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Sustainable Cassava: Cassava Production and Products: Potential Sustainable Utilization Strategies for Environmental Security. Sustainable Cassava. Strategies from Production through Waste Management
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Cassava is a mainstay crop for food security in Africa, its tubers being a large source of carbohydrates for the human diet. In some regions (e.g., the Democratic Republic of the Congo; DRC), leaves are also consumed as a source of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Cassava adapts well to a range of soil-climate conditions and requires low inputs, yet yields are often unsatisfactory because of failures in disseminating improved genotypes and agricultural practices. The aim of this study was to test the effect of (i) seedbed preparation for planting cassava (i.e., flat, mounds, and ridges) and (ii) local landraces (i.e., Kakuanga, Kasongoy, Kasonie, Ndunda, and Ngoymuamba) on yield components and their nutritional quality in the Lomami province (DRC). In-depth measurements of yield components were performed, including the number of tubers and stems per plant, leaf biomass, stem biomass, root yield, and peeling yield. Tubers and leaves were also analyzed for chemical composition. Our results demonstrated that mound and ridge seedbed preparations may highly increase tuber yield (+32–68%) compared with flat. This is not the case for leaves and stems, which were not affected. The Ngoymuamba landrace showed a tuber yield about three times larger than Ndunda, which represented the common productivity values (5–8 Mg ha−1). No effect of seedbed preparation was observed and only minor differences between landraces were observed for the chemical composition of roots and leaves. We concluded that selecting the best-performing seedbed preparations × landraces could have a significant potential for achieving in a relatively short time the goal of “Zero Hunger” and improving the diet in the DRC.
Sustainable development (SD) is a paradigm shift from the conventional pursuit of economic growth hinged on resource depletion and environmental degradation. This chapter examines the effects of urbanization and climate change on SD in Africa. Climate change poses a significant and unique challenge to Africa’s SD because of its agro-dependent economy. Urbanization in Africa is more “push” than “pull” driven. Therefore, to achieve SD, Africa needs to expand existing infrastructures, build resilient public institutions, reduce poverty, develop new industrial and agro-based technologies, create more employment through diversification, use renewable energies, and practice climate-smart agriculture. The development of a sound policy is also necessary to address the effects of urban population growth and climate change on SD in Africa.
Climate change, soil degradation and depletion of natural resources are becoming the most prominent challenges for crop productivity and environmental sustainability in modern agriculture. In the scenario of conventional farming system, limited chances are available to cope with these issues. Relay cropping is a method of multiple cropping where one crop is seeded into standing second crop well before harvesting of second crop. Relay cropping may solve a number of conflicts such as inefficient use of available resources, controversies in sowing time, fertilizer application and soil degradation. Relay cropping is a complex suite of different resource-efficient technologies, which possesses the capability to improve soil quality, to increase net return, to increase land equivalent ratio, and to control the weeds and pest infestation. Current review emphasized relay cropping as a tool for crop diversification and environmental sustainability with special focus on soil. Briefly benefits, constraints and opportunities of relay cropping keeping the goals of higher crop productivity and sustainability has also been discussed in this review. The research and knowledge gap in relay cropping was also highlighted in order to guide the further studies in future.
Insufficient supply, high prices and competition with the human food and biofuel industries means there is a continuous demand for alternative energy sources for poultry. As a result, cassava is becoming an increasingly important ingredient in poultry diets, largely due to its high availability. Efficient use of cassava products has been shown to reduce feed costs of poultry production. The utilisation of cassava is, however, limited by a number of factors, including its high fibre and low energy content and the presence of anti-nutritional factors, primarily hydrocyanic acid (HCN). With correct processing the inclusion level of cassava in poultry diets could be increased. Extensive research has been conducted on cassava products for poultry, but there is still a lack of consistency amongst the measured nutritive values for cassava and its products, hence variation exists in results from poultry studies. This paper reviews the nutrient composition of cassava products and its value as an alternative energy source in poultry diets.
Large scale cassava production is today being carried out season after season repeatedly on the same piece of land leading to decline in soil fertility and yield overtime. Research information to guide farmers on appropriate fertilizer management under such continuous cropping are few and poorly documented in south eastern Nigeria. A two-year field experiment was conducted during 2007 - 2009 at Uyo, a humid forest agro-ecology of south eastern Nigeria to assess the growth and yield response of cassava. Treatments included four rates each of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha) in all possible factorial combination replicated thrice in a randomized complete block design. Application of N at the highest rate significantly (P = 0.05) increased plant height, produced higher number of leaves and branches/plant, stem girth, number and weight of tubers/plant and total fresh tuber yield compared with other treatments. The fresh tuber yield at 120 kg N/ha was however, comparable with that at 80 kg N/ha rate. Cassava growth, fresh tuber yield and all yield attributes peaked at 80 kg K/ha rate. The 120 kg N/ha and 80 kg K/ha rates increased fresh tuber weight by 48 and 45% and total fresh tuber yield by 36 and 27% respectively, compared with the control plots. The application of N between 80 and 120 kg/ha and K at 80 kg/ha appeared appropriate for optimum yield in our study area and are thus recommended.
Weeds are as important as man to himself and its environment. Weed flora in terms of
diversity and richness of University of Benin, Ugbowo campus were determined from four
habitable parts using two ecological models: Margalef species richness (d) and Shannon-
Wiener diversity (H). Primary data were collected from an inventory obtained from tossing
20 quadrants of (1 X 1) m2 randomly. A total of 81 weed species distributed in sixty one
genera were encountered from counts within the quadrats. Two life forms were recorded:
herbaceous life form with 76 representatives (93.83 %) and five shrubby life forms (6.17 %).
The total weed flora is distributed among two plant groups of 20 families. These included
three families belonging to monocotyledonous group and 17 belonging to dicotyledonous
group. The dominant weeds are commonly found in families of Compositeae, Amaranthaceae,
Euphorbiaceae, Lamiaceae, Commelinaceae, Poaceae and Cyperaceae. Weed taxa of these
families are usually annual and ephemeral in life cycle. The study revealed enormous
diversity in weed flora in the sites assessed based on Margalef species richness (d) and
Shannon-Wiener diversity (H). These ecological models suggest that site B is the richest and
most diverse followed by sites D, A and C respectively. Sorensen index at 50 % significance
suggest the sites are similar. Among the dominant weed flora encountered include:
Synedrella nodiflora, Sporobolus pyramidalis, Setaria barbata, Peperomia pellucida,
Oldenlandia corymbosa, Mariscus flabelliformis, Kyllinga erecta, Gomphrena celosioides,
Euphorbia hyssopifolia, Eleusine indica, Desmodium ramossisimum, Cyperus rotundus,
Commelina diffusa, Cleome rutidosperma, Axonopus compressus and Alternanthera sessilis.
The results suggest that these weeds encountered are significantly associated with man. Thus,
require further studies on their dispersal, crop-plant-need association and weed-tree plant association.
Cassava is a very important food crop that is capable of providing food security. However, a lot of problems prevent the development and use of modern equipment for its production. Most of the cassava produced still comes from peasant farmers who depend on manual tools for their field operations and these farmers have made Nigeria the world’s largest producer of the crop. An increase in production of cassava to sustain the world food security needs improved machinery to allow its continuous cultivation and processing. Reasons for the low success recorded in the mechanization of cassava harvesting and processing were traced, and the attempts that have been made in the recent past by various engineers in Nigeria researching towards achieving mechanized harvesting and processing of cassava are well explained. The machinery required for cassava production in Africa, the development of new machines, and the need for more research and development in harvesting and processing machineries, which can reduce poverty worldwide and make food available and accessible for all, are also discussed. Research efforts made and the challenges facing the engineers, farmers, scientists and food processors towards achieving mechanical harvesting and processing of cassava are presented. Breeding a cassava variety with a regular shape for easy mechanization is one solution that could help the engineers worldwide.
Major soil zones for cassava in Africa are mapped and described using the FAO-UNESCO soil map of the world and taking into account of rainfall and temperature limitations. A comparison of actual distribution of cassava with climate-soil zones in two countries suggests that the crop is mainly found in areas of high population density and under suboptimal ecological conditions. The agro-ecological zone determines the cassava cropping system, as well as cassava yields.
The complete nucleotide sequence of the DNA of Indian cassava mosaic virus (ICMV) and a key part of that of a group B isolate of African cassava mosaic virus from Malawi (ACMV-M) were determined and compared at the nucleotide and encoded amino acid levels with the published sequences of an ACMV group A isolate (ACMV-K) and other whitefly-transmitted gemini-viruses (WTGs). The DNA of ICMV consists of two circular single-stranded molecules, DNA-A [2815 nucleotides (nt)] and DNA-B (2645 nt), which differ substantially in sequence from the genome components of ACMV-K (DNA-A 70%, DNA-B 47% sequence identity) and other WTGs. ICMV DNA-A contains eight open reading frames (ORFs) encoding proteins of > 100 amino acid residues, of which four ORFs (one genome sense, three complementary sense) are comparable to those of other WTGs. DNA-B contains one ORF in each sense, as in other WTGs. None of the putative viral proteins are more similar in amino acid sequence to the proteins of ACMV-K than to those of another WTG. The coat protein of ACMV-M is more like that of tomato yellow leaf curl virus from Sardinia (86% sequence identity) than those of ICMV or ACMV-K. The intergenic regions of ACMV-K, ACMV-M and ICMV DNAs differ in size, and largely in sequence, except for two 30 to 40 nt sequences which are also conserved in other WTGs and can form stem-loop structures. The intergenic region of ICMV DNA contains three copies of a 41 nt sequence, and that of ACMV-M DNA contains an imperfect repeat of a 34 nt sequence which resembles the repeated sequence in ICMV DNA. The differences between ACMV-K, ACMV-M and ICMV are considered great enough to justify their separation as isolates of three distinct WTGs: African cassava mosaic virus, East African cassava mosaic virus and Indian cassava mosaic virus.
Stem cuttings were collected in Cameroon from cassava plants displaying cassava mosaic disease (CMD) symptoms. The nature of the viruses present was determined by using the PCR with primers specific for the coat protein (CP) genes of African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) and East African cassava mosaic virus (EACMV). All samples were infected by ACMV and eight of the 50 samples were infected by both ACMV and an EACMV-like virus. The complete nucleotide sequences of DNA-A and -B of representative ACMV and EACMV-like viruses were determined. The DNA-A component of the EACMV-like virus contained evidence of recombination in the AC2-AC3 region and DNA-B also contained evidence of recombination in BC1. However, both components retained gene arrangements typical of bipartite begomoviruses. When Nicotiana benthamiana plants were doubly inoculated with these Cameroon isolates of ACMV and EACMV (ACMV/CM, EACMV/CM) by using sap from cassava plants or infectious clones, the symptoms were more severe than for plants inoculated with either virus alone. Southern blot analysis of viral DNAs from infected plants showed that there were significantly higher levels of accumulation of both ACMV/CM components and, to a lesser extent, of EACMV/CM components in mixed-infected plants than in singly infected plants. These results strongly suggest the occurrence of a synergistic interaction between the two viruses.
In this paper we describe results obtained from screening field populations of begomoviruses from infected cassava from six countries in southern Africa. It was found that African cassava mosaic virus occurs in five of the six countries (except Angola), East African cassava mosaic virus is present in five countries (except Zambia) and South African cassava mosaic virus was detected only in South Africa and Swaziland. In addition, we report for the first time in southern Africa, the appearance of the Ugandan variant virus (UgV) which was found frequently in mixed infections with other cassava-infecting begomoviruses.
Cassava is a major factor in food security across sub-Saharan Africa. However, the crop is susceptible to losses due to biotic stresses, in particular to viruses of the genus Begomovirus (family Geminiviridae) that cause cassava mosaic disease (CMD). During the 1990s, an epidemic of CMD severely hindered cassava production across eastern and central Africa. A significant influence on the appearance of virus epidemics is virus diversity. Here, a survey of the genetic diversity of CMD-associated begomoviruses across the major cassava-growing areas of Kenya is described. Because an initial PCR-restriction fragment-length polymorphism analysis identified a much greater diversity of viruses than assumed previously, representative members of the population were characterized by sequence analysis. The full-length sequences of 109 components (68 DNA-A and 41 DNA-B) were determined, representing isolates of East African cassava mosaic virus and East African cassava mosaic Zanzibar virus, as well as a novel begomovirus species for which the name East African cassava mosaic Kenya virus is proposed. The DNA-B components were much less diverse than their corresponding DNA-A components, but nonetheless segregated into western and eastern (coastal) groups. All virus species and strains encountered showed distinct geographical distributions, highlighting the importance of preventing both the movement of viruses between these regions and the importation of the disease from adjacent countries and islands in the Indian Ocean that would undoubtedly encourage further diversification.
There is a clear link between human developmental strides and biodiversity status on the African continent. The link exists in the form of drivers, outlooks, emergent properties and multiple feedback dimensions. To sustainably manage this relationship there is a need to identify priority and critical areas for investment and interventions, such as biodiversity and biome-level conservation area analysis that combines climate change and deforestation threats to ensure the preservation of high-value biodiversity and cultural heritage. The result will manifest in the form of a robust monitoring plan as well as adaptation to and mitigation of key stressors, threats and risks. Most of Africa’s biodiversity is found outside the limit of native and non-native protected areas and continue to face dynamic threats. Development is the main threat and unless it becomes sustainable will harbour generic issues related to limiting biodiversity potentials and increasing the threats to their use and conservation. This book is a collection of works on the potentials, threats and conservation of biodiversity in Africa and is divided into four sections - an introductory section and other sections on the values of biodiversity in Africa, drivers of biodiversity loss in Africa and trends, scenarios and governance in relation to biodiversity conservation in Africa. This introductory chapter presents an overview of perspectives presented in the book toward a common agenda. Many people only know Africa from the perspective of its unique biodiversity and the values of African biodiversity may be considered from two perspectives—either the whole value or the value of the components. The proximate driver of biodiversity loss in Africa may be biological but the ultimate cause is socio-ecological and economic processes. The major reason for this biodiversity loss is not only direct human overexploitation but also due to pollution, urbanization, habitat fragmentation, invasive species, novel diseases and human population growth. A key sustainability target would be to regularly organize public outreach programmes aimed at informing Africa’s populace about the ongoing biodiversity loss. Also, knowledge-based sustainable utilization, strategic monitoring and assessment of threats, and technology-driven innovative conservation practices should be the used to define all future developmental plan that pertains to Africa’s biological resources.KeywordsBiodiversity valueSustainable use of biodiversityBiodiversity conservationHuman developmentAfrica
This multi-author book covers all aspects of cassava biology, breeding, production, crop protection and utilization. The first section of the book is on the origins, distribution and economic importance of cassava, and includes chapters on cassava in South America and the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia and the Pacific. Three chapters in the second section cover botany and physiology, agronomy and cropping systems, and mineral nutrition and fertilization. The section on genetics and crop improvement includes chapters on breeding, genetic resources and conservation, and cassava biotechnology. A crop protection section has chapters on arthropod pests, virus diseases, and bacterial, fungal and nematode diseases. The final two chapters are concerned with utilization, storage and processing of cassava.
Cassava has attained the status of either dominant staple or co-staple in certain parts of the world where it contributes more than 50 per cent of the energy requirements of a bulk of the population.
The nutritional hazards of cassava dependency require careful attention. It is necessary to adopt a systems approach and study the whole, often complex, food/nutrition system so as to understand it and arrive at a more realistic appraisal of the problems of cassava-dependence
However, increasing dependence on cassava may result in gradually increasing quantities of its products being fed to young children. Replacement of more protein-rich weaning foods by cassava products should be avoided in order to safeguard young children from cassava toxicity and protein deficiency.
Increased production of cassava as part of a food system should also involve the production of complementary foods to be consumed with cassava. Alternatively, the strategy should involve farming systems that ensure enough increases in cassava production to allow the resulting profit to be used to purchase all of the food that the farmer needs.
A systems approach to the study of a cassava-dependent culture reveals many intervention opportunities in production, harvesting, processing, storage, marketing, home preparation, and transportation that can significantly minimize nutritional hazards while holding high potential for improving human welfare.
The Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT, headquartered in Colombia) established a cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) breeding program in the beginning of the 1970s with the aim of extending the Green Revolution success to less privileged sectors of the tropical populations. The initial decade was mainly dedicated to the colltection of germplasm and generation of basic breeding materials. The later decades were devoted to applied breeding in collaboration with international and national programs in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. This paper focuses on the basic breeding at CIAT/Colombia (CIAT/HQ), applied breeding at CIAT/Thailand (CIAT/Thai), and distribution and selection of improved materials with many collaborators in Asia. Fresh root yield of populations was improved by >100% and root dry matter content by >20%. The national program collaborators used these populations to develop many improved cultivars in many countries. The biological factors considered as critical for this successful breeding effort were as follows: inclusion of a broad base of genetic variability obtained in the center of crop origin and diversification; evaluation of breeding materials under diverse environmental conditions including high stress environments; and a clear understanding of the different operational principles at different stages of breeding advancement, as illustrated by the emphasis on harvest index in selection within populations and on biomass in population building. The understanding of crop germplasm being a common heritage and the determination of agricultural scientists to use this for the welfare of the neediest people were the social factors for the overall success.
The current status of cassava Begomoviruses, the most serious constraint to the production of cassava, a major staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa, is reviewed in relation to their distribution, effects, etiology, and epidemiology. It is concluded that control of the diseases would continue to depend on integrated management involving cultural practices and use of resistant cultivars. Current trends in diagnosis and control, including the production of transgenic plants, selection for resistance in cassava via molecular markers, and the determination of resistant profiles of cassava genotypes to a range of virus variants, are also discussed.
SMALL quasi-isometric particles, mostly occurring in pairs, have been found in, and purified from extracts of plants infected by maize streak1, beet curly top2, tomato golden mosaic3, euphorbia mosaic3, bean golden (yellow) mosaic3–5, cassava latent6 and cassava brown streak viruses6. Individual particles are 15–20 nm in diameter—unusually small for a virus—and in electron micrographs many of the individual particles in the pairs have a five-sided outline in which the contiguous sides seem longer than the others. The pairs of particles of maize streak and cassava latent viruses have sedimentation coefficients of about 76S (refs 1 and 7) and preparations of each yield a single polypeptide species, estimated at about 28,000 and 34,000 daltons respectively7. Their nucleic acid can be resolved into two components by electrophoresis7, and in maize streak virus it has been identified tentatively as RNA on the basis of sensitivity to ribonuclease1. We now report, however, that the nucleic acids of cassava latent and maize streak viruses consist of single-stranded, predominantly circular DNA of molecular weight less than 106.
The concentration of African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in relation to symptom severity among resistant, moderately resistant and susceptible cassava genotypes. Resistant genotype NR 8083 had significantly lower symptom severity scores (P < 0·05) than the susceptible genotype TMS 91934, but the two genotypes contained similar levels of virus concentration. The moderately resistant genotypes TMS 30572 and NR 8082 expressed significantly lower symptom severities (P < 0·05) than the susceptible genotypes TMS 91934 and TME 117, but they contained significantly higher virus concentrations (P < 0·05) than TMS 91934 and similar virus concentration as in TME 117. However, two other resistant genotypes, TME 1 and TME 8, had low symptom severity scores and virus concentrations. There was significant interaction (P ≤ 0·05) between cropping season and virus concentration in all the genotypes except TMS 30572. The resistant and moderately resistant genotypes that had high virus concentrations sustained storage root yield losses. The severity of symptoms expressed was not necessarily a reflection of the virus concentration in some of the genotypes. In addition to the use of symptom severity scores to group genotypes into resistant classes, it is recommended that virus concentration should also be considered. Genotypes displaying mild symptoms, but with high levels of virus accumulation, could be an important source of inoculum in the spread of ACMV by the whitefly vectors. This suggests that each genotype should be tested for virus accumulation prior to its release to the farmers.
Cassava is traditionally grown on tilled soils. Interest in reduced-tillage systems is increasing in the humid tropics due to erosion problems. A field study was conducted on a sandy clay loam Ultisol to compare cassava performance in three tillage systems effects on soil water and organic carbon content. Tillage treatments were: (1) ploughing, harrowing and ridging (conventional); (2) digger-made holes (minimum); (3) pushing the sharpened end of cassavs cuttigs directly into the soil (no-till). Tillage did not affect total biomass yields in the first year. In the second year, significant differences were obtained in the yield of tops but not of fresh roots. No-till and minimum tillage out-yielded the conventional system by 40% and 23%, respectively, in the yield of tops,. It was apparent that elimination of ploughing did not reduce total biomass yield. Soil moisture contents in no-till and minimum tillage were significantly higher (P = 0.05) than in the conventional-tillage system. Conv organic carbon decresed significantly (P = 0.01) over time in all tillage systems. Conventional tillage gave the highest reduction. Cassava may be grown successfully in reduced-tillage systems in Ultisols of the humid tropics.
Fields experiments were conducted on an Ultisol in southeastern Nigeria to study the effects of no-tillage and disc plowing, with and without residue mulching, on soil properties and the growth and yield of cassava and yam. Plowing to a depth of 10 cm and then applying mulch decreased soil bulk density. Of the no-till plots, those with mulch had the greatest soil moisture retention at low suctions; those without mulch had low moisture retention for suctions exceeding 0.1 bar. Cassava plants in plowed plots were more vigorous than those in no-till plots, and mulching decreased plant height of cassava in the initial stages and increased plant height at about 38 weeks after planting. In the first 10 cm, yam root length density was 0.31 cm cm−3 for no-till plots vs. 0.27 cm cm−3 for plowed plots. Mulch application increased root length density of yam. The root length density of cassava was 0.32 cm cm−3 for no-till plots versus 0.16 cm cm−3 for plowed plots. Mulch application, however, significantly increased root length density of cassava in no-till plots only. Yield of yam tubers was more for plowed plots than no-till plots — 12.4 vs. 10.9 t ha−1. The increase in yam tuber yield due to mulching was 21% for no-till and 28% for plowed treatments. The cassava tuber yield was more in no-till than in plowed plots, and application of mulch increased cassava tuber yield.
Geminiviruses are often associated with subviral agents called DNA satellites that require proteins encoded by the helper virus for their replication, movement and encapsidation. Hitherto, most of the single-stranded DNA satellites reported to be associated with members of the family Geminiviridae have been associated with monopartite begomoviruses. Cassava mosaic disease is known to be caused by viruses belonging to nine different begomovirus species in the African continent and the Indian subcontinent. In addition to these species, several strains have been recognized that exhibit contrasting phenotypes and infection dynamics. It is established that Sri Lankan cassava mosaic virus can trans-replicate betasatellites and can cross host barriers. To extend these studies further, we carried out an exhaustive investigation of the ability of geminiviruses, selected to represent all cassava-infecting geminivirus species, to trans-replicate betasatellites (DNA-beta) and to interact with alphasatellites (nanovirus-like components; previously called DNA-1). Each of the cassava-infecting geminiviruses showed a contrasting and differential interaction with the DNA satellites, not only in the capacity to interact with these molecules but also in the modulation of symptom phenotypes by the satellites. These observations could be extrapolated to field situations in order to hypothesize about the possibility of acquisition of such DNA satellites currently associated with other begomoviruses. These results call for more detailed analyses of these subviral components and an investigation of their possible interaction with the cassava mosaic disease complex.
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