting ethnopharmacological studies to record this valuable folk
knowledge and scientically validate traditional medicinal claims [1]. This could lead to the development of improved
medications. Around 80% of the global population depends on traditional medicine, primarily derived from plants, for
their basic healthcare needs [2]. The use of medicinal plants as complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) presents
opportunities in both developed and developing societies for managing various illnesses. Diabetes Mellitus (DM) has been
a focus of research, with over 800 plant species displaying hypoglycemic activities, oering potential sources for discov-
ering new antidiabetic molecules [3]. Recent data indicates that about 1.7 million people in the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) suer from DM, ranking the country fourth in the top ten countries with diabetes cases in Africa [4]. Also,
it is estimated that 478,000 people in Kenya have diabetes, with a treatment cost of USD 61 per person [5]. According
to a recent STEP survey, Tanzania has the highest prevalence of DM in the East African region, with an estimated 9.1%
among adults aged 25–64years [6]. This represents a signicant increase from the estimated 2.5% in 1984 [7, 8]. In East
African member states of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) in 2021 but South Sudan, there were a total of
128,048,100 adults, with a diabetes prevalence of 30.3% among them, resulting in a total of 6,850,500 cases of diabetes
in adults [5] (Table1). A study in 2022 by Sun etal. [5] reported the prevalence of diabetes among adults aged 20 to 79
over the world was estimated to reach 10.5% (536.6 million) in 2021 and 12.2% (783.2 million) in 2045. The cost of treating
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diabetes-related illnesses worldwide was estimated at 966 billion USD in 2021 and is expected to rise to 1,054 billion
USD by 2045 [5]. There are 24 million diabetics in Africa and 537 million worldwide among the 48 nations that make up
the IDF African area. It is anticipated that these gures would rise even higher by 2045[5, 8].
The metabolic syndrome known as DM has several aetiologies and is characterised by persistently high blood sugar
levels with a perturbation of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism as a result of chronic and/ or relative insulin
caused by an acquired or inherited deciency in the synthesis of insulin by the pancreas, or by the ineectiveness of the
insulin synthesised [9]. The inability of the body to produce insulin is termed as Type 1 diabetes or insulin dependent
DM while Type 2 DM or insulin independent DM is characterised by non-respondent of cells to the insulin synthesized by
the pancreas. The increased blood sugar precipitate classical symptoms including polydipsia, polyphagia and polyuria.
Diabetes has resulted in severe morbidity and death due to microvascular (nephropathy, neuropathy and retinopathy)
and macrovascular (stroke, peripheral vascular and heart attack) complications [10, 11]. Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes are
both incurable and chronic illnesses that are still among the most feared diseases in the world today. Patients with DM
in public health facilities have a severe lack of therapy options, while their private counterparts have several expensive
options. Many people with DM in Africa choose to employ spiritual and alternative therapies instead of going to the
doctor because they believe in them [12]. Traditional remedies are employed as the major type of basic healthcare in sub-
Saharan Africa and include everyday foods and herbs. Herbal medicine is still widely used because it is aordable, easily
accessible, less expensive, culturally satisfying, and available in some regions where conventional treatment is not [9].
Despite the widespread use of herbal medicines, there is still a dearth of thorough documentation of these plants and
other traditional treatments. The anti-diabetic properties of several plant extracts have been conrmed in numerous
animal studies and randomised clinical trials across numerous nations. However, there is still need for documentation
and scientic validation. As a result, there still exists a signicant need to oer empirical data to legitimise local thera-
peutic usage. This review aims to investigate the plants utilized for the treatment and control of DM in some parts of
East Africa, encompassing pertinent ethnopharmacological and ethnomedicinal data that could oer valuable insights
for research on DM therapy.
2 Methods
2.1 Search strategy
From the start of the month of September until December 2022, various databases including PubMed, ISI Web of Sci-
ence, Open Theses, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and Scopus were searched for relevant articles using the appropri-
ate keywords. Several published papers that highlighted the historical use of plants to manage DM in Uganda, Kenya,
Tanzania and DRC were selected for this study. These papers oer valuable insights into the traditional use of plants for
treating DM. Whereas, experimental research carried out anywhere in the globe served as the foundation for the scien-
tic evidence to support such usage. The selection of these few East African countries in Africa were selected for study
given that they have rich biodiversity of a wide variety of medicinal plants with antidiabetic potentials, furthermore these
regions prevalence of DM is high as compared to their counterparts with several studies suggesting so [6, 10, 13–17].
Based on the given criteria, the inclusion criteria for the study on antidiabetic plants include investigating plants tradi-
tionally used for treating diabetes, conducting various types of studies such as exvivo, invivo, invitro, and clinical trials,
and examining the antidiabetic potential of plant components and bioactive compounds with or without molecular
Table 1 East African Member
State of IDF DM Statistics 2021
(IDF, 2021)
S/No Country Total adult population % Prevalence of DM in
adults (%) Total cases of
DM in adults
1 Kenya 27,783,400 3 821,500
2 Uganda 20,127,600 3.6 716,000
3 Tanzania 28,027,100 10.3 2,884,000
4 Rwanda 6,631,200 4.5 297,000
5 Burundi 5,434,600 4.1 223,100
6 DRC 40,044,200 4.8 1,908,900
TOTAL 128,048,100 30.3 6,850,500
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targets. The exclusion criteria involve excluding research on phytochemicals, extracts, and fractions lacking biological
activity, as well as computer simulations and thorough reviews of bioactive substances. Additionally, studies that did not
examine interesting plants or those with insuciently reported information are also excluded, along with invivo studies
not utilizing models of diabetes or prediabetes. Reference to Fig.1 for the selection and screening of articles for study.
3 Results
3.1 A synopsis oftheincluded research
Using the database, a total of 35 articles were found. These articles were checked for eligibility and evaluated for rel-
evance according to inclusion criteria set. Hence, 17 were ultimately added (Fig.1). The bulk of these papers (11 total)
were ethnobotanical survey studies of plant usage in diabetes control. The remaining six publications dealt with invivo
studies on plant extracts or fractions that were antidiabetic.
3.2 Exploring traditional herbal remedies fordiabetes
A total of 140 plants were reported to be used traditionally in the management of DM among the local communities of
Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and DRC, (Table2). Among the reported plant 56.3% were from Kenya, 23.9% DRC, 15.49% and
4.2% from Tanzania. The 140-plant cut across fty-ve (55) dierent plant families, the most commonly reported fam-
ily are Asteraceae and Fabaceae with 30.9% each, this was followed closely by Solanaceae 18.18%, Lumiaceae 14.54%,
Apolynaceae 12.72%, Amaryllidaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Moraceae, Rutaceae and Urticaceae having 7.27% (Fig.2).
Fig. 1 Flow chart for selection
and screening of included and
excluded studies
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Table 2 East African traditional medicine for treating diabetic mellitus
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
1 Rosary
Pea
Fabaceae Abrus precatorius
subsp. precatorius
Kyuma Kyamditi
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/028 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
phenols, saponins
fever, inammation, and
snakebites
[64]
2 Scented
thorn
Fabaceae Vachellia nilotica (L.) Ngirũriti (Kikuyu) LNM14/16 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Bark, Root Decoction Tannins, avonoids, alkaloids,
and saponins
wounds, fever, and diar-
rhoea
[26]
3 Goats’
Weed
Asteraceae Ageratum cony-
zoides L
Akaddo Kanamirembe NA Uganda/central Leaf Decoctions alkaloids, benzofurans, bioactiv-
ity, chromenes, avonoids and
terpenoids
antimicrobe, arthrosis,
headache, dyspnea,
pneumonia, analgesic,
anti-in ammatory,
antiasthmatic and
antispasmodic
[23, 65]
4 Ajuga Lamiaceae Ajuga integrifolia
Buch.-Ham
Wanjiru wa Rurii
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/009 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf,
whole
plant
Decoction Flavonoids, phenolic acids, triter-
penes, iridoids
wounds, and as a sedative [64]
5 African
albizia
Fabaceae Albizia adianthifo-
lia(Schumach.)
W.Wight
Kasikeaze
(Tshokwe),Kapeta
nzovu (Bemba,
Luba)
512 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Leaf amd
Stem
bark
Decoction Flavonoids:kaempferol,
quercetin, and rutin,
Triterpenes:lupeol, betulinic
acid, and oleanolic acid,
Alkaloids:tryptamine,
β-carboline, and serotonergic
compounds
Syphilis, aphrodisiac,
hiccup
[2]
6 Albizia
tree
Fabaceae Albiziachinen-
sis(Osbeck) Merr
Omugavu NA Uganda/central Leaf, bark
and
roots
Infusion,
Decoction
triterpenoids, saponins, diter-
penoids lignans and pyridine
glycosides
rheumatism, stomach
ache, cough, diarrhoea,
wounds, anthelmintic
etc
[23, 66]
7 Onion Amarylli-
daceae
Allium Cepa L Matungu (Swahili) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Bulb Maceration avonoids (quercetin), allicin,
polyphenols
coughs, colds, sore throats [67]
8 Garlic Amarylli-
daceae
Allium sativum L Kitunguua kinene LKP 2010/014 Kenya/Eastern
province
Bulb Hot infu-
sion of
pounded
bulb
Allicin, alliin, ajoene ntimicrobial, antifungal,
antiviral, antiparasitic,
[64]
9 Alovera Asphode-
laceae
Aloe vera var Ekigaji, Subiri (Kiswa-
hili)
FN/011 Uganda/central,
DRC/ Oriental
province
Leaf whole Leaf
Decoction,
macera-
tion
avonoids, alkaloids, phenolic
acids, tannins, saponin glyco-
sides, anthraquinones, and
reducing sugars
malaria, blood cleansing,
stomach-ache, allergy,
yellow fever, worms,
fever, urinary tract
infections, wasting, and
scar removal
[23, 67, 68]
10 Graviola,
Soursop
Annon-
aceae
Anona muricate L Ekitafeli NA Uganda/central Fruit, bark,
root and
Leaf
Decoction,
Fruit are
eaten
annonacin, annonamine,
alkaloid,lichexanthone
infections with viruses or
parasites, rheumatism,
arthritis,depression
[23]
11 Jack fruit Moraceae Ar tocarpus hetero-
phyllus Lam
Ffene NA Uganda/central Seeds,
Fruit
Decotion,
Fruit are
eaten
Flavonoids (quercetin and
kaempferol), carotenoids (beta-
carotene and lutein), Saponins,
Tannins, alkaloids (artocarpine
and isomucronulatol)
diarrhoea, skin diseases,
asthma, high blood
pressure
[23]
12 Aspilia Asteraceae Aspilia pluriseta Sch-
weinf. ex Engl
Muti/Wut (Kamba) LKP 2010/008 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Flavonoids, phenolic acids, tan-
nins, terpenoids, saponins
fever, headache, and as an
anti-inammatory
[2, 64]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
13 African
star
apple
Malvaceae Azanza garckeana
(F.Hom.) Exell
& Hillc
Muti ya makamashi
(Swahili)
180 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Leaf Decoction Tannins: ellagitannins, gallic acid,
and ellagic acid, Flavonoids:
quercetin and kaempferol,
Alkaloids: ammodendrine and
N-methyltyramine
epilepsy, edema [2]
14 Neem tree Meliaceae Azardiracta indica
A. Juss
Mwarubaine (Kamba) LKP 2010/012 Kenya/Eastern
province
Stem bark/
Leaf
Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids, tannins
Malaria,fever, cough, [64]
15 Abys-
sinian
cherry
Melian-
thaceae
Bersama abyssinica
Fresen
Mukilyulu (Kamba) LKP 2010/017 Kenya/Eastern
province
Root bark Decoc tion Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids, tannins
malaria, fever [64]
16 African
dog-
wood
Meliaceae Bersama abyssinica
var. ugandensis
(Sprague) Verdc
Mshomoro (Swahili) NA Tanzania root, stem-
bark and
Leaf
Decoction phenolic acid, avonoids and
tannin
cardiovascular, cancer [34]
17 Bidens Asteraceae Bidens pilosa var.
alausensis (Kunth)
Sher
Kara (Luganda),
Mbaratuike (Kikuyu)
NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf,
Roots,
Stem,
Flowers
Infusion,
Decoc-
tion and
poultice
Flavonoids, Phenolic acids, Ter-
penoids, Carotenoids, Tannins,
Steroids, Alkaloids
treat malaria, fever,
diarrhoea, stomach-
ache, and respiratory
infections
[69]
18 Black-jack Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L Koko i limo
(Turumbu),
Koko ya limo
(Lokele),
Mbarika
(Kiswahili)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction avonoids, alkaloids, and
terpenoids
malaria, diarrhoea, coughs,
and wounds
[67]
19 Mustard
Greens
Brassi-
caceae
Brassica juncea (L) Ndunda (Kisoko) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction glucosinolates, Flavonoids,
alkaloids
respiratory infections and
digestive disorders
[67]
20 Wild Cab-
bage
Brassi-
caceae
Brassica oleracea L Shu (Kiswahili) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction Vitamins & Minerals, Calcium,
Iron
stomach ulcers, gastro-
intestinal problems,
eczema, psoriasis, cough
[67]
21 Cactus Cactaceae Cactus L Matomoko (Kamba) NA Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Squeeze juice
from fresh
Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids
constipation, wounds, and
as a diuretic
[64]
22 Natal
plum” or
“Ama-
tungulu
Apocyn-
aceae
Carissa edulis Vahl Mũkawa(Kikuyu) LNM14/24 Kenya/Nyamira
County,Nyeri
county, Tan-
zania,
Fruit, root
bark
Decoction Carissin, Quercetin, Betulinic acid,
Ursolic acid
rheumatism, gonorrhoea,
syphilis, rabies, herpes,
malaria
[26, 69]
23 Natal
Plum
Apocyn-
aceae
Carissa L Amatungulu NA Uganda/central Fruit Fruit are
eaten
anthocyanins, naringenin
4′-O-glucoside, quercetin
3-O-rhamnosyl-galactoside,
quercetin 3-O-rhamnosyl-
glucoside and ascorbic acid
Diarrhoea, scurvy, anae-
mia, anxiety, constipa-
tion, heart disease
[23, 70]
24 Cassia Fabaceae Cassia abbreviata
Oliv
Malandesi (Kamba) LKP 2010/005 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf/pods Decoction Anthraquinones, avonoids, phe-
nolic acids, tannins, terpenoids
constipation, skin diseases,
and as a laxative
[64]
25 Ringworm
bush
Fabaceae Cassia alata L Mapalata (Lingala),
Nkaya loto (Kiyombe),
Muharagwe (Swa-
hili), Mukaragwe
(Kikuyu)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction anthraquinones, saponins, tan-
nins, and avonoids
ringworm, eczema, fungal
infections
[67]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
26 coee
senna or
Negro
coee
Fabaceae Cassia occidentalis L Lukunda bajanyi
(Tshiluba),Mbaw-
mbaw (Kikongo)
1098 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Root or
whole
plant
Decoction Anthraquinones: chrysophanol,
emodin, and rhein, Flavonoids:
such as quercetin, kaempferol,
and rutin, Alkaloids: sennosides
A and B, cassioccidentalin A
and B, and oocystidiine
treat fever, coughs, and
colds
[2]
27 African
cassia
Fabaceae Cassia sieberiana DC Mugunga (Hemba)
Mununga
nunsi (Bemba, Lamba)
172 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Leaf Decoction Anthraquinones: chrysophanol,
emodin, and rhein, Flavonoids:
quercetin, kaempferol, and
rutin, Triterpenoids: lupeol,
ursolic acid, and betulinic acid
lactation induction,
verminosis
[2]
28 Rose Peri-
winkle
Apocyn-
aceae
Cheiridopsis
minor (L.Bolus)
H.E.K.Hartmann
Mauwa (Kiswahili) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction alkaloids (vincristine and vinblas-
tine), avonoids, terpenoids,
and phenolic acids
malaria, high blood pres-
sure, and cancer
[67]
29 Lemon Rutaceae Citrus limon (L) Burm Mti wa ndimu kali
(Kiswahili)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Fruit Juice Limonoids, avonoids, carot-
enoids, coumarins
detoxication and diges-
tion
[67]
30 Clematis Ranuncu-
laceae
Clematis hirsuta
Guill. & Perr
Mũgayang’ũndũ
(Kikuyu)
LNM14/10 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf, roots Decoction Alkaloids and avonoids headaches, toothaches,
and joint pain
[26]
31 Blue glory
bower
Lamiaceae Clerodendrum
myricoides R.Br. &
Vatke
Muvweia/Munguya
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/011 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids, saponins
fever, pain, and as an anti-
inammatory agent
[64]
32 False
Indigo
Lamiaceae Rotheca myricoides
var. discolor
(Klotzsch) Verdc
NA NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf, Roots Decoction alkaloids, tannins, avonoids,
saponins, and glycosides
coughs, fever, malaria,
stomach ache, dysen-
tery, and diarrhoea
[69]
33 Yellow top Asteraceae Crassocephalum
vitellinum Guinea
Ekilalaakuba NA Uganda/central Leaf Decotion Flavonoids (kaempferol
and quercetin), Alkaloids
(spilanthine),Steroids
(stigmasterol and sitosterol),
Terpenoids (β-caryophyllene
and α-humulene)
Malaria,diarrhoea,
vomiting,
constipation,coughs,
bronchitis, Wound
healing
[23]
34 Ornate
Crinum
Lily
Amarylli-
daceae
Crinium ornatum
var. speciosum Herb
NA NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction alkaloids and phenolic fever, headache, and
stomach disorders
[29]
35 Croton Euphorbi-
aceae
Croton macrostach-
yus Del
Mutundu/Kitundu
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/034 Kenya/Eastern
province
Root bark Decoc tion Diterpenoids, avonoids, tannins,
alkaloids
skin infections, wounds,
and malaria
[64]
36 African
Croton
Euphorbi-
aceae
Croton megalocar-
pus Hutch
Muthulu/Kithulu
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/018 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Diterpenes, alkaloids, avonoids,
terpenoids, phenols, tannins,
saponins
malaria, wounds, and
fungal infections
[64]
37 African
croton
or East
African
croton
Euphorbi-
aceae
Croton macros-
tachyus Hochst. ex
Delile
Muvule (Luganda),
Mugumo (Kikuyu),
Mkonge (Swahili)
NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf, bark,
and
roots
Decoction,
Infusion
Alkaloids, Flavonoids,
Tannins,Terpenoids, Sterols,
Saponins
Malaria, Stomach prob-
lems (such as diarrhoea
and dysentery), Wounds
and skin infections
(such as ringworm and
scabies), Respiratory
infections (such as
coughs and bronchitis),
Toothache
[69]
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Vol:.(1234567890)
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
38 Pumpkin Cucurbita-
ceae
Cucurbita maxima
Lam
Ensujjju NA Uganda/central Fruit Boil and
eaten
carotenoids, polyphenols
(avonols and phenolic acids),
tocopherols, vitamins (C, B1,
folates), minerals (K, Ca, Mg, Na,
Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn)
Constipation, arthritis,
prostatic hyperplasia
[23]
39 Lemon-
grass
Poaceae Cymbopogon citra-
tus (DC.) Stapf
Mchaichai, Majani
tshai (Kiswahili)
NA Tanzania/
Kilimanjaro
Region, DRC/
Oriental
province
Leaf, Stem,
Oil
extract
Decoction terpenes, alcohols, ketones,
aldehyde, avanoids, phenols,
citral, geraniol, limonene and
phenolic compounds
antipyretic/anti-malarial,
stimulant,
anti-spasmodic, jaundice
[67]
40 Yellow
yam
Diosco-
reaceae
Dioscorea praehen-
silis Benth
Amasoma MJM 3246 Tanzania/Kagera
Region
Tubers The tubers
are eaten
as food
Alkaloids, saponins, tannins,
terpenoids
malaria, rheumatism [32]
41 Steudner’s
Dragon
Tree
Aspara-
gaceae
Dracaena steudneri
Engl
Ithare (Kikuyu) LNM14/11 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Bark, Root Decoction Steroids, alkaloids, phenolics,
terpenoids
malaria [26]
42 Abys-
sinian
coral
Fabaceae Erythrina abyssinica
Lam
NA NA Uganda/Mpigi
Region
Stem bark Decoction Alk aloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, saponins, terpenoids
anaemia, birth control,
brain disorders, dehy-
dration
[71]
43 Ethiopian
coral
tree
Fabaceae Erythrina abyssinica
Lam
Kinsungu (Tabwa),
Isungwa
(Hemba), Katshiyit-
shiyi
(Luba)
174 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Root bark Decoc tion Alkaloids: er ythrabyssin II, eryth-
rabyssin IV, and erythrabyssin
N, Flavonoids: quercetin,
kaempferol, and myricetin,
Triterpenoids: oleanolic acid
and betulinic acid
hernia, sinusitis [2]
44 Eucalyp-
tus
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus ter-
eticornis subsp.
tereticornis
Musanduku (Kamba) NA Kenya/Eastern
province
Stem bark Decoction Flavonoids, phenolic acids, tan-
nins, terpenoids, saponins
respiratory infections,
fever, and as an anal-
gesic
[64]
45 Diviner’s
elder
Ebenaceae Euclea divinorum
Hiern
Kikuthi/Mukinyei
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/001 Kenya/Eastern
province
Root bark Decoc tion Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, tannins, terpenoids
cough, respiratory
infections, and as an
antiseptic
[64]
46 Natal
Ebony
Ebenaceae Euclea natalensis
A. DC
Mukinyei (Kamba) LKP 2010/029 Kenya/Eastern
province
Whole root Decoction Saponins, avonoids, alkaloids,
tannins, phenols
fever, malaria, and tooth-
ache
[64]
47 Bush
Guarri
Ebenaceae Euclea racemosa
Murr
Mukinyei (Kamba) LKP 2010/030 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf/stem
bark/
root
bark
Decoction Saponins, tannins, alkaloids,
avonoids
coughs, fever, and stom-
ach pains
[64]
48 Natal g Moraceae Ficus natalensis
Hochst
Muuomo/Kiumo
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/015 Kenya/Eastern
province
Fruit Cold infusion Flavonoids, phenolic acids, tan-
nins, terpenoids
diarrhoea, respiratory
infections, and as a
general tonic
[64]
49 Sandpa-
per Tree
Moraceae Ficus exasperata
Vahl
Lukenga (Ban-
gubangu)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction quercetin, kaempferol, rutin, a-
vonoids, tannins, and saponins
fever, diarrhoea, and res-
piratory tract infections
[67]
50 Saussure
g
Moraceae Ficus saussureana
DC
NA Uganda/Mpigi
Region
Stem bark,
Leaf
Decoction Flavonoids, tannins, phenolic
acids, terpenoids
fallopian tube blockage,
HIV/AIDS, infertility in
men, STIs
[71]
51 African
Fuerstia
Meliaceae Fuerstia africana
T.C.E.Fr
Kalaku (Kamba) LKP 2010/007 Kenya/Eastern
province
Aerial
parts
Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids
malaria, fever, and as a
general tonic
[64]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
52 Galinsoga Asteraceae Galinsoga Ruiz & Pav Mũng’ei (Kikuyu) LNM14/08 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf, Roots Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, terpenoids,
steroids
fever and malaria [26]
53 African
Mango-
steen
Clusiaceae Garcinia buchananii
Bak
Mukanga (Kamba) LKP 2010/032 Kenya/Eastern
province
stem bark Decoction Xanthones, benzophenones,
avonoids
skin infections, diarrhoea,
and coughs
[64]
54 Klatt’s
gladi-
olus
Iridaceae Gladiolus klattianus
Hutch
Kitala (Bemba),
Kitokatoka
(Luba)
306 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Bulb Decoction Saponins, Flavonoids, Alkaloids,
Triterpenoids
gonorrhea [2]
55 African
Mistle-
toe
Gnetaceae Gnetum africanum
Welw
Fumbwa (Lingala) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction avonoids, phenols, and tannins high blood pressure,and
stomach problems
[67]
56 Milkweed Apocyn-
aceae
Gomphocarpus
fruticosus L
Mũkangarithi (Kikuyu) LNM14/14 Kenya/Nyeri
county
seeds,
roots
Decoction Cardiac glycosides, triterpenoids,
avonoids
cancer [26]
57 Grewia Tiliaceae Grewia similis
K.Schum
Mũtheregendu
(Kikuyu)
LNM14/21 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Decoction Flavonoids, tannins, saponins diarrhoea, coughs, and
fever
[26]
58 African
red-
wood;
East
African
rose-
wood
Rosaceae Hagenia abyssinica
(Bruce) J.F.Gmel
Enjani engashe
(Maasai)
NA Tanzania/
Kilimanjaro
Region
Flower
and Leaf
extracts
Decoction kosin (a phloroglucinol), &
quercetin glucuronides
Helminthic infections,
Typhoid fever,
wound healing, epilepsy,
sexually transmitted
diseases, and symptomatic
ailments
[67]
59 Okra Malvaceae Hibiscus esculentus L Dongodongo (Lingala) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Fruit Decoction avonoids, tannins, and saponins urinary tract infections,
syphilis, and gastrointes-
tinal disorders
[67]
60 Hydnora Hydno-
raceae
Hydnora abyssinica
A
Mũthigira (Kikuyu) LNM14/17 Kenya/Nyeri
county
stem Decoction Tannins, alkaloids, and phenolic
compounds
asthma, epilepsy, and
infertility
[26]
61 Star ower
or
African
potato
Hypoxi-
daceae
Hypoxis obtuse
Burch. ex Ker
Gawl
Kifumbi NA Tanzania/ Kagera Corm Raw corm is
crushed,
boiled and
given
patients
avonoids, alkaloids, tannins, and
saponins
urinary tract infections,
stomach disorders, and
respiratory infections
62 Natal
Indigo
Fabaceae Indigofera arrecta
Benth. ex Harv
Akabamba NA Uganda/central Leaf Decoctions phenols, tannins, avonoids,
terpenoids, carbohydrates and
proteins
gum infections, snake-
bites, gonorrhoea,
epilepsy and jaundice
[23]
63 none Convolvu-
laceae
Ipomoea mauritiana
Jacq
Mivinje (Swahili),
Mugwabulu (Kikuyu)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Tubercule Decoction avonoids, alkaloids, and
saponins
fever, headache, dysen-
tery, diarrhoea
[67]
64 Barbados
nut
Euphorbi-
aceae
Jatropha curcas L Asangi (Bangubangu),
Mpuluka (Kikongo),
Mbarimbari (Swahili)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Bark Decoction curcin, phorbol esters, diterpenes
alkaloids, avonoids, and
terpenoids
skin infections, purgative
or laxative, skin injuries
[67]
65 Sausage
tree
Bignoni-
aceae
Kigelia africana
(Lam.)
Mkuyu (Swahili) NA Kenya, Embu Leaf Decoction Vitamin C,Vitamin B1,Vitamin
B3,Alkaloids,Total phenols,Tann
ins,Saponins,Flavonoids
ungal infections, boils,
psoriasis and eczema,
leprosy, syphilis, and
cancer
[72]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
66 Smooth
lettuce
Asteraceae Lactuca inermis
Forssk
Mũthũnga (Kikuyu) LNM14/01 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Chew the
Leaf or boil
the whole
plant
Lactucin, lactucopicrin, avo-
noids, phenolics
fever and insomnia [26]
67 Wild let-
tuce
Asteraceae Launaea cornuta
Hochst
NA BKM2010/005 Kenya Whole
plant
Decoction avonoids, terpenoids, and
alkaloids
liver and digestive
disorders
[29]
68 Horned
Goat’s-
beard
Asteraceae Protea gaguedi
subsp. laetans
(L.E.Davidson)
Beard
Mũthũnga (Kikuyu) LNM14/03 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Chew the
Leaf or boil
the whole
plant
Sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, phenolics
fever and malaria [26]
69 Lion’s ear Lamiaceae Leonatis mollisima Ekifumufumu NA Uganda/central Leaf Decoctions Sederin,hydroxylucidenic acid Malaria, anti snake venom [23]
70 Harms/
wild
liana
Fabaceae Lonchocarpus erio-
calyx Harms
Mkindu (Swahili) BKM2010/002 kenya/Tanzania Stem bark Decoc tion avonoids and alkaloids Malaria, Fever [29]
71 Maerua Cappar-
aceae
Maerua decumbens
(Brongn.) DeWolf
Munatha (Kamba) M.U.H/
MD/0021/17
Kenya/Marakwet Roots Decoction alkaloids,glycosides,avono
ids, phenolic compounds,
saponins, steroids, tannins and
terpenoids
malaria, fever, and coughs [73]
72 Mango Anacardi-
aceae
Magnifera indica L Mti wa hembe
(Kiswahili)
Nzete ya manga
(Lingala)
BKM2010/001 Kenya/Nyamira
County, DRC/
Oriental
province
Shoot,
Root
bark
Decoction Mangiferin, Gallic acid, Quercetin,
Beta-carotene, Lutein, Vitamin
C, Kaempferol, Chlorogenic
acid, Caeic acid, Ellagic acid,
Myricetin, Rutin, Catechins,
Epicatechins
high blood pressure,
diarrhoea
[29, 67, 69]
73 Bitter
melon
Cucurbita-
ceae
Momordica foetida
Schumach
Iphunzu (Kamba) LKP 2010/002 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, saponins, terpenoids
malaria, fever [64]
74 Bitter
Melon
or
Gourd
Cucurbita-
ceae
Momordica breteleri
H.Schaef
Iphunzu (Kamba) NA Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins malaria [64]
75 bitter
gourd
Cucurbita-
ceae
Momordica char-
antia L
mara kwamara
(Swahili), dooda
(Luganda), entula
(Runyankole)
NA Uganda/Tanza-
nia/Moshi
Fruit tea, juice, or
in cooking
alkaloids, avonoids, and
saponins
malaria, constipation, and
skin infections
[74]
76 White’s
ginger
or
African
ginger
Apocyna-
cea
Mondia whytei Omulondo NA Uganda/central Roots Decoction 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzalde-
hyde, isovanillin, steroids and
triterpenes
male infertility, aph-
rodisiac, gonorrhea, con-
stipation, bilharziasis,
stress and tension
[23, 75]
77 Brimstone
Tree
Rubiaceae Morinda lucida
Benth
Bokakate
(Turumbu)
Mulambu
(Bangubangu et
Tshiluba)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf, bark
and
roots
Maceration,
Decoction
Alkaloids, iridoids, triterpenoids fever and malaria [67]
78 Morinda Rubiaceae Morinda morin-
doides (Baker)
Milne-Redh
Kongobololo (Kin-
yanzi) Mesokhama
(Kikongo)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction Anthraquinones, iridoids, triter-
penoids
No information available [67]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
79 Moringa;
Drum-
stick
tree
Morin-
gaceae
Moringa oleifera
Lam
Mlonge NA Tanzania/
Kilimanjaro
Region, Kenya/
Nyeri county
Flowers
Pods/
seeds
Roots Leaf
Commonly
grounded
into pow-
der for mix-
ing, chew
seeds
Salicylic and ferulic acids,
Flavonoids (quercetin, kaemp-
ferol), alkaloids (moringine),
Phenolic acids (gallic acid,
chlorogenic acid), terpe-
noids (β-caryophyllene and
α-humulene)
avonoids, phenolic acids, glu-
cosinolates
and isothiocanates, tannins and
saponins
hypertension, HIV/AIDS-
related
symptoms, stimulates
breastmilk production
[26]
80 African
box-
wood
Primula-
ceae
Myrsine africana L M ũgaita (Kikuyu) LNM14/26 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Fruit Decoction Tannins, avonoids, alkaloids,
and saponins
coughs, stomachaches,
and skin conditions
[26]
81 Sweet
Basil
Lamiaceae Ocimum basilicum L Mutaa (Kamba) LKP 2010/021 Kenya/Eastern
province
Whole
plant/
Leaf
Pounded
Leaf cold
infusion/
Decoction
Phenols, avonoids, tannins,
terpenoids
gastrointestinal disorders,
inammation, and stress
[64]
82 Olive Oleaceae Olea europaea L Molialundi (Kamba) LKP 2010/033 Kenya/Eastern
province
stem bark/
Whole
root
Decoction Polyphenols, avonoids, triter-
penoids
high blood pressure,
inammation, and
digestive disorders
[64]
83 African
olive
Oleaceae Olea africana Mill Mũtero (Kikuyu) LNM14/27 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf, root Decoction Oleuropein, hydroxytyrosol, and
avonoids
malaria, fever, and respira-
tory problems
[26]
84 Ormosia Fabaceae Ormocarpum kirkii S.
Moore
Muthii (Kamba) LKP 2010/024 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Saponins, avonoids, tannins,
alkaloids
malaria, diarrhoea, and
fever
[64]
85 Narrow-
Leafd
Star of
Bethle-
hem
Aspara-
gaceae
Ornithogalum
tenuifolium F
Mũgwace (Kikuyu) LNM14/22 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Rhizome Decoc tion Anthocyanins, saponins, avo-
noids, alkaloids, glycosides,
tannins
skin diseases, inamma-
tion, fever, diarrhoea,
snakebites
[26]
86 Oxygo-
num
Oxali-
daceae
Oxygonium sinu-
atum (Meisn.)
Song’e (Kamba) LKP 2010/020 Kenya/Eastern
province
Whole
plant
Cold infu-
sion of
pounded
whole
plant
Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
phenols, saponins
gastrointestinal disorders,
fever, and inammation
[64]
87 Panda
Berry
Pandaceae Panda oleosa Pierre Okali (Lingala) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Bark Decoction No information available [67]
88 Passion
ower
Passio-
raceae
Passiora
oaxacana (Killip)
H.T.Svoboda
Makundi (Kamba) NA Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids
anxiety, insomnia, and as a
sedative
[64]
89 Passion
Flower
Passio-
raceae
Passiora subpeltata Makundi (Kamba) LKP 2010/025 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
phenols, saponins
anxiety, insomnia,
and gastrointestinal
disorders
[64]
90 Fruit red Menisper-
maceae
Penianthus longifo-
lius Miers
NA NA DRC/Oriental
province
Bark Maceration alkaloids and avonoids malaria, fever, stomach
problems
[67]
91 Periploca Apocyn-
aceae
Periploca linearifolia
Quart.-Dill. &
A.Rich
Mwembaiguru
(Kikuyu)
LNM14/0 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf, Stem Decoction Cardiac glycosides, triterpenoids,
avonoids
snake bites and malaria [26]
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Vol:.(1234567890)
Review Discover Applied Sciences (2024) 6:312 | https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-024-05970-7
Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
92 Avacado Lauraceae Persea americana
Mill
Ovakedo, Avocado
(Swahili)
NA Uganda/central,
DRC/ Oriental
province
seeds,
Fruit and
Leaf
Fruit are
eaten,
Decoction,
avocado
paste
Carotenoids, Polyphenols, Fatty
acids, vitamin C, vitamin E, vita-
min K, potassium, magnesium,
and copper
eczema, psoriasis, and
wounds
[23]
93 Wild Date
Palm
Arecaceae Phoenix reclinate
Jacq
Empirivuma NA Uganda/central seeds Edible tanins, avonoids and saponins backpain, stomach ache,
toothache, headache,
arthritis, pain of but-
tocks, piles, nervous
debility
[23]
94 Coleus for-
skohlii
Lamiaceae Plectranthus barba-
tus var. barbatus
NA NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf consumed
as a tea,
Decoction
forskolin, rosmarinic acid, and
avonoids
respiratory disorders,
digestive problems, and
skin conditions
[69]
95 Red stink-
wood
Rosaceae Prunus africana
Hook.f
Mũiri (Kikuyu) LNM14/20 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf, bark Decoction Phytosterols, triterpenes, and
avonoids
prostate problems and
fever
[26]
96 Quinine
tree
Apocyn-
aceae
Rauvola cara Sond Mutalala (Bemba) 6046 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Leaf and
stem
Infusions,
Decoc-
tions and
poultrice
Alkaloids: reserpine, yohim-
bine, and ajmalicine, Tannins,
Flavonoids
malaria, tuberculosis,
antibacterial
[2]
97 Swahili
Snake
Root
Apocyn-
aceae
Rauvola vomitoria
Afzel
Isumbubululu
(Bangubangu),
Mubilizi
(Kiswahili)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Root bark Decoc tion alkaloids (reserpine, rescin-
namine, and ajmaline),
avonoids, terpenoids, and
phenolic acids
fever, high blood pressure,
anxiety, and gastrointes-
tinal disorders
[67]
98 Buckthorn Rham-
naceae
Rhamnus prinoides
L’Hér
Mũkarakinga (Kikuyu) LNM14/18 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Roots, bark Decoction Anthraquinones, tannins, and
avonoids
constipation, stomach-
aches, and skin condi-
tions
[26]
99 Bush
violet
Lamiaceae Rotheca myricoides
(Hochst.) Steane &
Mabb
Munjugairia LNM14/09 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf, roots,
Bark
Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phe-
nolicege acids, terpenoids,
saponins
Athritis, typhoid, cough,
rheumatism, gonorrhea,
[26, 76]
100 Curious
weed
Asteraceae Schkuhria pinnata
(Lam.) Cabrera
NA BKM2010/004 Kenya Whole
plant
Decoction avonoids, terpenoids, and
sesquiterpene lactones
fever, inammation, and
respiratory infections
[29]
101 Cabbage
Tree
Oleaceae Schrebera alata
(Hochst.) Welw
Mutoma (Kamba) LKP 2010/031 Kenya/Eastern
province
Stem bark/
Root/
Leaf
Cold infusion Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
saponins
malaria, stomach aches,
and snake bites
[64]
102 African
Senna
Fabaceae Senna didymobotrya
(Fres.)
Muthaa/Ithaa (Kamba) LKP 2010/019 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Hot infusion Anthraquinones, saponins, avo-
noids, tannins
laxative and to treat snake-
bites and gastrointesti-
nal disorders
[64]
103 Senna Fabaceae Senna singueana
(Del.) Lock
Mukengeka (Kamba) LKP 2010/013 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Anthraquinones, saponins, avo-
noids, tannins
Laxative, treatment of skin
diseases and fever
[64]
104 bitter
apple
Solanaceae Solanum incanum L Mukondu/Mutungu
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/022 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Solanine, solasonine, Alkaloids,
avonoids, saponins, phenols,
tannins
fever, rheumatism, and
cough
[64]
105 Rensch’s
Night-
shade
Solanaceae Solanum renschii
Vatke
Mukonda Kondu
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/027 Kenya/Eastern
province
Whole
root/
Leaf
Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
phenols, saponins
gastrointestinal disorders
and inammation
[64]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
106 Bitter
tomato
Solanaceae Solanum aethiopi-
cum L
Entula NA Uganda/central Fruit Decoctions Alkaloids (solanine, solasonine,
and solamargine), Flavonoids
(kaempferol, quercetin, and
rutin), sterols (stigmasterol and
beta-sitosterol) triterpenoids
(solamargine, solasonine, and
solasodine) and glycoalkaloids
(solanine, solasonine, and
solamargine)
Fever, constipation, diar-
rhoea, stomach ache,
cough, asthma, bronchi-
tis, acne, eczema, and
psoriasis
[23]
107 Gilo Solanaceae Solanum gilo Raddi Nyanya (Kiswahili) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Root Decoction Steroidal alkaloids, avonoids,
saponins
[67]
108 Bitter Ber-
ries
Solanaceae Solanum indicum
Roxb
Katunkuma NA Uganda/central Fruit Decoction skin problems, ulcers,
diculties breathing,
stomach aches, cough-
ing, and dyspepsia
[23]
109 Brihati or
Indian
night-
shade
Solanaceae Solanum indicum L Mnavu (Swahili) NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf, roots
and
Fruit
Decoction,
Fruit are
eaten
alkaloids, avonoids, glycosides,
tannins, and saponins
Respiratory ailments,
Digestive issues, Joint
pain, Skin infections
[69]
110 Maué
night-
shade
Solanaceae Solanum mauense
Bitter
NA NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf,
stems,
roots,
and
owers
Decoction Not available [69]
111 Egg plant Solanaceae Solanum melon-
gena L
Bilinganya NA Uganda/central Fruit and
Leaf
Decoction,
Fruit are
eaten
N-trans-Feruloyl tyramine,
N-trans-p-Coumaroyl
tyramine, N-cis-p-Coumaroyl
tyramine, Ferul aldehyde,
6,7-Dimethoxycoumarin,Ficusal,
Acarbose,1-Deoxynojirimycin
rheumatism, beriberi, itch-
ing, toothache, bleed-
ing, asthma, bronchitis,
cholera, neuralgia and
hemorrhoids
[23, 40]
112 Black
Night-
shade
Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L Makeke (Kiswahili) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Fruit Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolics,
steroids
skin diseases [67]
113 Prickly
Sowthis-
tle
Asteraceae Sonchus asper L Mũthũnga (Kikuyu) LNM14/05 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Chew the
Leaf or boil
the whole
plant
Sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, phenolics
treat inammation [26]
114 Mediter-
ranean
sowthis-
tle
Asteraceae Sonchus luxurian Mũthũnga (K ikuyu) LNM14/04 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Chew the
Leaf or boil
the whole
plant
Sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, phenolics
[26]
115 Sowthistle Asteraceae Sonchus oleraceus L Mũthũnga (Kikuyu) LNM14/02 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Chew the
Leaf or boil
the whole
plant
Sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, phenolics
liver ailments [26]
116 Toothache
Plant
Asteraceae Spilanthes mauri-
tiana (A.Rich. ex
Pers.)
Gathariaita (Kikuyu) LNM14/30 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Whole
plant
Decoction Sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, phenolics
malaria and fever [26]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
117 Ethiopian
Carrot
Apiaceae Steganotaenia arali-
acea Hoch
Muvuavui (Kamba) LKP 2010/023 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
saponins
respiratory ailments,
malaria, and fever
[64]
118 Henning’s
strych-
nos
Logani-
aceae
Strychnos hen-
ninggsii Gilg
Muteta (Kamba) LKP 2010/004 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids, saponins
malaria, fever [64]
119 spiny-fruit
strych-
nos
Logani-
aceae
Strychnos spinosa
Lam
Sansa (Bemba), Kison-
gole (Luba)
519 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Root bark Decoc tion quinones, iridoids, triterpenoids,
alkaloids, avonoids, tannins,
and phenolic
Abdominal pain, dysen-
tery, gonorrhea
[2]
120 Java plum Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.)
Skeels
Jambula NA Uganda/central seeds and
Fruit
Infusions and
Decoctions
anthocyanins, glucoside, ellagic
acid, isoquercetin, kaemferol
and myrecetin
sore throat, bronchitis,
asthma, thirst, bilious-
ness, dysentery and
ulcers
[23, 77]
121 Malabar
plum
Myrtaceae Syzygium cuminii (L.) Telezia (Kiswahili) NA DRC/Oriental
province
Fruit Decoction Eugenol, tannins, avonoids,
triterpenoids
[67]
122 Tamarind Fabaceae Tamarindus indica
Linn
Kithumula (Kamba) LKP 2010/003 Kenya/Eastern
province
Root bark,
fruit
Decoction Flavonoids, phenolic acids, tan-
nins, terpenoids, alkaloids
constipation, diarrhoea,
fever
[64]
123 Teclea Rutaceae Teclea simplicifolia
I.Verd
Mũnderendu (Kikuyu) LNM14/25 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, and
terpenoids
malaria, fever, and skin
conditions
[26]
124 Brown’s
Termi-
nalia
Combreta-
ceae
Terminalia brownie
Fres
Muuuku/Kiuuku
(Kamba)
LKP 2010/016 Kenya/Eastern
province
Stem bark Decoction Triterpenoids, avonoids diarrhoea, wounds, and
fever
[64]
125 Tropical
almond
tree
Combreta-
ceae
Terminalia catappa L Madame´ (Lin-
gala), Kalanga ya
Wazungu
(Kiswahili), Mung’ano
(Kikuyu)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction tannins, avonoids, and alkaloids treat diarrhoea, dysentery,
digestive disorders,
wounds, rashes, and
burns
[67]
126 none Dilleni-
aceae
Tetracera poggei
Gilg
NA NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction poggein, triterpenoids, avo-
noids, and alkaloids
fever, headache, diarrhoea
and dysentery
[67]
127 Forest
Bells
Acan-
thaceae
Thomandersia hensii
De wild
Ikoka (Turumbu)
Liowa (Topoke),
Mugandagana
(Swahili)
NA DRC/Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction alkaloids, avonoids, and
terpenoids
fever, malaria, and respira-
tory infections
[29]
128 African
wild
orange
Rutaceae Toddalia asiatica (L.)
Lam
NA NA Uganda/Mpigi
Region
Leaf, bark Decoction Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids, coumarins
anaemia, aphrodisiac,
brain disorders,
diarrhoea, HIV/AIDS,
hypertension, menstrual
cramps, NA typhoid
fever, snake bite
[71]
129 Typha Typhaceae Typha domingensis
Pers
Ndothua (Kikuyu) LNM14/15 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Rhizome Decoc tion Flavonoids, phenols, tannins,
terpenoids, alkaloids
dysentery, diarrhoea, and
inammation
[26]
130 Stinging
nettle
Urticaceae Ultrica dioica L Muthakwa(Kikuyu),
Musawo (Luganda)
NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Leaf, roots,
and
seeds
tea or tinc-
ture
Flavonoids, Lectins, Lignans,
Triterpenoids, Sterols, Phenolic
acids
allergies, arthritis, and
urinary tract infections
[69]
131 Massaica
nettle
Urticaceae Urtica massaica
Mildbr
Kinyeleelya (Kamba) LKP 2010/010 Kenya/Eastern
province
Leaf Decoction of
pounded
Leaf
Flavonoids, phenolic acids, ster-
ols, triterpenes, tannins
anaemia, hypertension,
and as a diuretic
[64]
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Table 2 (continued)
S/
No.
English
name
Family
Name
Scientic name Local name Voucher No Country/Region Part Used Preparation
of fraction
Active compounds Other uses References
132 Small-
fruited
Bridelia
Euphorbi-
aceae
Bridelia micrantha
(Hochst.) Baill
Mshamako MJM 3166 Tanzania/Kenya Root Roots are
boiled with
water to
make decoc-
tion which
is drank
Flavonoids, phenolic acids, ster-
ols, triterpenes, tannins
yellow fever, malaria,
amenorrea and dysmenor-
rhea
[26]
133 Natalie Asteraceae Melanthera scandens
subsp. scandens
Ekarwe GH18-017 Kenya/Uganda shrub shade dry,
grind into
powder and
drink in
porridge/
tea
avonoids, alkaloids, and
terpenes
arthritis, asthma, and
other respiratory condi-
tions
[29]
134 Bitter Leaf Asteraceae Vernonia amygy-
dalina Del
Omululuza, Kiluluku-
nju (Kiswahili)
NA Uganda/central,
DRC/ Oriental
province
Leaf Decoction Vernoniosides, Steroidal sapo-
nins, Sesquiterpene lactones,
Flavonoids
anti-helminth, anti-malar-
ial, laxative, digestive
tonic, appetizer, febri-
fuge and for the topical
treatment of wounds
[23, 67]
135 Ethiopian
iron-
weed
Asteraceae Vernonia auriculifera
Hiern
omubilizi (Luganda) NA Kenya/Nyamira
County,
Uganda,
Tanzania
Leaf, roots,
and
stem
bark
Decoctions sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, alkaloids, phenolic acids,
chlorogenic acid, rutin, and
quercetin
dysentery and stomach
ache
[69]
136 Ironweed Asteraceae Vernonia lasiopus
O.Hom
Mũchatha (Kikuyu) LNM14/23 Kenya/Nyeri
county
Leaf Decoction Sesquiterpene lactones, avo-
noids, phenolics
malaria and fever [26]
137 African
lilac
Lamiaceae Vitex madiensis Oliv Mufutu (Luba), Mufute
Kinka
(Bemba)
1247 DRC/Lubum-
bashi
Leaf, roots infusion,
Decoction,
or tincture
iridoids, avonoids, terpenoids,
agnuside and essential oils
asthma, anaemia, diar-
rhoea, premenstrual
syndrome, malaria
[2]
138 East
African
green-
heart,
pepper
bark
tree,
and
Ugan-
dan
green-
heart
Canel-
laceae
Warburgia ungan-
densis subsp.
ugandensis
Abasi NA Kenya/Uganda bark and
roots
Decoction essential oils, avonoids, alka-
loids, tannins, and coumarins
pneumonia, asthma,
malaria, candidiasis,
skin infections, human
immunodeciency virus
opportunistic infections,
diarrhoea, and measles
[69, 78]
139 Ashwa-
gandha
Solanaceae Withania somnifera
(L.) Dunal
Mwianzo (Kamba) LKP 2010/026 Kenya/Eastern
province
Whole root Cold infusion Alkaloids, steroidal lactones,
avonoids
adaptogen, anti-inam-
matory, and to boost
immune function
[64]
140 Ironwood Rutaceae Zanthoxylum cha-
lybeum Engl
Mukenea (Kamba) LKP 2010/006 Kenya/Eastern
province
Stem bark Decoction/
hot infu-
sion
Alkaloids, avonoids, phenolic
acids, terpenoids
fever, pain, and as an anti-
inammatory agent
[64]
NA not available
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3.2.1 Plants utilized formanaging Diabetes mellitus inUganda
Uganda’s rich cultural heritage has a long-standing tradition of using medicinal plants to treat a range of health issues,
including DM. Among the 22 plants reported for DM management in Uganda from this study, notable species include
Ageratum conyzoides, Albizia chinensis, Aloe vera var, and Vernonia amygdalina [15, 18, 22, 23], among others (see Table2).
These indigenous plants have a well-established reputation for their ecacy in DM treatment, with deep roots in Ugan-
dan folklore and traditional healing practices. Traditional medicine in Uganda makes use of specic parts of these plants,
primarily focusing on the fruits, leaves, and roots [18]. Fruits are central to the traditional methods of managing DM
remedies in Uganda. Bitter melon, scientically known as Momordica charantia, is famed for its bitter fruits, attributed to
their potential blood sugar-lowering properties, it is consumed as tea, juice or in cooking. Some individuals in Uganda
juice bitter melon and consume it as a beverage, they usually combine it with other fruits or adding a bit of lemon to
help mask the bitterness [15, 19]. Many parts of Uganda serve it with a groundnut (peanut) sauce, which adds a creamy
and nutty avour to the dish serve, this serve alongside staples like posho (maize meal) or rice [19]. Anona muricata, is
another standout, with its fruits being a key component of DM remedies. The fresh soursop fruit is commonly consumed
by either scooping out the sweet, pleasantly avoured esh or by juicing it. Anona muricata leaf tea is another popular
approach, with dried leaves steeped in hot water to create herbal tea believed to oer antidiabetic benets when con-
sumed regularly [20, 21]. Some individuals opt for soursop leaf extracts or tinctures, which provide a more concentrated
form of the active compounds and can be diluted in water for controlled consumption. Additionally, Anona muricata
is incorporated into various traditional recipes, including smoothies, desserts, stews, and curries, as part of the local
approach to utilizing soursop for its potential antidiabetic properties [22]. Leaves are another vital plant part utilised
in traditional medicine. Aloe vera var, known for its succulent leaves, is processed into a gel for a variety of therapeutic
applications, including potential DM management, many Ugandans use it as dietary supplement, and its gel, extracted
from the inner leaf, is consumed in various ways, such as mixing it with water or other beverages [22]. Ageratum cony-
zoides, referred to locally as “billy goat weed,” is also prized for its leaves with anti-diabetic potential. People in Uganda
often used to create herbal infusions or teas by drying the leaves and steeping them in hot water, with the belief that this
herbal tea possesses medicinal properties for managing diabetes [22]. Additionally, the leaves are processed to extract
compounds that are thought to help regulate blood sugar levels, and these extracts are consumed in controlled amounts.
Fig. 2 Families of plant species investigated
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Furthermore, Ageratum conyzoides leaves are incorporated into traditional recipes, such as soups and stews, aiming to
introduce their potential health benets into the local diet [23]. Vernonia amygdalina, known as “bitter leaf” is commonly
integrated into local cuisine and traditional remedies among the locals of Uganda. They frequently employed it in the
preparation of vegetable soups and stews, where the leaves are meticulously washed, nely chopped, and included in
these dishes, contributing to their avour and nutritional content. Additionally, some locals dried the leaves to produce
bitter leaf tea, an herbal infusion believed to oer potential health advantages, including potential antidiabetic eects.
Some individuals opt for bitter leaf extracts, derived from the leaves, which can be consumed in controlled quantities
due to the belief in their ability to help regulate blood sugar levels. Bitter leaf’s versatility also extends to its incorporation
into various traditional recipes, often combined with other locally available vegetables and ingredients, as an integral
component of local dishes[23, 24]. Additionally, the roots of Ficus saussureana are incorporated into traditional formula-
tions, attributed to their anti-diabetic eects [18, 22]. In Uganda, medicinal herbs are traditionally prepared using two
primary methods decoction and infusion [25]. These plants oer a diverse array of options for those seeking alternative
remedies for diabetes. The choice of specic plant parts and traditional preparation methods reects the accumulated
knowledge and experience of Ugandan traditional healers over generations. The integration of this traditional knowl-
edge with modern scientic research holds promise for advancing diabetes treatment options, oering the potential
for eective, evidence-based therapies.
3.2.2 Plants utilized formanaging Diabetes mellitus inKenya
In Kenya, a substantial repertoire of seventy-nine (79) locally employed plant species has been documented for the treat-
ment of DM Table2. These plants are sourced for their fruits, roots, leaves, and stems, signifying a diverse range of plant
parts utilised in traditional remedies. Some notable species include Acacia nilotica, Allium sativum (Garlic), Azadirachta
indica (Neem), and Bidens pilosa, among others. In various regions of Kenya, Acacia nilotica, is traditionally utilized as a
potential antidiabetic remedy. Its various parts, including the bark, leaves, and pods, are employed in distinct ways. The
bark is dried and steeped in hot water to create herbal infusions or teas, believed to have antidiabetic properties [14, 26].
The leaves are dried, crushed, and used in the preparation of teas or extracts for potential medicinal benets. Addition-
ally, the pods are processed and consumed in various forms, such as boiling, grinding into powder, or integration into
traditional recipes, all depending on local customs and practices. Allium sativum, is a versatile and widely used plant
with both culinary and potential medicinal applications. As a staple ingredient in Kenyan cuisine, garlic adds avour and
enhances the taste of a diverse array of dishes, spanning from soups and stews to vegetable and meat-based meals [27].
Beyond its culinary role, garlic features prominently in traditional herbal remedies, where it is believed to oer potential
antidiabetic and cardiovascular benets [28]. In these remedies, some individuals either consume garlic cloves directly
or incorporate it into herbal preparations. Furthermore, garlic is used to create garlic-infused oils or vinegars, which not
only enhance culinary creations but are also consumed as health tonics. Azadirachta indica is employed for potential
antidiabetic purposes through various methods in Kenya. Neem leaves are widely used in Kenyan traditional remedies
and are either chewed or prepared as a tea or infusion, with neem leaf tea believed to possess antidiabetic properties
and often consumed regularly [16, 27]. Neem extracts, encompassing neem leaf extracts and neem oil, are harnessed
for their potential medicinal benets and consumed in controlled amounts. Neem bark and twigs nd application in
some traditional practices, notably for dental hygiene, a signicant consideration given the impact of diabetes on oral
health. In Kenya, Bidens pilosa, is employed in various forms for potential antidiabetic purposes. Herbal infusions serve
as the most common method of preparation which are commonly made by drying the leaves and steeping them in hot
water to create an herbal tea, believed to oer potential antidiabetic benets and consumed regularly [14, 29]. Most of
the herbal preparations include the leaves, stems, or the entire plant often in the form of decoctions or tinctures, are
consumed. Additionally, Bidens pilosa is incorporated into traditional Kenyan recipes and local dishes example Sukuma
wiki, where it is cooked and forms part of the traditional diet. The comprehensive list also encompasses plant species like
Kigelia africana, Olea europaea and Prunus africana, illustrating the varied plant-based approaches to DM treatment in
Kenyan traditional medicine [14]. In Kenya, the traditional use of medicinal plants for managing DM is deeply ingrained
in the country’s cultural heritage. The extensive variety of plant species and plant parts employed for DM treatment
reects the rich indigenous knowledge of the local communities. The use of decoction and infusion as primary prepara-
tion methods underlines the versatility and adaptability of traditional remedies to suit the unique characteristics of each
plant species [30]. As modern medicine explores the potential benets of these plants, their integration with scientic
research oers a promising avenue for advancing DM treatment options, harnessing the power of nature to tackle a
growing global health concern.
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3.2.3 Plants utilized formanaging Diabetes mellitus inTanzania
Tanzania, like its East African counterparts, has a rich tradition of utilising medicinal plants for various health applica-
tions, including the management of DM. A selection of plant species has garnered signicant attention and study in
the realm of traditional medicine, with some of them being extensively researched. In this study 10 of these plants
were mentioned notable among these are Bersama abyssinica, Dioscorea praehensilis Benth, Hagenia abyssinica, Hypoxis
obtusa, and Moringa oleifera Table2. In Tanzania, Dioscorea praehensilis, particularly its roots and tubers, is esteemed for
its potential antidiabetic properties and is incorporated into Tanzanian culinary and traditional practices in various ways.
The tubers of Dioscorea praehensilis are commonly cooked or boiled and integrated into Tanzanian meals, oering a deli-
cious and nutritious addition while being believed to possess potential antidiabetic benets [31]. Furthermore, herbal
infusions or teas are crafted from tubers or other parts of the plant, esteemed for their perceived medicinal properties
and their consumption for potential antidiabetic eects. Moreover, Dioscorea praehensilis nds its place in traditional
Tanzanian recipes, where it becomes an integral ingredient in soups, stews, or side dishes, often harmoniously combined
with other components to form a “Mboga na Mtori wa Boga”a local Tanzanian dish. These practices reect local beliefs
in the antidiabetic potential of Dioscorea praehensilis [6, 17]. In traditional Tanzanian antidiabetic management, Moringa
oleifera, often referred to as the drumstick tree or horseradish tree, plays a signicant role through various preparations
and administration methods. Moringa leaf powder, derived from drying and nely grinding the leaves, is frequently
used as a dietary supplement and is incorporated into a variety of dishes, such as soups, stews, and smoothies [32]. It is
esteemed for its nutritional support and potential in regulating blood sugar levels. Herbal infusions made from dried
Moringa leaves are another common practice, where steeping these leaves in hot water yields an herbal tea believed
to possess antidiabetic properties. Additionally, Moringa oil, typically recognized for its skincare benets, is occasion-
ally utilized in culinary preparations or as part of the diet, contributing to overall health. Moringa seeds are consumed
directly or included in recipes, believed to oer potential health advantages, including their role in diabetes manage-
ment [33]. Similarly, in Tanzanian traditional medicine, various parts of Bersama abyssinica, including the bark and leaves,
have been utilized for their potential antidiabetic properties [34]. Preparations are done by making herbal infusions or
teas this is achieved through drying the bark and steeping it in hot water, resulting in an herbal tea believed to possess
antidiabetic benets and consumed regularly. Additionally, the leaves of the tree are prepared by decoctions or tinctures
and consumed in controlled amounts in management of DM [17, 32]. Moreover, Bersama abyssinica may be integrated
into various recipes and preparations, often combined with other locally available herbs and plants, as part of traditional
practices aimed at managing DM. These plants, among others, have been explored for their potential anti-diabetic
properties. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the scientic validation of the antidiabetic properties of
these traditional remedies. A study conducted by Zekeya etal. [34] provided conrmation of the antidiabetic properties
of Bersama abyssinica. This research adds a layer of credibility to the traditional knowledge held by Tanzanian communi-
ties. It underscores the potential of traditional herbs to contribute to the management of diabetes and highlights the
importance of integrating traditional practices with modern scientic research. Decoction and infusion have established
themselves as the most commonly employed methods among Tanzanian communities.
3.2.4 Plants utilized formanaging Diabetes mellitus inDRC
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is home to a diverse array of medicinal plants with potential antidiabetic
properties. In this study 38 of these plants were mentioned, these plants, including Allium cepa L. (Onion), Azanza garck-
eana, Bidens pilosa L., Brassica juncea (L) and Cassia occidentalis L. (Table2), represent a rich pharmacopoeia deeply rooted
in the traditional healing practices of the region [2, 10]. Alongside these, species like Bersama abyssinica (Meliathacea),
Ficus exasperata Vahl, and Vernonia amygdalina [34–36] have been explored for their antidiabetic potential. While the
study by Zekeya etal. [34] supports the antidiabetic properties of Bersama abyssinica, further scientic research is needed
to fully comprehend the ecacy and safety of these plants in diabetes management. The preparation of remedies
commonly involves traditional methods such as decoction and infusion, which play a vital role in extracting bioactive
compounds from plant parts, making these plants valuable assets in the ght against diabetes in DRC. For example,
in DRC, traditional practices involving Allium cepa L. as a potential antidiabetic remedy take various forms. Raw onion
consumption is a common method, with raw onions frequently featured in salads and various dishes, as it is believed to
contribute to the regulation of blood sugar levels [13]. Additionally, onion tea, created by steeping slices or small pieces
of onion in hot water, is a popular choice. This aromatic infusion is enjoyed as a beverage and is thought to harbour
potential antidiabetic eects. Furthermore, herbal extracts are crafted from onions through the process of maceration
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or crushing of fresh onion pieces, followed by soaking them in a solvent, usually water. These herbal extracts are admin-
istered in controlled amounts and are believed to harness antidiabetic properties, reecting the rich tradition of using
natural remedies like onions in the management of diabetes in the region [2]. Furthermore, in DRC, Azanza garckeana,
known as the “African Ordeal Tree” or “Mbugu,” is traditionally administered in various ways to harness its potential anti-
diabetic benets. One method involves the consumption of Azanza garckeana fruit, which is incorporated into dishes in
raw form or as an ingredient. This practice is rooted in the belief in the fruit’s potential to aid in diabetes management
[10]. Additionally, Azanza garckeana leaves and other plant parts are used to create herbal infusions and teas, achieved
by drying the plant material and steeping it in hot water. The resulting tea is enjoyed as a beverage, with the hope of
delivering antidiabetic eects. Herbal extracts from Azanza garckeana are also crafted by macerating or crushing plant
material and soaking it in water, oering a controlled means of consumption and further reinforcing the plant’s reputa-
tion for its perceived antidiabetic properties [2].
Dierent plant parts were reported to be used in the preparation of herbal extract with leaf forming (50.7%) as the
most commonly used part, followed by roots (9.15%) and stem bark (7.74%). The other plant parts used are fruits, whole
plants, seeds, tubers, tubules, corm, aerial parts, bulbs and cloves. The decoction was the most desired conventional
dosage form, based on the information that was provided. The basic method of preparing the dose was hot water mac-
eration or decoction. For the duration of therapy, a quantity of medicine necessary for a daily dose is typically made each
day. Other methods of preparation include eating the whole plant part, infusion, tea or tincture, grinding into powder
form and poultice (Table2). It’s interesting to note that plants used to treat traditional methods of managing DM have
also been found to be eective in treating other health issues, including erectile dysfunction, allergies, yellow fever,
worms, infertility, urinary tract infections, hypertension, stomach-aches, ulcers, malaria, blood purication, stroke, and
eye problems [6, 15, 30]. There are several complications of DM that also include many of these illnesses.
3.3 Authentication
3.3.1 In vivo studies ofmedicinal plants
Of the 17 articles retrieved from data base 8 articles reported invivo investigation using animal models. Analysis indicated
high-fat diet and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ) was the most preferred substance for induction of DM in animals. Dif-
ferent routes of administration and doses were used. Other models used include Alloxan monohydride, glucose-loaded,
STZ-nicotinamide [37]. Investigations showed that the plant extract has distinct mechanisms of action for managing
DM and reducing blood glucose levels. Some of these mechanisms include, but are not limited to: decreasing total cho-
lesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) and very-low density lipoprotein cholesterol
(VLDL-c), stimulating glycogenesis in the liver and/or inhibition of glucagon secretion, promoting the regeneration of
b-cells of the islets of Langerhans, ameliorating oxidative stress, and facilitating glucose-induced insulin release [9, 13,
38]. Furthermore, dierent extracts were used for the preparation of doses of which ethanolic extract was the most used,
other extract used include ethyl acetate, methanolic extract, aqueous and crude extract. All the plants investigated had a
glucose-lowering eect at dierent doses of extracts and fractions. The eight (8) plant species traditionally used for DM in
Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and DRC as per this study are; Kigelia africana, Hagenia abyssinica (Rosaceae), Physalis peruviana,
Chenopodium ambrosioides, Mangifera indica L. Lonchocarpus eriocalyx, Urtica massaica Mildr. Schkuhria pinnata, Launaea
cornuta, Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.), Maerua decumbens (Brongn.) [1, 38–40, 44, 52] which have been reported to have
invivo antidiabetic eect (Table3). For instance, Kigelia africana fruit extract caused signicant improvements in blood
glucose levels, haematological parameters, and kidney and liver health, suggesting its potential protective eect against
diabetes-related complications [1]. Similarly, Hagenia abyssinica leaf extract induced hypoglycaemic, antihyperglycemic,
and anti-dyslipidaemic eects in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic mice, contributing to the lowering of blood glucose
levels and improvement of dyslipidaemia [38]. Additionally, the leaf extract of Physalis peruviana L. eectively lowered
blood glucose levels without causing toxicity in mice [39]. Chenopodium ambrosioides, on the other hand, exhibited a
signicant hypoglycaemic eect in mice [40]. Lonchocarpus eriocalyx extracts displayed signicant anti-inammatory, anti-
nociceptive, and antioxidant eects without acute oral toxicity, highlighting their potential as safe and eective natural
alternatives for treating inammatory and oxidative stress-related diseases [41]. The ethyl acetate extract of Launaea
cornuta showed hypoglycaemic ecacy in diabetic mice, while the aqueous extract had adverse eects on body weight
and haematological parameters, indicating the potential of the ethyl acetate extract as a safe and eective option for
managing diabetes [42]. Freeze-dried extracts of Rotheca myricoides exhibited hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic, and hypo
insulinemic eects in a rat model of type 2 diabetes, suggesting the potential as a natural treatment for diabetes and
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Table 3 Phytotherapeutic potentials of plants commonly utilized in East Africa for managing diabetes invivo
STZ Streptozotocin, TG Triglycerides, TC total cholesterol, LDL low-density lipoprotein, VLDL very low-density lipoprotein, i.p intraperitoneal, o.p oral administration
Scientic name Model /Sample size Mechanism of action Extract/Fraction Reference
Kigelia africana Alloxan (186.9mg/kg) i.p: Male Swissalbino
mice n = 5 Inhibition of intestinal absorption of glucose,
Facilitation of glucose-induced insulin release,
Enhancement of peripheral glucose uptake,
Promotion of the regeneration of b-cell of
islets of Langerhans and amelioration of
oxidative stress
Aqueous and ethyl acetate leaves extract;
doses 1.25, 2.5, 5, and 7mg/kg (i.p/p.o)
and insulin 1IU/kg i.p or
glibenclamide 3mg/kg p.o once
[58, 72]
Hagenia abyssinica (Rosaceae) STZ (50mg/kg, i.p)
Male Swiss albino mice n = 6 stimulating insulin release from pancreatic
ß-cells
inhibiting glucose absorption in the gut
stimulating glycogenesis in the liver and/or
increasing glucose utilization
inhibition of glucagon secretion
decrease TC, TG, LDL, and VLDL
Crude extract, aqueous, ethyl acetate and
chloroform leaves extract;
doses 100, 200 and 400mg/kg (p.o)
glibenclamide 5mg/kg p.o once
[38]
Physalis peruviana glucose-loaded i.p n = 5
Wistar rats stimulation of the residual pancreatic,
increased peripheral utilization of glucose,
converted glucose to glycogen, and
promoted glycogen storage in the liver and
skeletal muscles
Aqueous and methanolic leaves extract;
doses 100, 200 and 400mg/kg (o.p)
glibenclamide 5mg/kg p.o
[48]
Chenopodium ambrosioides glucose -loaded n = 5 i.p
Wistar rats stimulation of the residual pancreatic,
increased peripheral utilization of glucose,
converted glucose to glycogen, and
promoted glycogen storage in the liver and
skeletal muscles
Aqueous and methanolic leaves extract;
doses 100, 200 and 400mg/kg (o.p)
glibenclamide 5mg/kg p.o
[29]
Mangifera indica L high-fat and high-fructose diet Wistar rats Reduce TG Aqueous and ethanolic shoot extract; dose
100g/kg o.p [29]
Lonchocarpus eriocalyx high-fat and high-fructose diet Wistar rats Reduce TG Aqueous and Ethanolic bark extract; dose
100g/kg o.p [29]
Urtica massaica Mildr high-fat and high-fructose diet Wistar rats Reduce TG Aqueous and Ethanolic extract leaf & stalk;
dose 100g/kg o.p [29]
Schkuhria pinnata high-fat and high-fructose diet Wistar rats Reduce TG Aqueous and ethanolic whole plant extract;
dose 100g/kg o.p [29]
Launaea cornuta high-fat and high-fructose diet Wistar rats Reduce TG Aqueous and Ethanolic whole plant extract;
dose 100g/kg o.p [29]
Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) High fat- high fructose diet and
STZ (30mg/kg) i.p enhanced glucose uptake by adipose tissue
upregulation of GLUT-4 transporters expres-
sion
inhibition of hepatic glucose production and
increased insulin secretion
freeze- dried extracts
50mg/kg RME 100mg/kg RME
Pioglitazone 20mg/kg o.p
[73]
Maerua decumbens (Brongn.) STZ = 50mg stimulating insulin release from pancreatic
ß-cells Methanolic root extract; 100mg/kg and
400mg/kg [73]
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the ability to modulate peroxisome proliferator-activated gamma receptor and reduce hepatic triglycerides [43]. Maerua
decumbens methanolic root extract demonstrated antidiabetic activity without signs of toxicity, including decreased
fasting blood glucose levels, reduced liver malondialdehyde levels, and cytoprotective eects on the liver and pancreas
in diabetic rats [9]. The assessment of Mangifera indica leaves extract, both alone and in combination with gliclazide, in
diabetic rats showed signicant reductions in fasting blood glucose levels [44]. The collective ndings of these studies
highlight the promising eects of various plant extracts on dierent aspects of diabetes, including blood glucose levels
and associated complications.
3.3.2 Phytochemicals identified
A number of phytochemicals were identied to be present in all the plants reported to possess antidiabetic activities.
The most commonly reported phytochemicals from this review include; tannins, avonoids, saponin glycosides, phenolic
acids, alkaloids, anthraquinones, alkaloids sterols triterpenoids and glycoalkaloids (Table2). Fagbohon etal. [1] reported
some phytochemicals (Table4) from the n-hexane fruit extract of K. africana to possess antidiabetic potentials, they iden-
tied phytochemicals were docked against AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and mitochondrial glycerophosphate
dehydrogenase (mGPDH) with metformin a reference standard. Benzene-1,2,3,5-tetramethyl- was reported to have a
higher binding anity of − 6.4kcal/mol and can activate mitochondrial glycerophosphate dehydrogenase better than
Table 4 Some GC–MS
Compounds from Selected
Plants with antidiabetic
Potentials
S/No Plants Phytochemicals (GC–MS) References
1Kigelia africana Heptadecane-2,6,10,15-tetramethyl-
Decane-2,4,6-trimethyl-
Benzene-1,2,3,5-tetramethyl-
Oxalic acid-4-chlorophenyl nonyl ester
Decane-2,3,5,8-tetramethyl-
1-Iodo-2-methylundecane
Heptane-2,4-dimethyl-
Naphthalene-2-methyl-
Tetradecane
Phenol-2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-
Benzene propanoic acid-3,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-
4-hydroxymethylester
1-Hentetracontanol
[1]
2Physalis peruviana - (E)-2-Decenal
- (Z)-8-Methyl-9-tetradecenoic acid
- 1-Hexadecyn-3-ol, 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-
- 2-Hexadecanol
- 2-Undecanone, 6,10-dimethyl-
- Dihydroactinidiolide
- Phytol
- Tetradecanoic acid, 5,9,13-trimethyl-, methyl ester
[39]
3Mangifera indica Fatty acids and ester
-Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester
-Dibutyl phthalate
-Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)
-N-2,5 dimethoxy-phenyl,
Fumaric acid heptyl ester
Alkaloids
1-(4-Methyl-6-methoxy-2-quinoyl]-
3,3´-dimethyl-(4,5-bipyrazol)-5-ol
N-(2,7-Dipropoxy-uoren-9-ylidene)-
N-(4-nitro-phenyl)-hydrazine
5,6-Dihydro-2-(p-nitrobenzylidene-amino
,4H-benzo(3,4)cyclohepta(2,1)thiazole
Propanedinitrile,2-4-[bis-4-methylphenyl
]amino] phenyl, methylene
[79]
4Dysphania ambrosioides L -phytol
-4, 8, 12,16-tetramethyl-heptadecan-4-olide
-phytol, acetate
[80]
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metformin with binding anity of − 6.3kcal/mol. Several studies have shown that certain phytochemicals can help in the
management of diabetes by improving insulin sensitivity, reducing inammation, and lowering blood glucose levels [3,
45–48]. For example, avonoids, such as quercetin and kaempferol, have been shown to improve insulin sensitivity and
reduce inammation, which can help in the management of diabetes [49]. Other phytochemicals, such as resveratrol
and curcumin, have been shown to improve glucose metabolism and reduce blood glucose levels [50]. GC–MS analysis
of some selected plants reveal some compounds having antidiabetic potentials (Table4).
3.3.3 In vitro studies
Several studies conducted on extracts derived from Kigelia africana, Hagenia abyssinica, Physalis peruviana, Chenopo-
dium ambrosioides, Mangifera indica L., Lonchocarpus eriocalyx, Urtica massaica Mildr., Schkuhria pinnata, Launaea cornuta,
Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.), and Maerua decumbens (Brongn.) have provided further evidence supporting their ecacy
in managing diabetes [38, 39, 51]. For instance, Fagbohun etal., [1] identied new compounds in fruit extracts of Kigelia
africana and found that the hexane and ethyl acetate fractions showed the highest antioxidant activities. The hexane
fraction also exhibited the lowest IC50 value against α-amylase. The methanol extract and its fractions of Chenopodium
ambrosioides showed moderate inhibitory activity on α-glucosidase, an enzyme involved in carbohydrate digestion [52,
53]. Mangifera Indica leaf (MIL) extract demonstrated an inhibitory eect on alpha-amylase activity, reducing it by 51.4%
at a concentration of 200µg/mL. This suggests the extract can potentially slow down the breakdown of complex carbo-
hydrates by inhibiting amylase, leading to a slower release of glucose [54]. The antioxidant activity of the aqueous root
extract of Launaea cornuta using the ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-2-pycrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging test methods demonstrated signicant antioxidant eects, as evidenced by its ability to scavenge
DPPH radicals and its FRAP activity [55]. This suggests that the extract has the potential to protect cells from oxidative
damage caused by free radicals, which are known to contribute to various health conditions, including DM, inamma-
tion and other chronic diseases. The ndings of these studies suggest that the identied plant extracts possess various
mechanisms of action that contribute to their antidiabetic properties. One such mechanism involves the inhibition of
alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase enzymes. Alpha-amylase is an enzyme responsible for the breakdown of complex
carbohydrates into simpler sugars, while alpha-glucosidase aids in the nal digestion of carbohydrates by breaking down
disaccharides into absorbable monosaccharides. Inhibiting the activity of these enzymes can help reduce the rate of
carbohydrate breakdown and subsequent glucose absorption, leading to improved glycemic control [56]. Moreover,
the investigated plant extracts have demonstrated the ability to stimulate insulin secretion. Insulin plays a crucial role
in regulating blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells and promoting its storage as glycogen
[40]. The stimulation of insulin secretion by these extracts suggests a potential therapeutic benet in individuals with
impaired insulin production or function.
Furthermore, the studies have revealed that the examined plant extracts exhibit the capacity to reduce blood glucose
levels. Hyperglycaemia, or high blood glucose levels, is a hallmark characteristic of diabetes and is associated with vari-
ous complications [57]. The ability of these extracts to lower blood glucose levels indicates their potential in managing
this metabolic disorder. It is important to note that these invitro studies provide valuable preliminary evidence of the
antidiabetic eects of the identied plant extracts. However, further research is necessary to validate these ndings and
elucidate the underlying mechanisms in invivo models and, eventually, human trials. The invitro studies conducted on
the extracts have demonstrated promising antidiabetic eects. The inhibition of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase
enzymes, stimulation of insulin secretion, and reduction of blood glucose levels suggest the potential of these plant
extracts in managing diabetes. Further research is warranted to validate these ndings, explore the underlying mecha-
nisms, and identify the bioactive components responsible for these benecial eects.
3.3.4 Toxicological studies
Toxicological studies on the listed plants have been limited, and most of the available studies have focused on acute
toxicity in animal models. These studies have generally shown that these plants have low toxicity and are relatively safe
when consumed in moderate doses. However, it is essential to note that these ndings may not necessarily translate to
human consumption and further toxicological studies, including chronic toxicity and genotoxicity, are needed.
For instance, in a study on Kigelia africana, the aqueous and methanol extracts were found to have no observable toxic
eects in rats at doses of up to 5000mg/kg [58]. Kasali etal. [39] investigated the acute and subchronic toxicities of Kigelia
africana bark extract in rats. The study reported that the extract did not induce signicant acute toxicity or adverse eects
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in the treated animals. However, more comprehensive toxicological studies are necessary to evaluate its chronic toxicity
and long-term eects. Similarly, a study on Hagenia abyssinica showed no signicant acute toxicity in mice at doses up to
5000mg/kg [38]. In another study on Mangifera indica, the ethanol extract was found to be safe in rats at doses of up to
2000mg/kg [59]. Similarly, Kie etal. [38] examined the acute and subchronic toxicities of Hagenia abyssinica leaf extracts in
mice did not show toxicity at a dose of 2g/kg in mice. Therefore, the LD50 of the extract is greater than 2g/kg. The ndings
revealed no signs of acute toxicity, but the subchronic toxicity study indicated mild haematological alterations in the treated
animals. Regarding Physalis peruviana, Kasali etal., [39] conducted an acute oral toxicity study on the methanol extract of the
plant’s leaves with an LD50 of 2000mg/kg. The results suggested that the extract had a high safety margin, as no mortality
or signicant adverse eects were observed in the treated animals.
In contrast, some studies have reported potential toxicity concerns with some of these plants. For instance, a study on
Chenopodium ambrosioides found that the essential oil from this plant had acute toxic eects on mice at doses higher
than 2000mg/kg [52]. Similarly, a study on Lonchocarpus eriocalyx found that the aqueous extract had toxic eects on
rats at doses of 4000mg/kg and above [41]. While some of the listed plants have shown low toxicity in animal studies,
further toxicological studies are needed to determine their safety prole, particularly with long-term exposure and in
human consumption.
4 Discussion
In the pursuit of alternative remedies for managing diabetes mellitus, traditional medicinal plants have exhibited prom-
ise. Our research ndings unveil that local communities in Uganda, Kenya, DRC, and Tanzania employ a minimum of
140 dierent plant species to handle DM. While some of these species have undergone extensive investigation of their
phytochemicals for DM management with encouraging results, other species necessitate additional scientic validation.
This revelation may open avenues for discovering valuable drug lead compounds by concentrating research eorts on
traditionally utilized plant species.
In vitro studies demonstrate that the investigated species exert their eects on multiple cellular and molecular tar-
gets in the liver, skeletal muscles, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and adipocytes. These plants inhibit enzymes such
as α-amylase, α-glucosidase, sucrase, and maltase, regenerate pancreatic β-cells, and diminish fat accumulation in adi-
pocytes by activating signalling pathways like PPAR-α and PPAR-δ [60]. Additional molecular actions involve inhibiting
the nuclear inammatory signalling pathway through the modulation of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor Nrf2/
NFκB signalling and suppressing pro-inammatory cytokines such as IL-1a, IL-1b, and tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α
[33, 61, 62].
In recent years, it has been acknowledged that the pathophysiology of DM involves multiple cellular and molecular
abnormalities. Consequently, drugs with the potential to target multiple sites have become the focal point for eec-
tive DM management [46]. Nevertheless, while invitro studies on plant preparations have reported dose ranges up to
1000μg/mL and much higher doses up to 1500mg/kg, there is no standardized cut-o dose for either extract in either
invitro or invivo studies [3, 47]. Recognizing that the tested dose should be sucient to yield a meaningful pharmaco-
logical response and realistically convertible to a clinical dose, the large doses tested may pose challenges in translating
them to human equivalent doses.
For the pharmacological assessment of herbal products, Heinrich etal. [63] proposed a plant extract dosage ranging
from 100 to 200mg/kg, signicantly lower for its pure constituent. Despite the potential benets of these traditional
medicinal herbs, numerous methodological aws have been identied in research analyses. Notably, certain studies
documented considerable variation in eect size between standard medication and test substances. Methodological
issues such as insucient dosage optimization, improper preparation techniques, and inadequate ethnomedical data,
including a lack of a comprehensive description of the identication process and voucher specimen, have been noted. Our
study underscores the substantial potential of traditional medicinal herbs as complementary treatments for DM manage-
ment. However, to suciently arm the safety and ecacy of these plants, additional scientic evidence is imperative.
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, the traditional use of 140 plant species by local communities in Uganda, Kenya, DRC, and Tanzania for
the management of DM is a valuable source of knowledge that deserves further exploration. While some of these plant
species have been investigated scientically, many have not, highlighting the need for additional research in this area.
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Despite the lack of scientic evidence for some of these plants, toxicological studies have shown that many of them are
safe for human consumption at both low and high doses. Therefore, it is essential to conduct more invitro, invivo, and
phytochemical investigations to fully understand the therapeutic potential of these plant species for DM management.
Such research could help identify novel and eective plant-derived therapies that could be incorporated into existing
diabetes management strategies. Furthermore, engaging with local communities to better understand their traditional
knowledge could help in the discovery of new plant species with promising anti-diabetic properties.
Overall, bridging the gap between traditional knowledge and modern scientic investigation is crucial to improving
diabetes management in these regions and beyond. The potential of these plant species as a source of new anti-diabetic
drugs cannot be overstated, and future research in this area should be a priority.
Acknowledgements This work is part of a Ph.D. thesis of Reuben Samson Dangana. Kampala International University (KIU) supported the Ph.D.
training under the sta development scholarship scheme. The authors wish to thank the management of KIU for the scholarship.
Author contributions Reuben Samson Dangana: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Visualization, Data analysis. Ibra-
him Babangida Abubakar: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Writing– review & editing. Tijjani Salihu Shinka: Writing – review & editing,
Validation, Supervision. Patrick Maduabuchi Aja: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. SarahOnyenibeNwozo:Writing–review&edit-
ing,Supervision. All data were generated in-house, and no paper mill was used. All authors agree to be accountable for all aspects of work
ensuring integrity and accuracy.
Funding No specic grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-prot sectors was received for the work.
Data availability The data that support the ndings of this study are available from the corresponding author, RSD, upon reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval is not required for the work.
Competing interest No conict of interest from the authors.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
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