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Leihmutterschaft: zwischen Möglichkeit und Freiheit

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In nine lively essays, bioethicist J. David Velleman challenges the prevailing consensus about assisted suicide and reproductive technology, articulating an original approach to the ethics of creating and ending human lives. He argues that assistance in dying is appropriate only at the point where talk of suicide is not, and he raises moral objections to anonymous donor conception. In their place, Velleman champions a morality of valuing personhood over happiness in making end-of-life decisions, and respecting the personhood of future children in making decisions about procreation. These controversial views are defended with philosophical rigor while remaining accessible to the general reader. Written over Velleman's 30 years of undergraduate teaching in bioethics, the essays have never before been collected and made available to a non-academic audience. They will open new lines of debate on issues of intense public interest.
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Feminist analysts of women in global production have demonstrated that “good” labor is not found ready‐made. It is produced through the practices and rhetorics of the shop floor. In this ethnographic study of commercial surrogacy in a small clinic in western India, I argue that a good commercial surrogate, like a good laborer of global production, is not found ready‐made in India. She is produced, instead, in fertility clinics and surrogacy hostels. However, unlike women in factories who have to be constituted as the perfect worker of managers’ dreams, surrogates have to be constituted as the perfect mother‐worker subject. The surrogate in India is expected to be a disciplined contract worker who gives up the baby at the termination of the contract. But she is simultaneously urged to be a nurturing mother for the baby and a selfless mother who will not negotiate the payment received. When one’s mother identity is regulated and terminated by a contract, being a good mother often conflicts with being a good worker, which makes the mother‐worker identity a rather difficult one to produce. It requires a disciplinary project that works discursively, one that works through the materialization of discourses in the form of enclosures or surrogacy hostels. The production of this mother‐worker subject, however, does not go unchallenged. What we see instead is a continuum of resistance composed of discursive, individual, and collective actions that disrupt the production of a reified, unitary mother‐worker subject.
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Each year, an increasing number of children are born through surrogacy and thus lack a genetic and/or gestational link with their mother. This study examined the impact of surrogacy on mother-child relationships and children's psychological adjustment. Assessments of maternal positivity, maternal negativity, mother-child interaction, and child adjustment were administered to 32 surrogacy, 32 egg donation, and 54 natural conception families with a 7-year-old child. No differences were found for maternal negativity, maternal positivity, or child adjustment, although the surrogacy and egg donation families showed less positive mother-child interaction than the natural conception families. The findings suggest that both surrogacy and egg donation families function well in the early school years.
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This study examined the motivations, experiences and psychological consequences of surrogacy for surrogate mothers. Thirty-four women who had given birth to a surrogate child approximately 1 year previously were interviewed by trained researchers, and the data rated using standardized coding criteria. Information was obtained on: (i) reasons for the woman's decision to become a surrogate mother; (ii) her retrospective view of the relationship with the commissioning couple before the pregnancy, during the pregnancy, and after the birth; (iii) her experiences during and after relinquishing the child; and (iv) how others reacted to her decision to become a surrogate mother. It was found that surrogate mothers do not generally experience major problems in their relationship with the commissioning couple, in handing over the baby, or from the reactions of those around them. The emotional problems experienced by some surrogate mothers in the weeks following the birth appeared to lessen over time. Surrogate mothers do not appear to experience psychological problems as a result of the surrogacy arrangement.
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Surrogate motherhood is prohibited in Germany; more and more childless German couples therefore look for a surrogate mother abroad. Due to the partly tragic consequences that the use of surrogacy abroad can have for all parties involved, it is now time to rethink the prohibition. To this end, the author examines all the arguments put forward for and against controlled permission for their analytical rigor and coherence and sharpens the state of the debate. The work concludes with a draft law that combines the results obtained - from moral-philosophical, legal-theoretical, developmental-psychological and sociological arguments to fundamental rights.
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This book concerns the ethics of making or expanding families through adoption or technologically assisted reproduction. For many people, these methods are separate and distinct; they can choose either adoption or assisted reproduction. But for others, these options blend together. For example, in some jurisdictions, the path of assisted reproduction for same-sex couples is complicated by the need for the partner who is not genetically related to the resulting child to adopt this child if she wants to become the child’s legal parent. The book critically examines moral choices to pursue adoption, assisted reproduction, or both, and highlights the social norms that can distort decision-making. Among these norms are those that favour people having biologically related children (“bionormativity”) or that privilege a traditional understanding of family as a heterosexual unit with one or more children where both parents are the genetic, biological, legal, and social parents of these children. As a whole, the book looks at how adoption and assisted reproduction are morally distinct from one another, but also emphasizes how the two are morally similar. Choosing one, the other, or both of these approaches to family-making can be complex in some respects, but ought to be simple in others, provided that one’s main goal is to become a parent.
Chapter
Als Leihmutter wird eine Frau bezeichnet, die ein Kind mit der Absicht austrägt, es nach der Geburt an ein anderes Paar abzugeben. Mit dieser Praxis verknüpfen sich grundsätzliche ethische Bedenken. Ausgehend von den Perspektiven der Wunscheltern, Kinder und Leihmütter diskutiert der Beitrag zentrale, gegen Leihmutterschaft vorgebrachte Einwände sowohl aus theoretisch-normativer Perspektive als auch vor dem Hintergrund internationaler empirischer Forschungsergebnisse. Insofern auch in Deutschland zunehmend Kinder leben, die durch eine Leihmutter zur Welt gebracht worden sind, wird dafür plädiert, der Frage nach der Gestaltung angemessener Rahmenbedingungen für Leihmutterschaft mehr Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken. Dazu wird eine ethische Perspektive auf Leihmutterschaft entwickelt, welche die wechselseitigen Beziehungen und Verantwortlichkeiten aller Beteiligten in den Mittelpunkt stellt.
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Wenn Familien mit Hilfe einer Samenspende entstehen und sie daraus kein Tabu machen, wachsen sie in ihr Familienleben hinein, indem sie Normalisierungsprozesse aktiv mitgestalten. In diesem Kapitel werden fünf typische Haltungen vorgestellt, die zur Normalisierung beitragen. Bei der Analyse der faktischen Familienrealität können tradierte normative Setzungen zu Verzerrungen und Mythenbildung führen. Der Weg der Samenspende ist ein gangbarer Weg, um eine Familie zu gründen. Coping- und Normalisierungsstrategien helfen Eltern und Kindern dabei.
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Leihmutterschaft – das Austragen eines Kindes für andere – ist eine von mehreren Möglichkeiten, ungewollte Kinderlosigkeit zu überwinden. Allerdings ist diese Reproduktionstechnologie in Deutschland und der Schweiz verboten und auch ethisch hochumstritten. Wunscheltern, die trotz des Verbots und der gesellschaftlichen Ablehnung eine Leihmutterschaft in Auftrag geben möchten, müssen daher hierfür ins Ausland gehen und das Kind später in ihr Heimatland mitbringen. Eines der wichtigsten Ziele dieser Form des reproduktiven Reisens sind die USA, wo Leihmutterschaft in mehreren Staaten legal ist. Basierend auf mehrjährigen medizinethnologischen Forschungen in Deutschland, der Schweiz und Kalifornien beleuchtet dieses Kapitel die Erfahrungen deutscher und schweizerischer Wunscheltern, die sich für diesen Weg entschieden haben und die Hintergründe für diese Entscheidung.
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Handeln ist ein alltägliches Phänomen und zugleich ein komplexes Problem der Philosophie. Ausgehend von Alltagsbeispielen erläutert Michael Quante die Grundlagen und Begriffe der Handlungstheorie. Leserinnen und Leser erfahren auf verständliche Weise, was Handlungen, Ereignisse sowie Handlungsgründe sind und welche weiterführenden philosophischen Fragen sich aus ihnen ableiten lassen.
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Die Möglichkeiten der modernen Reproduktionstechnologie bieten Chancen, können aber auch zu Problemen führen. Die AutorInnen dieses Buches werfen aus historisch-kulturtheoretischer, medizinethischer, soziologischer und psychoanalytischer Sicht einen Blick auf die Lebenssituation von Elternpaaren und Kindern, die nicht dem klassischen Familienmodell der biologisch-sozialen Einheit von Vater-Mutter-Kind entsprechen. So widmen sie sich unter anderem psychischen Konflikten von Frauen und Männern mit (zunächst) unerfülltem Kinderwunsch oder behandeln die Perspektive von Spenderkindern sowie die Familiengründung und das Familienleben von gleichgeschlechtlichen Elternpaaren. Das Buch bietet fundierte Informationen für Fachkräfte in Psychotherapie, Beratung, Sozialarbeit und -pädagogik. Mit Beiträgen von Andreas Bernard, Kerstin Bruchhäuser, Tobias Fischer, Susann Heenen-Wolff, Christa Hoffmann-Riem, Rita Marx, Anne Meier-Credner, Emilie Moget, Sven Riesel, Ann Kathrin Scheerer und Rebecca Schmidt
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Das Buch betrachtet das Thema Leihmutterschaft aus einer breit angelegten, interdisziplinären Perspektive. In Deutschland ist die Leihmutterschaft verboten, in vielen anderen Ländern legal. Viele Menschen erfüllen sich den Wunsch nach einem Kind daher im Wege einer Leihmutterschaft im Ausland. Das Buch nimmt dies zum Anlass, aktuelle Erkenntnisse und Impulse aus der Rechtswissenschaft, Theologie, Soziologie, kindlichen Entwicklungspsychologie, Medizin, Genetik und Philosophie zu diesem Phänomen aufzugreifen und zu analysieren. Im Mittelpunkt steht die Frage, inwiefern sich das Wohl des Kindes, die Interessen der Leihmütter sowie die Bedürfnisse der Wunscheltern in der deutschen Rechtsordnung, der sozialen Wirklichkeit und den kirchlichen Institutionen widerspiegeln.
Chapter
Die Leihmutterschaft ist in Deutschland verboten. Der Beitrag geht der Frage nach, wie das Verbot der Leihmutterschaft verfassungsrechtlich zu bewerten ist und untersucht Regelungsalternativen auf ihre Vereinbarkeit mit dem Grundgesetz.
Chapter
The psychological impact of surrogacy on Indian surrogates has not previously been examined. This chapter explores how factors associated with surrogacy within the Indian context may contribute to surrogates’ psychological well-being. We discuss the significance of whether the surrogate sees or meets the newborn(s) and intended parent(s), the secrecy and social stigma associated with surrogacy, the availability of social support from family and other surrogates, and the role of financial compensation. We end by evaluating the relevance of these findings to the new policy inclined towards ‘altruistic’ surrogacy being introduced in India. This research has strong implications for policy by highlighting the features of surrogacy that may affect the well-being of those involved.
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In this qualitative study, in-depth interviews were conducted with 15 surrogates from India. Two themes are discussed: (1) motivations for becoming surrogates and (2) role of family and community in surrogacy. The respondents were illiterate women aged 21-30 years and had been surrogate mothers an average of 2 times. Motivations for surrogacy were financial in nature. Surrogates reported stigma from extended family and community forcing them to leave their homes and relocate after surrogacy. This study recommends counseling and psychosocial support services to women and change in policy to execute a stringent law to protect the rights of surrogates.
Article
The psychological characteristics, motivations and experiences of surrogate mothers have not received much research attention, yet their reproductive role has significant psychological, social, theoretical and politico-legal implications. Questionnaire data are presented for 24 surrogate [11 gestational (IVF), 13 genetic (AI)] mothers. Semi-structured and open-ended questions relating to motivations, experiences, support, knowledge, information, confidence, concerns, genetic link, disclosure and relinquishment issues, and standardized questionnaires assessing quality of life and psychopathology were included. It was hypothesized that genetic and gestational surrogates would differ on these measures, but few differences between groups were observed. The importance of a genetic link differed significantly between groups, substantiating the belief that surrogacy type specific cognitive restructuring is taking place to prepare them for the relinquishment process. Worries and concerns differed somewhat between genetic and gestational surrogates. In general, the experience of surrogacy was important and very positive for most surrogates, though some negative experiences were also reported. One surrogate reported some psychopathology but no significant differences in quality of life were apparent between the groups. The implications of the lack of substantial differences between these two types of surrogates are discussed, and provide some of the evidence needed to support current debates informing legislation, information and counselling.
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The author presents demographic and motivational data on 125 women who applied to be surrogate mothers. Several complementary motivations were noted: the desires for money, to be pregnant, to "give" a baby, and to resolve internal psychological conflicts.
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