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Losing Access to the Native Language While Immersed in a Second Language: Evidence for the Role of Inhibition in Second-Language Learning
Abstract
Adults are notoriously poor second-language (L2) learners. A context that enables successful L2 acquisition is language immersion. In this study, we investigated the effects of immersion learning for a group of university students studying abroad in Spain. Our interest was in the effect of immersion on the native language (L1), English. We tested the hypothesis that immersion benefits L2 learning as a result of attenuated influence of the L1. Participants were English-speaking learners of Spanish who were either immersed in Spanish while living in Spain or exposed to Spanish in the classroom only. Performance on both comprehension and production tasks showed that immersed learners outperformed their classroom counterparts with respect to L2 proficiency. However, the results also revealed that immersed learners had reduced L1 access. The pattern of data is most consistent with the interpretation that the L1 was inhibited while the learners were immersed.
... The evidence here has mostly come from language immersion studies. When bilinguals are immersed in an L2-speaking environment, even for a relatively short period of time, they often experience perturbed access to their L1 (Baus et al., 2013;Botezatu et al., 2022;Linck et al., 2009). For example, Baus et al. (2013) report that native German speakers who spent a semester in Spain were slower at naming non-cognate pictures in German at the end of the immersion period compared to the beginning. ...
... For example, Baus et al. (2013) report that native German speakers who spent a semester in Spain were slower at naming non-cognate pictures in German at the end of the immersion period compared to the beginning. Similarly, Linck et al. (2009) compared a group of native English speakers who had spent a semester in Spain to a separate group taking a non-immersive Spanish class. The immersion group showed reduced word production on a verbal fluency task in their L1, though it is worth noting that their L1 recovered to pre-immersion levels after 6 months. ...
... example, impaired language learning following picture naming in the dominant language (Bailey & Newman, 2018;Mickan et al., 2020Mickan et al., , 2021, or diminished dominant language access following immersion or picture naming in a non-dominant language (Baus et al., 2013;Kreiner & Degani, 2015;Levy et al., 2007;Linck et al., 2009)may be explained by this simple principle of lasting inhibition. A remaining question is the locus of inhibition in these studies. ...
For bilinguals, lexical access in one language may affect, or be affected by, activation of words in another language. Research to date suggests seemingly contradictory effects of such cross-linguistic influence (CLI): in some cases CLI facilitates lexical access while in others it is a hindrance. Here we provide a comprehensive review of CLI effects drawn from multiple disciplines and paradigms. We describe the contexts within which CLI gives rise to facilitation and interference and suggest that these two general effects arise from separate mechanisms that are not mutually exclusive. Moreover, we argue that facilitation is ubiquitous, occurring in virtually all instances of CLI, while interference is not always present and depends on levels of cross-language lexical competition. We discuss three critical factors – language context, direction, and modality of CLI – which appear to modulate facilitation and interference. Overall, we hope to provide a general framework for investigating CLI in future research.
... Thanks to this, we are better able to control the impact of confounding variables such as knowledge of another language and linguistic environment. This approach was used by Linck, Kroll, and Sunderman (2009), who compared two groups of English learners of Spanish: classroom students living in the USA who participated in a Spanish language course, and exchange students living for three months in Spain. The results showed that in a semantic verbal fluency task during their studyabroad experience, the exchange students produced fewer words in L1 than the classroom students. ...
... 1.2. Evidence for increased L1 access in speakers immersed in an L2 environment after reimmersion in an L1 environment Linck et al. (2009) published the first study that explored whether L1 difficulties due to immersion in an L2 environment can be reversed after reimmersion in an L1 environment. Previously, we discussed this study in the context of comparing bilinguals immersed in an L2 environment against bilinguals in an L1 environment (see section 1.1.2. ...
... Overall, the available evidence (Chamorro et al., 2016;Köpke & Genevska-Hanke, 2018;Linck et al., 2009) seems to indicate that the L1 difficulties caused by immersion in an L2 environment can be reversed after reimmersion in the L1 environment. Still, only one of these studies (Linck et al., 2009) focused on single-Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 3 word retrieval. ...
The study explores how native language (L1) lexical access is affected by immersion in a second-language (L2) environment, and by short-term reimmersion in the L1 environment. We compared the L1 picture-naming performance of Polish–English bilinguals living in the UK (migrants) against that of bilinguals living in Poland (controls). Each group was tested twice: the migrants while in the UK (L2 immersion) and after visiting Poland (L1 reimmersion); the controls twice in their L1 environment. Contrary to our expectations, there was no main effect of group, thus suggesting that L2 immersion per se does not impact L1 lexical access. Nevertheless, migrants benefitted from L1 reimmersion by showing faster naming latencies for high-frequency words after a short visit to their home country, probably due to more opportunities to encounter these words. Overall, the study shows that the cognitive system is sensitive to the language environment by quickly adapting the activation level of lexical items.
... Following the explanatory framework proposed by Linck et al. (2009), bilinguals would have reduced functional frequency of lexical representations in each language compared to monolinguals, resulting in weaker links between these representations ( see section 2.3. for further information concerning the weaker links hypothesis). ...
... Likewise, living in an L2 immersion context implies a reduction of L1 and an increase of L2 use, entailing a reduction of the L1 functional frequency. Following the Revised Hierarchical Model ( Kroll & Stewart, 1994;Kroll & de Groot, 1997), Linck et al., (2009) suggest that the insensitivity to lexical neighborhood distractors found in the results of their study could be explained by the hypothesis of L1 inhibition in an L2 immersion context favored by stronger lexical-conceptual links, reflecting effects of resistance to L1 lexical competition. ...
... A recent literature review proposed by Köpke (2020) suggests that re-immersion of L1 attriters in an L1 linguistic environment even for short periods (one or two weeks) is sufficient to reverse attrition affects, for example with respect to production and on-line processing of pronouns. In the same perspective, Linck et al., (2009) suggest that L1 competence may be reestablished after having been immersed in an L1 dominant environment again. ...
The influence of the L1 on the L2 is a widely studied phenomenon in the field of bilingualism, unlike the influence of the L2 on the L1. We propose the study of semantic extensions (SE) as a phenomenon illustrating the latter case in late Spanish-French bilinguals. We compare a group of late bilinguals in immersion in France (average length of immersion = 4.6 years) with a group of Colombian monolinguals (naïve in L2 French). They completed a series of experimental tasks to study SE 1) in production, with a sentence completion task, 2) in word recognition, with a lexical decision task, and 3) in comprehension, with an acceptability judgment task. We hypothesize that, contrary to what is advocated in the literature, SE would be the result of a transfer at the lexeme level (concerning the phonological and orthographic information of words) and not exclusively the result of a transfer at the lemma level (at the level of semantic and syntactic links between two or more lemmas). We therefore postulate that formal competition between languages also plays a role at the time of lexical transfer. Our linguistic material opposes two psycholinguistic factors: the density of the neighborhood and the size of the morphological family of words in L1 and L2. These variables are presented under different experimental conditions by opposing associations at the level of form and semantic links of words. The results in oral production show some SEs and other lemmatic and lexemic transfers. The results in lexical decision support our hypothesis that bilinguals are sensitive to L2 stimuli. A facilitating effect appears here for L2 dominant neighborhood density stimuli, revealing a transfer at the lexeme level. These results suggest a coactivation of languages in bilinguals in word recognition and production. On the other hand, in comprehension, bilinguals adopt a monolingual mode in their SE assessments. We conclude that the SEs allow us to illustrate the influence of the L2 on the L1 in the late Spanish-French bilingual.
... The underlying assumption of research on bilingualism is that the L1 is a stable system that is not susceptible to change in the process of bootstrapping the L2. However, L2 learners experience subtle changes in native language processing in response to emerging L2 proficiency (e.g., Botezatu et al., 2022;Kroll et al., 2002;Linck et al., 2009). Such changes involve reduced L1 access (Ivanova & Costa, 2007;Kroll et al., 2002;Linck et al., 2009) and sensitivity (Dussias & Sagarra, 2007;Nosarti et al., 2010), but also facilitation in the retrieval of L1 cognates (Bice & Kroll, 2015;Van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002). ...
... However, L2 learners experience subtle changes in native language processing in response to emerging L2 proficiency (e.g., Botezatu et al., 2022;Kroll et al., 2002;Linck et al., 2009). Such changes involve reduced L1 access (Ivanova & Costa, 2007;Kroll et al., 2002;Linck et al., 2009) and sensitivity (Dussias & Sagarra, 2007;Nosarti et al., 2010), but also facilitation in the retrieval of L1 cognates (Bice & Kroll, 2015;Van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002). Second language proficiency has been shown to impact high-level, rule-governed processes, such as L1 grammar (Dussias & Sagarra, 2007), but also low-level processes, such as L1 word recognition Jared & Kroll, 2001;Nosarti et al., 2010;Spivey & Marian, 1999;Van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002). ...
... Disruption in L1 performance has also been noted at later stages of L2 learning (Bice & Kroll, 2015;Borodkin & Faust, 2014;Kroll et al., 2002). The influence of the L2 on the L1 at intermediate and late stages of L2 acquisition has been reported to involve L1 cognate facilitation (Bice & Kroll, 2015;Van Hell & Dijkstra, 2002), but also reduced access to non-cognate L1 words (e.g., Baus et al., 2013;Borodkin & Faust, 2014;Ivanova & Costa, 2007;Kroll et al., 2002;Linck et al., 2009) and increased interference from L2 print-to-sound mappings (Jared & Kroll, 2001;Nosarti et al., 2010). The presence of both early and late effects of bilingualism on the seemingly stable native language suggest that the L1 is integrated within an inherently plastic, dynamic language system (e.g., Ameel et al., 2009;Degani et al., 2011) that is open to the influence of various linguistic experiences (Bice & Kroll, 2019;e.g., Kasparian et al., 2016;Pakulak & Neville, 2010) and that even a limited amount of exposure to an L2 may be sufficient to elicit subtle effects on native language performance that diverge from the monolingual standard. ...
A hallmark of word naming in deep orthographies, effects of spelling-sound regularity and consistency are considered to reach stability in adulthood. We investigated whether these effects were modulated by second language (L2) proficiency in native English and native Spanish speakers. Participants named English, Spanish and language-ambiguous words, but only the English words were used in the analysis. Participants in each group named English words with irregular-inconsistent mappings (e.g., PINT) more slowly and less accurately than words with regular-consistent mappings (e.g., GATE). Higher English proficiency reduced the magnitude of the regularity-consistency effect in both groups. Critically, native English speakers revealed a U-shaped relationship between L2-Spanish proficiency and the regularity-consistency effect on naming latencies. The current findings add to a growing body of literature that considers the boundaries within which L2 proficiency can influence native language (L1) performance. Results suggest that L2 proficiency may destabilize a fundamental aspect of L1 literacy, the computation of phonology from text, which is known as a highly stable psycholinguistic effect. This suggests that the language system is dynamic, remaining plastic in early adulthood.
... •Retrieving L1 words gets hampered after immersion in L2 environment (Linck et al., 2009;Beatty-Martinez et al., 2020) •L1 reimmersion helps L1 word retrieval (Linck et al., 2009) ✴ Controversial results during L2 immersion vs. living in L1 country • How does the language environment (L1 country / long-term L2 immersion / L1 short-term reimmersion) impact the easiness of word retrieval in L1 & L2 ...
... •Retrieving L1 words gets hampered after immersion in L2 environment (Linck et al., 2009;Beatty-Martinez et al., 2020) •L1 reimmersion helps L1 word retrieval (Linck et al., 2009) ✴ Controversial results during L2 immersion vs. living in L1 country • How does the language environment (L1 country / long-term L2 immersion / L1 short-term reimmersion) impact the easiness of word retrieval in L1 & L2 ...
... Quantitative measures: lexical access Nº Words (12) larger nº words, better word retrieval abilities Qualitative measures % cognates: between language co-activation (2) larger % cognates, greater co-activation Cluster size: words within subcategories ((0 +1+ 0 +1 + 2 + 3 + 0 + 0+ 1 + 0 +1 + 2 )/5) = 2.2) larger cluster sizes, more exemplars available in each subcategory (Linck et al., 2009) ➡ same number of words in L1 (Baus et al., 2013) •larger % cognates in L1 (Baus et al., 2013) ➡ Is the ease of word retrieval predicted by ...
How does the language environment (L1 country / long-term L2 immersion /
L1 short-term reimmersion) impact the easiness of word retrieval in L1 & L2?
a) L1 word retrieval is not hampered by L2-immersion
b) L2 word retrieval improves with L2-immersion
c) Short-term L1 reimmersion does not improve the ease of L1 word retrieval nor negatively affect the ease of L2 retrieval
... Notably, studies have indicated that extended immersion in an L2 context amplifies the cognitive effort required for languages that are not regularly practised or used (Tu et al., 2015). A substantial body of research, often focusing on typologically similar language pairs like English-Spanish, has showcased a decline in L1 lexical representation during immersion in L2 settings (Linck et al., 2009;Kaushanskaya et al., 2011;Baus et al., 2013). ...
... For the SA group, immersion in an L2-rich environment granted them a distinct advantage by allowing them to suppress interference from their dominant L1 more effectively (e.g., Linck et al., 2009;Baus et al., 2013). This reduced effort in inhibiting the L1 during L2 processing manifested even though their L1 remained dominant. ...
This study investigates the impact of study-abroad experience (SAE) on lexical translation among 50 Chinese (L1)-English (L2) interpreting students. Participants were divided into two groups based on their experience abroad. Both groups consisted of 25 unbalanced L2 learners who were matched in age, working memory, length of interpreting training, and L2 proficiency. Bidirectional word translation recognition tasks, from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1, highlighted several key findings: (1) both groups were significantly more accurate and faster from L2 to L1 than in the reverse direction; (2) the study abroad (SA) group was more inclined to respond quickly at the risk of making errors, whereas the non-study abroad (NSA) group tended to be more cautious, prioritising accuracy over speed; (3) the SA group were more balanced and consistent in their performance across lexical translations in both directions than the NSA group. These results emphasise the potent effect of SAE in resolving bilinguals’ language competition, especially in streamlining language switching, a cognitive process critical for interpreting students engaging daily with dual languages.
... This might be because these effects are less detectable. Linck et al (2009) tested the hypothesis that immersion facilitates L2 learning because it enables adult learners to attenuate the activity of the L1. They compared the performance of two groups of native English-speaking university students at an intermediate level of acquiring Spanish as an L2: one group learned the language only in the classroom, while the other spent 4 months in Spain immersed in the language. ...
... In the longitudinal study, Russian-English bilingual students were studied who moved to Hungary (L3 environment) to study in different programs for two years at the University of Pannonia where the language of instruction is exclusively English and they converse with their classmates in English, too. Following Linck et al's (2009) design, L1 production data of this group was compared to students studying English at a Russian university. L1 vocabulary has been identified as the most vulnerable to attrition (Gross, 2004;Jarvis, 2019;Schmitt, 2019), so it was chosen to be the focus of this study. ...
Second language acquisition is often considered as a unidirectional process in which the second language (L2) develops and is influenced by the first language (L1). However, research in the field of the psycho-and neurolinguistics of bilingualism suggest that changes can be detected in the L1 at the very early stages of language acquisition due to the incorporation of a new language into the established language network. This study discusses the consequences of cross-linguistic influence on the L1 and theories that can account for the effects of the second language on the first; it reviews the empirical findings in the field and finally presents possible answers to the question of whether the phenomena can be labelled as language attrition.
... The activation approach to heritage language acquisition is built on Lardiere's (2008Lardiere's ( , 2009) Feature Reassembly Hypothesis, which was conceived for L2 learners. Putnam and Sánchez's (2013) activation approach establishes a connection between heritage language activation and heritage language acquisition and maintenance (Levy et al. 2007;Linck et al. 2009;Seton and Schmid 2016), particularly due to the heritage speaker's L2 (and dominant language) becoming the more activated language and the heritage language being frequently inhibited . ...
Along with declaratives and interrogatives, imperatives are one of the three major clause types of human language. In Spanish, imperative verb forms present poor morphology, yet complex syntax. The present study examines the acquisition of (morpho)syntactic properties of imperatives in Spanish among English-speaking heritage speakers of Spanish. With the use of production and acceptability judgment tasks, this study investigates the acquisition of verb morphology and clitic placement in canonical and negative imperatives. The results indicate that the acquisition of Spanish imperatives among heritage speakers is shaped by the heritage speakers’ productive vocabulary knowledge, lexical frequency and syntactic complexity. Indeed, most of the variability in their knowledge was found in their production of negative imperatives: heritage speakers show a rather stable receptive grammatical knowledge while their production shows signs of variability modulated by the heritage speakers’ productive vocabulary knowledge and by the lexical frequency of the verb featured in the test items.
... While some assumptions emphasize a critical period of language learning (Johnson & Newport, 1989), other theories and empirical evidence point out that learning contexts play a key role (Kuhl et al., 2003;Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001;Legault et al., 2019a;Li & Jeong, 2020). For example, compared to traditional classroom settings, immersive study abroad settings offer a contextualized, real-life experience that can enhance foreign language learning outcomes (Jackson & Schwieter, 2019;Klassen et al., 2021;Linck et al., 2009). With the widespread promotion and development of innovative technologies, immersive virtual reality (VR) contexts may have similar effects given their ability to simulate language-enriching experiences through exposure to multiple types of sensory and motor information. ...
In this behavioral and electrophysiological study, we compare novel word learning, particularly lexical form acquisition, in an immersive virtual reality (VR) context with a picture-word (PW) association context. We also test whether inhibitory control and age of second language acquisition (L2 AoA) have modulating effects. Chinese speakers of L2 English learned two sets of German words, one set in each of the contexts. Behavioral performance from a subsequent recognition task indicated that responses to VR-learned words were faster than PW-leaned words. ERPs revealed that VR-learned words elicited more negative N100 and N200 waveforms than PW-learned words. Moreover, a significant relationship between L2 AoA and N200 amplitude was observed for VR-learned words. Taken together, the results suggest that the multi-sensory, interactive experience simulated by an immersive VR context has a positive effect on early lexical form acquisition of novel words.
... 1. L1 and L2 speech are intrinsically linked: As above, ADAPPT predicts that when a person newly acquires or further develops an L2, this will have an impact on the L1. In its most minimal form, the impact on the L1 could be reduced accessibility, causing, for example, slower reaction times in the L1 (e.g., de Leeuw et al., 2023;Linck, Kroll, & Sunderman, 2009), but in some cases (e.g., extended L2 immersion) extensive structural changes in the L1 could occur (e.g., de Leeuw et al., 2018;Dmitrieva et al., 2010;Yao & Chang, 2016). Future research could examine how these different forms of mutual interaction proceed over a bilingual's lifespan. ...
This contribution presents an overview of what is currently known about phonetic and phonological first language (L1) attrition and drift in bilingual speech as well as a new theory of bilingual speech, Attrition & Drift in Access, Production, and Perception Theory (ADAPPT), which devotes special attention to L1 change. Attrition and drift are defined and differentiated along several dimensions, including duration of change, source in second language (L2) experience, consciousness, agency, and scope. The chapter addresses why findings of attrition and drift are important for our overall understanding of bilingual speech and draws links between ADAPPT and well-known theories of L2 speech, such as the revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r), Perceptual Assimilation Model-L2 (PAM-L2), and Second Language Linguistic Perception model (L2LP). More generally, the significance of findings revealing attrition and drift are discussed in relation to different linguistic subfields, such as sociolinguistics, usage-based theory, and generative linguistics. The chapter raises the question of how attrition and drift potentially interact to influence speech production and perception in the bilingual’s L1 over the lifespan; additional directions for future research are pointed out as well.
... The changes in strength create states of dependence or interference of one language over another, somehow regressing in the phases of acquisition defined by the BIA-d model (see our proposal in Figure 3). In this sense, note that both the L2 or the L1 could suffer changes in their representational state, depending on these fluctuations in proficiency, in line with previous evidence (e.g., Dussias & Sagarra, 2007;Guo et al., 2011;Linck et al., 2009; see also Morales et al., 2014). Thus, we do not expect AoA to be a better predictor of the GCE than proficiency. ...
The cross-linguistic gender congruency effect (GCE; a facilitation on gender retrieval for translations of the same gender) is a robust phenomenon analysed almost exclusively with late bilinguals. However, it is important to ascertain whether it is modulated by age of acquisition (AoA) and language proficiency. We asked 64 early and late bilinguals of European Portuguese and German to do a forward and backward translation task. A measure of language balance was calculated through the DIALANG test. Analyses included this factor along with the gender congruency between translations, the target language, and the AoA of both languages, among others. Results showed a GCE for European Portuguese that was independent of the AoA and greater the higher the language imbalance. We propose that changes in proficiency in any of the languages create situations of dependency between them which allow cross-linguistic gender interaction to occur and effects to emerge depending on gender transparency.
... Their approach is an extension of Lardiere's (2008Lardiere's ( , 2009) Feature Reassembly Hypothesis (FRH), originally proposed for L2 acquisition. Their activation approach supports the claim that language activation impacts HL acquisition and maintenance (Levy et al., 2007;Linck et al., 2009;Seton & Schmid, 2016). HLs may experience remapping and restructuring of FFs to different semantic and PF features as HSs activate their second and dominant language more frequently than their HL, which is often inhibited (Putnam et al., 2019). ...
Aims and Objectives
This study explores Spanish heritage speakers’ (HSs) knowledge of clitic climbing and the (extra-)linguistic factors that modulate it.
Design
Heritage speakers of Spanish completed three screening tasks (a background language questionnaire, a productive vocabulary task, and proficiency task) and two experimental tasks (an elicited production task, and a forced choice task) examining their knowledge of clitic climbing in different contexts.
Data and Analysis
Thirty-nine participants completed two experimental tasks. Each task included 32 critical items distributed in four conditions. The data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models.
Findings
Patterns of language exposure and use are a strong predictor for clitic climbing knowledge while the effects of age of onset of bilingualism found contradict our hypothesis.
Originality
This study examines production and interpretation data of clitic climbing knowledge in combination with extralinguistic factors that may facilitate heritage language acquisition and maintenance. Sequential bilinguals show a stronger enclisis bias than simultaneous bilinguals.
Significance
The results show that, in cases of optionality, self-reported heritage language exposure and use may be a stronger predictor than age of onset of bilingualism of the dominant language.
Limitations
This study does not have acceptability data on either grammatical or ungrammatical instances of proclisis or enclisis. In addition, because the test items feature different verbs, no lexical analysis can be conducted. Finally, using an adapted version of the BLP instead of its original normed version restricts opportunities for comparability and reproducibility.
... And indeed, lab research has shown that bilinguals experience more TOTs than monolinguals. Several reasons have been proposed to explain this difference: competition for selection between translation equivalents (Kroll et al., 2006;Sarkis & Montag, 2021), reduced frequency of use of words in each language Pyers et al., 2009), and interference with the accessibility of one of the languages due to immersion in the other one (Linck et al., 2009). While the evidence that bilingual speakers experience word retrieval difficulties is undisputed, the notion that bilinguals predominantly switch as a strategy to make up for word finding difficulties faces substantial challenges. ...
... Alternatively, the null acoustics:group interaction could also indicate that the noise was not sufficiently challenging to reveal the potential disproportionate non-native disadvantage. We note that the native speakers in the present study were not strictly monolinguals as they were also able to speak English as a second language and had been living in an English-speaking environment since arriving in the U.S. Bice & Kroll (2015) and Linck et al., (2009) suggest that learning an L2 (in this case, English) can attenuate L1 processing (i. e., their Mandarin Chinese). ...
Adverse listening conditions typically triggers the use of linguistic knowledge, which helps the listener compensate for the impoverished acoustic signal. It is not clear, however, whether linguistic knowledge facilitates non-native speech perception in the same way as it does native speech perception. This study examined how native listeners and non-native learners use distributional characteristics of the Mandarin lexicon for word recognition in noise. Monosyllabic Mandarin words varying in syllable token frequency and syllable-tone co-occurrence probabilities were mixed with speech-shaped noise and two-talker babble at two signal-to-noise ratios. Participants were asked to listen to the speech and type the perceived syllable and tone word. The results showed that two-talker babble was more disruptive than speech-shaped noise, and a lower signal-to-noise ratio was more detrimental than a higher signal-to-noise ratio. However, neither noise type or noise level affected non-native word recognition disproportionately. Syllable token frequency facilitated word recognition for both listener groups, but only the native listeners showed robust use of syllable-tone co-occurrence probabilities for word recognition. For all listeners, lexical proficiency correlated positively with word recognition performance. These results suggest that lexical proficiency accounts for the use of distributional knowledge regardless of the type or level of noise.
... A recent fMRI study found a high degree of L1 to L2 cross-linguistic interference even with short-term L2 training via picture-word association training (Bartolotti, Bradley, Hernandez, & Marian, 2017). Linck, Kroll, & Sunderman (2009) examined whether cross-linguistic interference differs across L2 learning contexts. They compared cross-linguistic interference in English monolinguals across L2 learning of Spanish either in an immersed environment (study abroad in Spain) or via classroom instruction (which includes paired association training). ...
Recent research indicates that learning a second language (L2) results in both functional and structural brain changes. However, few studies have examined whether structural brain changes vary as a function of the context in which L2 learning takes place. The current study examines changes in cortical thickness (CT) and gray matter volume (GMV) in response to short-term L2 vocabulary learning. In particular, we compared structural changes for learning with paired picture-word (PW) association versus learning within virtual environments (VE) and non-trained controls. Both L2 training groups learned the same 90 Mandarin Chinese nouns across 7 training sessions over approximately 20 days. Our results show (a) CT and GMV increased in regions implicated in a language control network for both L2 training groups, and (b) participants in different learning contexts may rely on different structures within this language control network. In particular, CT in the right IFG was associated with L2 training performance for the PW group, whereas CT in the right IPL showed a positive correlation with L2 training performance for the VE group. Our findings indicate that short-term L2 training leads to changes in brain structure, which vary based on L2 learning contexts and individual differences in cognitive ability.
... Nonetheless, the processes involved in attrition are still not understood. Recently, it has been suggested that L1 attrition might be related to the dynamics in the control of inhibition as the L1 would be constantly inhibited during L2 immersion (Kroll & Navarro-Torres, 2018;Linck, Kroll, & Sunderman, 2009). One would expect that the loss of linguistic functions would be less affected in translators and interpreters as these professionals are frequently using both languages. ...
... The finding concurs with Foronda, (2017), who point out that speakers will only acquire a native accent of the target language if they receive massive exposure to this said language. This claim is strengthened by Linck et al. (2009), who concluded, based on the findings of their study, that a context that enables successful L2 acquisition is language immersion. ...
Among the places in Negros, Mambukal Resort is one of the spots where the English Language is the only utilised language between foreign tourists and the Hiligaynon vendors. This descriptive-qualitative study investigated the language interferences in speech production among Hiligaynon native speakers who use English as the second language in every transaction in Mambukal Resort, Negros Occidental. This study used the conceptual analysis technique to describe the content of documents found in the data gathered. Using the self-made guide questions for the interview process, the five recorded responses from 5 different representatives of the Flower shops located in this resort were successfully transcribed, analysed and interpreted. This study is anchored on Language Interference and Generative Phonology theory by Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle. With the K-12 program evident in the Philippines, data reveals that 4 out of 5 respondents have graduated at their junior level. Convenient purposive sampling was used in selecting the participants. Findings show that they had difficulty putting correct emphases on the correct syllables, and there is an unprecedented wave of intonation in each word. The pronunciation of the vowel sounds is compromised, and there needs to be more indicative of the content's comprehension. These findings led to the conclusion that respondents' L1 greatly influences not just the adaptation of the suprasegmental features of the target language but also the segmental features. It is recommended that language teachers be fully equipped with the governing standards of the first and second language to impart the use of the right language in the right circumstance. Students must be aware of the unique suprasegmental features of both languages through constant exposure to these languages.
... Schmid and Köpke suggest that L1 attrition may be a phenomenon that is experienced by all L2 users from the earliest stages of L2 development (Schmid & Köpke, 2009). Indeed, research of L1 attrition showed that even immigrants with very limited knowledge of L2 could exhibit signs of L1 attrition (Beganovic, 2006;Linck et al., 2009;Yağmur, 1999Yağmur, , 2010. For example, Yağmur (1999) in his analysis of Turkish L1 attrition in Australia, found attrition of relative clause formation in Turkish in speakers with both high and low proficiency in English. ...
Language attrition of first (L1) and second (L2) languages has been a prominent area of applied linguistic research recently, particularly with the increase in international migration. Few studies, however, examined simultaneous L1 and L2 attrition in the same population. A further understudied area is indirect (second-hand) attrition – L1 or L2 attrition in immigrants who have not learned the language of the new country and yet experience its influence in the languages they know. This study investigates lexical L1 and L2 attrition in L1 Russian-speaking immigrants in Israel and the effect of the interplay of Russian, English, and Hebrew languages on this attrition. Furthermore, the study aims to expand the knowledge of second-hand L1 and L2 attrition. It also examines how attrition is affected by L2/L3 level, L1/L2/L3 usage, language aptitude, education, and metalinguistic awareness.
The study employed a quantitative methodology. The participants included four study groups in Israel (monolingual L1 Russian speakers, bilingual L1 Russian – L2 Hebrew speakers, bilingual L1 Russian – L2 English, and trilingual L1Russian – L2 English – L3 Hebrew speakers) and two control groups residing in Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan (monolingual L1 Russian speakers, bilingual L1 Russian – L2 English speakers). The participants took a number of tests that examined lexical attrition of L1 Russian and (for English speakers) L2 English in the following areas: collocations, infrequent vocabulary, vocabulary size, perceived word similarity, and object categorization patterns. Additionally, the participants completed sociolinguistic questionnaires and took tests of language aptitude and metalinguistic awareness. The tests were administered online.
Results provided evidence for direct and second-hand L1 attrition of Russian, especially of collocations, under the influence of Hebrew. L2 English did not appear to have a significant effect on L1. L2 attrition of English was less prominent, but Hebrew appeared to affect L2 English, especially in the area of collocations. Higher levels of language aptitude, metalinguistic awareness, and education served as protective factors against attrition. Length of residence in the new country was shown to be an important factor for L1 and L2 attrition. Frequent use of Russian did not diminish L1 attrition, possibly because immigrants were exposed to attrited, or heritage Russian to a large extent in their daily lives. Frequent use of English, on the other hand, was associated with lower levels of L2 English attrition possibly because of the nature of the immigrants’ input in English that is largely from media produced in English-speaking countries and not in Israel.
The specific contributions of the study to the field of language attrition are in describing and explaining attrition in multilingual speakers and second-hand attrition.
... Subject C who is 58 years old, also mentioned, that for she the process of acquiring their L3 (Spanish) was easier than learning her L2 (English), she also mentioned that she learned her L2 in elementary, secondary, and high school and that she also made some intensive summer courses, but her process of learning Spanish was different, she only took some classes in Guatemala and in Mexico, but when she totally moved to Mexico, she learned faster. According to some research, for adult language learners to learn a language can be a struggle process, but the language acquisition process may be facilitated by studying abroad (as is cited in Linck, et al., 2009) that is what happened whit subject C. ...
This paper presents research on Multilingualism in Language Acquisition, making emphasis on how it affects the process of learning a new langue in multilingual people. The article goes through many topics, such as “the nativist theory” related to the process of language acquisition, among others that help to the understanding of the conclusions. The method used to gather information was through questionnaires. To carry out the research students and teachers from the Language Department of the University of Guanajuato were asked to answer questionnaires. The results of the questionnaires of the subjects were collected and analyzed to find and show the impact of knowing other languages in the acquisition of a new one. The conclusion of this article support and states that multilingualism affects and helps in a positive way with the acquisition of a new language, also stated that language learners who know more languages have an advantage in acquiring a new one than monolingual people.
... Previously, CLI was considered unidirectional (L1 influencing L2), and most studies focused on the changes occurring in the L2 during the course of language acquisition/ learning while assuming that the L1 remains stable (Johnson & Newport, 1989;Piske et al., 2001). Research on language attrition has shown that a prolonged exposure to an L2, such as an immigration context, leaves traces on the L1 and that this can be measurable even after such a short period of time as a student exchange program (Linck et al., 2009). The present study aims to explore the extent of language attrition of Russians living in Hungary compared to Russians residing in Russia who use no other languages in their everyday life (i.e., functional monolinguals). ...
Prolonged exposure to a second language changes how the first language (L1) is produced
and processed, a phenomenon labelled as language attrition (Yilmaz & Schmid, 2018). The
goal of the present study was to explore the extent of Russian language attrition among
Russians living in Hungary and to explore how extralinguistic variables, such as length of
residence, age, frequency of first language use, and attitudes towards the language, contribute to
the process. Besides questionnaires, semantic and letter fluency tasks were used to explore
lexical access and a story-telling task to measure lexical diversity and speech fluency. The
findings showed that the control group (monolingual Russians living in Russia) outperformed
attriters in terms of lexical access and lexical diversity while speech fluency seems to be intact.
None of the extralinguistic variables explain the extent of attrition; however, frequency of use
is related to the letter fluency tasks.
... 489-490) Putnam and Sánchez's (2013) activation approach to heritage language acquisition builds on Lardiere's (2008Lardiere's ( , 2009) Feature Reassembly Hypothesis, originally formulated for L2 learners. Putnam and Sánchez's (2013) activation approach conceives language activation as a crucial factor impacting heritage language acquisition and maintenance (Levy et al., 2007;Linck et al., 2009;Seton & Schmid, 2016): heritage languages undergo a process of remapping and restructuring of FF s to different semantic and phonological features as a result of the growing activation of the L2 as the dominant language and the consequent inhibition of the heritage language throughout the heritage bilinguals' lifespan (Putnam et al., 2019). ...
This study investigates the acquisition of subject placement in unergative and unaccusative predicates among heritage speakers of Spanish by addressing two constraints ruling the distribution of subject placement (i.e., verb type and focus) as well as by examining whether lexical frequency impacts their acquisition. Sixty-three heritage speakers and twenty-five Spanish-dominant bilinguals completed an oral elicited production task and an acceptability judgment task. Results show that verb type constraints in the heritage speakers are shaped by their proficiency and self-reported lexical frequency: more proficient heritage speakers rated VS sentences higher than their lower-proficient counterparts, and more instances of VS sentences were produced with more frequent unaccusative verbs. Focus constraints only impact the heritage speakers’ acceptability: in narrow focus contexts, heritage speakers rate SV higher than VS sentences. Lexical frequency effects in unaccusative predicates are argued to be the result of spell-outs favoring compatible linear orders as a way to reduce computational costs.
... Indeed, managing and resolving competition is vital for target language selection, a crucial and necessary aspect for successful speech production and comprehension (Kroll, Dussias, Bogulski & Valdés-Kroff, 2012). Early models of bilingual language processing proposed that the relevant mechanism is domain-general cognitive control (e.g., the Inhibitory Control Model, Green, 1998;Levy, McVeigh, Marful & Anderson, 2007;Linck, Kroll & Sunderman, 2009;Philipp, Gade & Koch, 2007). The proposal that inhibition (potentially attention more broadly, see Bialystok & Craik, 2022) is at the center of successful bilingual language control is supported by a significant neuroimaging literature. ...
The study of the brains’ oscillatory activity has been a standard technique to gain insights into human neurocognition for a relatively long time. However, as a complementary analysis to ERPs, only very recently has it been utilized to study bilingualism and its neural underpinnings. Here, we provide a theoretical and methodological starter for scientists in the (psycho)linguistics and neurocognition of bilingualism field(s) to understand the bases and applications of this analytical tool. Towards this goal, we provide a description of the characteristics of the human neural (and its oscillatory) signal, followed by an in-depth description of various types of EEG oscillatory analyses, supplemented by figures and relevant examples. We then utilize the scant, yet emergent, literature on neural oscillations and bilingualism to highlight the potential of how analyzing neural oscillations can advance our understanding of the (psycho)linguistic and neurocognitive understanding of bilingualism.
... Further, half of the participants completed Block A in English, and half completed Block A in their HL, and then Block B was completed in the language that was not used for Block A. A total score for each language, a proxy of language proficiency, was created from the sum of all valid responses given for each of the four categories. Similar procedures have been used in past studies (e.g., Gollan et al., 2002;Linck et al., 2009;Baus et al., 2013). ...
The language backgrounds and experiences of bilinguals have been primarily characterized using self-report questionnaires and laboratory tasks, although each of these assessments have their strengths and weaknesses. The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR), an audio recording device, has recently become more prominent as a method of assessing real-world language use. We investigated the relationships among these three assessment tools, to understand the shared variance in how these measures evaluated various aspects of the bilingual experience. Participants were 60 Southern California heritage bilingual college students who spoke a variety of heritage languages and began to learn English between the ages of 0-to 12-years. Participants completed both self-report and laboratory-based measures of language proficiency and use, and they wore the EAR for 4 days to capture representative samples of their day-to-day heritage language (HL) use. The results indicated that self-reported HL use and English age of acquisition were significant predictors of real-world language use as measured by the EAR. In addition, self-reported HL proficiency and laboratory-based HL proficiency, as measured by verbal fluency, were mutually predictive. While some variability was shared across different assessments, ultimately, none of the measures correlated strongly and each measure captured unique information about the heritage bilingual language experience, highlighting the dissociation between language experience measured at a single point in time and an accumulated life history with a heritage language. These findings may provide guidance for bilingualism researchers about which assessment tool, or combination of tools, may be best for their specific research questions.
... However, others failed to find an immersion effect (e.g., Heidlmayr et al., 2014). Note that factors such as duration of immersion might need to be taken into consideration (Linck et al., 2009). ...
Bilingualism has been associated with better cognitive control as compared to monolingualism. However, the robustness of the respective findings is subject to a recent debate, and moderators should be taken into consideration. We reasoned that groups immersed in their second language should show a greater bilingual advantage in cognitive control as compared to non-immersed participants. Further, stimulus language (first or second language), word similarity in the two languages (similar or dissimilar), as well as congruency between ink and word were varied. Forty-five participants from three different language groups (Romance, Slavic, and German) conducted a Stroop task while EEG was recorded. Higher cognitive control demand was operationalized as (1) longer reaction times, (2) higher error rates, (3) stronger N400, (4) increased Late Positive Complex (LPC), and (5) stronger Frontal Midline Theta activity. The classical Stroop interference effect was replicated for all dependent variables. Contrary to expectation, participants immersed in their second language did not exhibit any inhibition advantage in the Stroop task. Moreover, higher script similarity between first and second languages led to faster response times in general. Results are discussed in light of the current debate on the existence of a bilingual advantage in cognitive control.
... In other words, English may have been uniquely disruptive for both Van Engen's and our participants because both experiments took place in the U.S., within the context of a predominantly English-speaking society. Importantly, the idea that the immersion context (or "predominant language"; Silva-Corvalán and Treffers-Daller 2016) of the experiment should figure into the interpretation of the results has been pointed out in other areas of bilingualism research (Beatty-Martínez et al. 2020;Jacobs et al. 2016;Linck et al. 2009;Zirnstein et al. 2018); our proposal is simply to extend this idea to account for the relative disruption caused by competing speech in different languages. ...
Auditory word recognition in the non-dominant language has been suggested to break
down under noisy conditions due, in part, to the difficulty of deriving a benefit from contextually constraining information. However, previous studies examining the effects of sentence constraints on word recognition in noise have conflated multiple psycholinguistic processes under the umbrella term of “predictability”. The present study improves on these by narrowing its focus specifically on prediction processes, and on whether the possibility of using semantic constraint to predict an upcoming target word improves word recognition in noise for different listener populations and noise conditions. We find that heritage, but not second language, Spanish listeners derive a word recognition-in-noise benefit from predictive processing, and that non-dominant language word recognition benefits more from predictive processing under conditions of energetic, rather than informational, masking. The latter suggests that managing interference from competing speech and generating predictions about an upcoming target word draw on the same cognitive resources. An analysis of individual differences shows that better inhibitory control ability is associated with reduced disruption from competing speech in the more dominant language in particular, revealing a critical role for executive function in simultaneously managing interference and generating expectations for upcoming words.
... For many bilinguals, that would be within the same day -but, if not, we think that it is possible that inhibitory effects (conceptualized as (unnaturally) lower activation levels) persist for weeks and even months. Such situations may explain cumulative adverse effects on the dominant language after immersion in the nondominant language (Baus et al., 2013;Linck et al., 2009). ...
Bilinguals need to control interference from the nontarget language, to avoid saying words in the wrong language. This study investigates how often bilinguals apply such control in a dual-language mode, when speaking one language after the other when the two languages cannot be used interchangeably: over and over (every time they say a word), or only once (the first time they use a word or language after a language switch). Three groups of Spanish-English bilinguals named pictures first in their dominant, then in their nondominant, and then again in their dominant language; a fourth control group of bilinguals named pictures in their dominant language throughout. The study targeted language control aftereffects on the dominant language after nondominant naming, typically assumed to reflect recovery from previously applied inhibition. If the dominant language is inhibited every time a nondominant word is produced, subsequent dominant-language naming latencies should increase in proportion to the number of pictures previously named in the nondominant language. We found, however, that the number of nondominant picture-naming trials did not affect subsequent naming latencies in the dominant language, despite ample statistical power to detect such effects if they existed. The results suggest that, in a dual-language mode, bilingual (inhibitory) control is applied over a word’s translation upon the word’s first mention but not over and over with subsequent repetitions. This conclusion holds true equally for inhibitory and non-inhibitory language control mechanisms.
Many previous studies have discussed the interactions between two of the most important human cognitive functions, memory and language, and have pointed out that the listening comprehension of L2 learners is profoundly affected by memory and language backgrounds. Therefore, this study explores the relationship among working memory (WM) and language aptitude (LA) components that represent the phonological memory of 129 Asian international students from two different cultural circles: the Chinese and Non-Chinese-character cultural circle countries (abbreviated as 4C and N4C) in Chinese listening proficiency (CLP). The statistical results show that first, after learning Chinese as an L2 for the same amount of time, L2 learners with disparate backgrounds were found to have significantly different levels of Chinese listening proficiency (CLP), with the 4C cohort showing higher CLP levels. Second, the cognitive ability factors that can successfully predict learners’ CLP are different. Specifically, phonetic coding ability (PCA) is the best predictor, although with different predictive power for both N4C and 4C primary Chinese L2 learners. In regard to N4C learners, the explanatory power of executive functioning of working memory (EWM) is added. In conclusion, from the perspective of language-historical background, the predictive cognitive ability related to memory required by L2 learners is dynamic; in addition, EWM, as a general cognitive factor independent of LA, plays a significant role in L2 learners’ listening comprehension.
A recent model of sound change posits that the direction of change is determined, at least in part, by the distribution of variation within speech communities. We explore this model in the context of bilingual speech, asking whether the less variable language constrains phonetic variation in the more variable language, using a corpus of spontaneous speech from early Cantonese-English bilinguals. As predicted, given the phonetic distributions of stop obstruents in Cantonese compared with English, intervocalic English /b d g/ were produced with less voicing for Cantonese-English bilinguals and word-final English /t k/ were more likely to be unreleased compared with spontaneous speech from two monolingual English control corpora. Whereas voicing initial obstruents can be gradient in Cantonese, the release of final obstruents is prohibited. Neither Cantonese-English bilingual initial voicing nor word-final stop release patterns were significantly impacted by language mode. These results provide evidence that the phonetic variation in crosslinguistically linked categories in bilingual speech is shaped by the distribution of phonetic variation within each language, thus suggesting a mechanistic account for why some segments are more susceptible to cross-language influence than others.
In our increasingly multilingual modern world, understanding how languages beyond the first are acquired and processed at a brain level is essential to design evidence-based teaching, clinical interventions and language policy. Written by a team of world-leading experts in a wide range of disciplines within cognitive science, this Handbook provides a comprehensive overview of the study of third (and more) language acquisition and processing. It features 30 approachable chapters covering topics such as multilingual language acquisition, education, language maintenance and language loss, multilingual code-switching, ageing in the multilingual brain, and many more. Each chapter provides an accessible overview of the state of the art in its topic, while offering comprehensive access to the specialized literature, through carefully curated citations. It also serves as a methodological resource for researchers in the field, offering chapters on methods such as case studies, corpora, artificial language systems or statistical modelling of multilingual data.
This chapter focuses on the study of language attrition in the context of L3 acquisition. Following a growing body of research on L2 effects on an L1, it is accepted that an L1 is not a static linguistic system and that L2 influence can present at the lexical, morphosyntactic, and phonological levels from even the earliest stages of L2 acquisition at the levels of both processing and representation. From this body of work, it is then logical to predict that any system can affect a previously acquired system, just as it has been established that existing systems can affect subsequently acquired systems. In this case, the prediction is that an L3 can influence an L1 and an L2, and a small body of research reported on in this chapter supports this prediction. The chapter begins with an overview of the relevant L1 attrition research and relates it to the predictions that this body of work makes for a context of L3 acquisition. I then highlight two of the questions that are central in the study of the effects of an L3 on previously acquired systems, reviewing the research that has established the groundwork for these lines of inquiry. The majority of this research has centered on linguistic factors among sequential L3 learners in a formal learning context. The chapter continues by pointing towards some outstanding questions stemming from this research and discussion of how we might model attrition in multilingualism. Towards the end, I raise some key considerations for the development of a methodological framework, highlighting the need to draw further from experimental approaches used in L1 attrition as a complement to L3-specific methods.
Previous research has shown that bilinguals process nouns that have the same grammatical gender in their two languages faster than nouns that differ in gender between L1 and L2. This finding, referred to as the gender congruency effect, has so far only been documented in L2. Hence, the aim of the present study was to examine whether late unbalanced bilinguals would also show gender congruency effects in their L1. To that end, 44 L1 Polish/L2 German bilinguals were tested in a gender decision task in Polish, which included gender-congruent and gender-incongruent nouns. The results revealed a robust gender congruency effect in L1, which was limited to bilinguals with very high L2 proficiency. This indicates that bilinguals activate grammatical gender information in L2 when accessing gender in L1, providing that they are highly proficient in L2. More broadly, the study demonstrates that foreign language knowledge can affect native language performance in exclusively native contexts. Finally, as a first attempt to examine grammatical gender access in Polish, this study shows that feminine gender is accessed faster compared to masculine and neuter, suggesting that the ending-a is the most reliable gender cue in Polish.
Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilingual adults can occasionally switch between their languages within a counting sequence; i.e., if they start counting in one language, they may choose to switch into the other language while counting the same set of objects. The present study explores the contexts in which a language switch within a counting sequence occurs. The participants read sentences and counted images in monolingual and bilingual conditions. The overall results display a preference to count in Spanish and maintain its use throughout the counting process when allowed to use their languages as desired. Five participants performed voluntary language switching within a counting sequence in bilingual conditions. Many participants also alternated their use of Spanish and English for counting across stimuli sets in these conditions. The participants’ performance is described and analysed with respect to variables such as the initial language of use for counting, language proficiency and language history.
Research has demonstrated that learning two or more languages during development (i.e., becoming bilingual) shapes children's cognition in myriad ways. However, because such studies have largely been conducted using laboratory experiments, it is unclear how bilingualism may modulate more naturalistic cognitive skills such as arithmetic fluency. Moreover, how the relationship between speaking two (or more) languages and arithmetic varies with language fluency-specifically, the degree of bilingualism-has been understudied. Therefore, this study examined third- to fifth-grade monolingual (n = 70) and bilingual (n = 51) children's performance on an arithmetic fluency task. Monolinguals' and bilinguals' performance on the arithmetic fluency task did not differ. However, individual differences in the relation between children's arithmetic fluency and their language fluency were found, suggesting that bilingual children's skill in their nondominant language was associated with arithmetic fluency. These findings point to the importance of examining individual differences in language fluency among bilinguals to understand how bilingualism may shape cognitive skills.
Evidence suggests that language processing in bilinguals is less left-lateralized than in monolinguals. We explored dual-task decrement (DTD) for mono-, bi- and multilinguals in a verbal-motor dual-task paradigm. We expected monolinguals to show greater DTD than bilingual participants, who would show greater DTD than multilingual participants. Fifty right-handed participants (18 monolingual, 16 bilingual, 16 multilingual) completed verbal fluency and manual motor tasks in isolation and concurrently. Tasks were completed twice in isolation (left-handed, right-handed) and twice as dual-tasks (left-handed, right-handed); participants’ motor-executing hands served proxy for hemispheric activation. Results supported the hypotheses. Completing dual-tasks incurred greater cost for manual motor tasks than for verbal fluency tasks. Negative cost of performing dual-tasks diminished as number of languages spoken increased; in fact, multilingual individuals demonstrated a dual-task advantage in both tasks when using the right hand, strongest in the verbal task. Dual-tasking had the greatest negative impact on verbal fluency of monolingual participants when the motor task was completed with the right hand; for bi- and multi-lingual participants, the greatest negative impact on verbal fluency was seen when the motor task was completed with the left hand. Results provide support for the bi-lateralization of language function in bi- and multilingual individuals.
Study abroad research has become an established area of inquiry with theoretical impact and methodological sophistication. The field has incorporated the different approaches and methodological changes that have characterized SLA scholarship, including technological advances and new designs. The present volume contributes an update on and a systematic critical appraisal of the methods employed in study abroad research to identify strengths and weaknesses and to look ahead and point towards new directions. The volume is organized around different areas -approaches, instruments, linguistic levels, and learners and their context-, each one including a number of chapters authored by outstanding experts in the field.
Study abroad research has become an established area of inquiry with theoretical impact and methodological sophistication. The field has incorporated the different approaches and methodological changes that have characterized SLA scholarship, including technological advances and new designs. The present volume contributes an update on and a systematic critical appraisal of the methods employed in study abroad research to identify strengths and weaknesses and to look ahead and point towards new directions. The volume is organized around different areas -approaches, instruments, linguistic levels, and learners and their context-, each one including a number of chapters authored by outstanding experts in the field.
A heritage language is the term given to a language spoken at home by bilingual children of immigrant parents. Written by a leading figure in the field, this pioneering, in-depth study brings together three heritage languages – Hindu, Spanish and Romanian - spoken in the United States. It demonstrates how heritage speakers drive morphosyntactic change when certain environmental characteristics are met, and considers the relationship between social and cognitive factors and timing in language acquisition, bilingualism, and language change. It also discusses the implications of the findings for the language education of heritage speakers in the USA and considers how the heritage language can be maintained in the English-speaking school system. Advancing our understanding of heritage language development and change, this book is essential reading for students and researchers of linguistics and multilingualism, immigration, education studies and language policy, as well as educators and policy makers.
The last two decades have seen a significant amount of interest in bilingual language learning and processing. A number of computational models have also been developed to account for bilingualism, with varying degrees of success. In this article, we first briefly introduce the significance of computational approaches to bilingual language learning, along with a discussion of the major contributions of current models, their implications, and their limitations. We show that the current models have contributed to progress in understanding the bilingual mind, but significant gaps exist. We advocate a new research agenda integrating progress across different disciplines, such as computational neuroscience, natural language processing, and first language acquisition, to construct a pluralist computational account that combines high‐level cognitive theories and neurobiological foundations for bilingual language learning. We outline the contributions and promises of this interdisciplinary approach in which we view bilingual language learning as a dynamic, interactive, and developmental process. A one‐page Accessible Summary of this article in non‐technical language is freely available in the Supporting Information online and at https://oasis‐database.org
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The relationship between memory and language and the topic of bilingualism are important areas of research in both psychology and linguistics and are grounded in cognitive and linguistic paradigms, theories and experimentation. This volume provides an integrated theoretical/real-world approach to second language learning, use and processing from a cognitive perspective. A strong international and interdisciplinary team of contributors present the results of various explorations into bilingual language processing, from recent advances in studies on bilingual memory to studies on the role of the brain in language processing and language forgetting. This is a strong yet balanced combination of theoretical/overview contributions and accounts of novel, original, empirical studies which will educate readers on the relationship between theory, cognitive experimentation and data and their role in understanding language learning and practice.
The availability of virtual reality (VR) tools and the attractiveness of their interactivity for users have influenced the spread of this technology in the field of language educational programs. However, scientific studies of the effectiveness of VR in comparison with traditional methods are few and show conflicting results, which can be explained by the influence of additional factors, such as the learner's motor activity and the speech learning strategies used. In order to clarify the role of these factors, we developed a natural design of learning tasks in VR on a computer monitor, based on the auditory presentation of new words to participants together with their visual referents in the context of interrogative sentences. The controlled variables were speech learning strategies (Fast Mapping/Explicit Encoding) and motor response to the question (high-velocity low amplitude hand movements). 16 respondents learned 8 nouns each in the two learning environments. Learning outcomes were assessed using the recognition task. Accuracy of the answers was analyzed using RM-ANOVA, the reaction time using the Wilcoxon test. The correctness of recognition of new words did not differ significantly after using VR (55%) or a computer monitor (61%). Words learned with high-velocity whole-hand movements were significantly better for participants when they learned through fast mapping, while words learned with low amplitude finger movements were significantly better with explicit encoding while using a computer monitor. Explicit Encoding learned words with small amplitude movements were recognized faster using VR then a computer monitor. The pilot study showed the effectiveness of the semantic assimilation of new words in both learning environments with the combined influence of speech learning strategies and the student's motor activity in this process.
Aims and Objectives
The benefits of dual-language immersion (DLI) versus English-only classrooms for minority-language speakers’ acquisition of English have been well documented. However, less is known about the effect(s) of DLI on majority-language speakers’ native English skills. Prior studies largely used accuracy-focused measures to index children’s language skills; it is possible that processing-based tasks are more sensitive to the effects of DLI experience.
Methodology
Thirty-three monolingual native English-speaking children attending English-only classrooms and thirty-three English-speaking children attending English-Spanish DLI matched in age, gender, nonverbal IQ, and socio-economic status were tested twice, 1 year apart, on standardized and processing-based measures of English vocabulary and morphosyntax.
Analysis
We ran linear mixed-effects models to examine the extent to which group and time would predict scores on knowledge-based measures of vocabulary and morphosyntactic knowledge, as well as accuracy and reaction times on processing-based measures of English vocabulary and morphosyntax.
Findings
Results revealed comparable levels of growth in English for both groups. A subtle effect of DLI was observed on a lexical-decision task: bilinguals were slower in Year 1 but both groups were equally efficient in Year 2. These results indicate that DLI programs have minimal impact on majority-language speakers’ native-language skills in the age-range tested.
Originality
This study is the first to longitudinally examine processing-based native language outcomes in bilingual children in DLI classrooms.
Significance
We do not find evidence that DLI exposure carries a cost to native language development, even when indexed by processing measures. This should reassure parents, educators, and policymakers in that there are no downsides to DLI.
A goal of second language (L2) learning is to enable learners to understand and speak L2 words without mediation through the first language (L1). However, psycholinguistic research suggests that lexical candidates are routinely activated in L1 when words in L2 are processed. In this article we describe two experiments that examined the acquisition of L2 lexical fluency. In Experiment 1, two groups of native English speakers, one more and one less fluent in French as their L2, performed word naming and translation tasks. Learners were slower and more error prone to name and to translate words into L2 than more fluent bilinguals. However, there was also an asymmetry in translation performance such that forward translation was slower than backward translation. Learners were also slower than fluent bilinguals to name words in English, the L1 of both groups. In Experiment 2, we compared the performance of native English speakers at early stages of learning French or Spanish to the performance of fluent bilinguals on the same tasks. The goal was to determine whether the apparent cost to L1 reading was a consequence of L2 learning or a reflection of differences in cognitive abilities between learners and bilinguals. Experiment 2 replicated the main features of Experiment 1 and showed that bilinguals scored higher than learners on a measure of L1 reading span, but that this difference did not account for the apparent cost to L1 naming.We consider the implications of these results for models of the developing lexicon.
Three experiments looked for the determinants of performance in 3 versions of the word-translation task. Exp 1 contained the normal-translation version and the cued-translation version. In Exp 2, Ss performed the translation-recognition task. In both experiments, word frequency and word imageability were manipulated. Both affected performance in all 3 versions of the task. In Exp 3 (normal translation), in addition to the effects of frequency and imageability, those of context availability, cognate status, definition accuracy, length of the stimulus words and of their translations, and familiarity were studied. All of them correlated with the performance measures, but only 4 variables accounted for unique translation variance: the frequency of the stimulus word, the frequency of the response word, cognate status, and context availability. These results are discussed in terms of bilingual memory structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study places the predictions of the bilingual interactive
activation model (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 1998) and the revised hierarchical model (Kroll &
Stewart, 1994) in the same context to
investigate lexical processing in a second language (L2). The performances
of two groups of native English speakers, one less proficient and the
other more proficient in Spanish, were compared on translation
recognition. In this task, participants decided whether two words, one in
each language, are translation equivalents. The items in the critical
conditions were not translation equivalents and therefore required a
“no” response, but were similar to the correct translation in
either form or meaning. For example, for translation equivalents such as
cara-face, critical distracters included (a) a form-related
neighbor to the first word of the pair (e.g., cara-card), (b) a
form-related neighbor to the second word of the pair, the translation
equivalent (cara-fact), or (c) a meaning-related word
(cara-head). The results showed that all learners, regardless of
proficiency, experienced interference for lexical neighbors and for
meaning-related pairs. However, only the less proficient learners also
showed effects of form relatedness via the translation equivalent.
Moreover, all participants were sensitive to cues to grammatical class,
such that lexical interference was reduced or eliminated when the two
words of each pair were drawn from different grammatical classes. We
consider the implications of these results for L2 lexical processing and
for models of the bilingual lexicon. a
Bilingual speech requires that the language of utterances be selected prior to articulation. Past research has debated whether the language of speaking can be determined in advance of speech planning and, if not, the level at which it is eventually selected. We argue that the reason that it has been difficult to come to an agreement about language selection is that there is not a single locus of selection. Rather, language selection depends on a set of factors that vary according to the experience of the bilinguals, the demands of the production task, and the degree of activity of the nontarget language. We demonstrate that it is possible to identify some conditions that restrict speech planning to one language alone and others that open the process to cross-language influences. We conclude that the presence of language nonselectivity at all levels of planning spoken utterances renders the system itself fundamentally nonselective.
An eye tracking experiment examined how exposure to a second language (L2) influences sentence parsing in the first language. Forty-four monolingual Spanish speakers, 24 proficient SpanishEnglish bilinguals with extensive L2 immersion experience read temporarily ambiguous constructions. The ambiguity concerned whether a relative clause (RC) that appeared after a complex noun phrase (NP) was interpreted as modifying the first or the second noun in the complex NP (Elpolicíaarrestóalahermanadelcriadoqueestabaenfermadesdehacíatiempo). The results showed that whereas the Spanish monolingual speakers and the SpanishEnglish bilingual with extensive exposure attached the relative to the second noun. Results are discussed in terms of models of sentence parsing most consistent with the findings.
1 This report was written for the Second Training Meeting of the EU Marie Curie Research Training Network: Language and Brain (Oviedo, Spain, April 2007), financed by the European Union. The report may be distributed freely for educational and research purposes. It does have copyright, though, meaning that you cannot present it as your own work. If you found this paper helpful in the analysis of your data, it would be kind to acknowledge so by citing it using the form: Brysbaert, M. (2007). "The language-as-fixed-effect fallacy": Some simple SPSS solutions to a complex problem (Version 2.0). Royal Holloway, University of London. The report is available on the internet. 2 This ms is an improved version of a previous draft that was sent for consultation to colleagues and that (sadly) included a few errors.
Simultaneous interpreting is a complex skill in which language comprehension and production take place at the same time in two languages. In this study, we examined performance on basic language and working memory tasks that have been hypothesized to engage cognitive skills important for simultaneous interpreting. The participants were native Dutch speakers proficient in English as a second language. We compared the performance of trained interpreters to bilingual university students (Experiment 1) and to highly proficient English teachers (Experiment 2). The interpreters outperformed the university students in their speed and accuracy of language performance and on their memory capacity estimated from a set of (working) memory measures. The interpreters also outperformed the English teachers, but only on the memory tasks, suggesting that performance on the language tasks was determined by proficiency more than cognitive resources. Taken together, these data point to (working) memory as a critical subskill for simultaneous interpreting.
Many recent studies demonstrate that both languages are active when bilinguals and second language (L2) learners are reading, listening, or speaking one language only. The parallel activity of the two languages has been hypothesized to create competition that must be resolved. Models of bilingual lexical access have proposed an inhibitory control mechanism to effectively limit attention to the intended language (e.g., Green, 1998). Critically, other recent research suggests that a lifetime of experience as a bilingual negotiating the competition across the two languages confers a set of benefits to cognitive control processes more generally (e.g., Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004). However, few studies have examined the consequences of individual differences in inhibitory control for performance on language processing tasks. The goal of the present work was to determine whether there is a relation between enhanced executive function and performance for L2 learners and bilinguals on lexical comprehension and production tasks. Data were analyzed from two studies involving a range of language processing tasks, a working memory measure, and also the Simon task, a nonlinguistic measure of inhibitory control. The results demonstrate that greater working memory resources and enhanced inhibitory control are related to a reduction in cross-language activation in a sentence context word naming task and a picture naming task, respectively. Other factors that may be related to inhibitory control are identified. The implications of these results for models of bilingual lexical comprehension and production are discussed.
Speech-sign or "bimodal" bilingualism is exceptional because distinct modalities allow for simultaneous production of two languages. We investigated the ramifications of this phenomenon for models of language production by eliciting language mixing from eleven hearing native users of American Sign Language (ASL) and English. Instead of switching between languages, bilinguals frequently produced code-blends (simultaneously produced English words and ASL signs). Code-blends resembled co-speech gesture with respect to synchronous vocal-manual timing and semantic equivalence. When ASL was the Matrix Language, no single-word code-blends were observed, suggesting stronger inhibition of English than ASL for these proficient bilinguals. We propose a model that accounts for similarities between co-speech gesture and code-blending and assumes interactions between ASL and English Formulators. The findings constrain language production models by demonstrating the possibility of simultaneously selecting two lexical representations (but not two propositions) for linguistic expression and by suggesting that lexical suppression is computationally more costly than lexical selection.
Bilinguals named pictures in their dominant language more slowly (and with more errors) than did monolinguals. In contrast, bilinguals named the same pictures as quickly as did monolinguals on the fifth presentation (in Experiment 2) and classified them (as human made or natural) as quickly and accurately as did monolinguals (in Experiment 1). In addition, bilinguals retrieved English picture names more quickly if they knew the name in both Spanish and English (on the basis of a translation test that bilinguals completed after the timed tasks), and monolingual response times for the same materials suggested that this finding was not obtained simply because names that were easier to translate were easier in general. These findings suggest that bilinguals differ from monolinguals at a postconceptual processing level, that implicit activation of lexical representations in the nontarget language can facilitate retrieval in the target language, and that being bilingual is analogous to having a lexicon full of lower frequency words, relative to monolinguals.
Two studies are reported that assess differences associated with aging and bilingualism in an executive control task. Previous work has suggested that bilinguals have an advantage over monolinguals in nonlinguistic tasks involving executive control; the major purpose of the present article is to ascertain which aspects of control are sensitive to the bilingual experience. Study 1 used an antisaccade task and found no effects of aging or bilingualism. Study 2 used the identical visual display but coupled to keypress responses. The results showed that bilinguals resolved various types of response conflict faster than monolinguals and that this bilingual advantage generally increased with age. A speculative interpretation of this pattern of results is offered in conclusion.
After immersion in a foreign language, speakers often have difficulty retrieving native-language words--a phenomenon known as first-language attrition. We propose that first-language attrition arises in part from the suppression of native-language phonology during second-language use, and thus is a case of phonological retrieval-induced forgetting. In two experiments, we investigated this hypothesis by having native English speakers name visual objects in a language they were learning (Spanish). Repeatedly naming the objects in Spanish reduced the accessibility of the corresponding English words, as measured by an independent-probe test of inhibition. The results establish that the phonology of the words was inhibited, as access to the concepts underlying the presented objects was facilitated, not impaired. More asymmetry between English and Spanish fluency was associated with more inhibition for native-language words. This result supports the idea that inhibition plays a functional role in overcoming interference during the early stages of second-language acquisition.
The use of multilevel modeling is presented as an alternative to separate item and subject ANOVAs (F
1 ×F
2) in psycholinguistic research. Multilevel modeling is commonly utilized to model variability arising from the nesting of lower level observations within higher level units (e.g., students within schools, repeated measures within individuals). However, multilevel models can also be used when two random factors are crossed at the same level, rather than nested. The current work illustrates the use of the multilevel model for crossed random effects within the context of a psycholinguistic experimental study, in which both subjects and items are modeled as random effects within the same analysis, thus avoiding some of the problems plaguing current approaches.
It has been claimed that bilingualism enhances inhibitory control, but the available evidence is equivocal. The authors evaluated several possible versions of the inhibition hypothesis by comparing monolinguals and bilinguals with regard to stop signal performance, inhibition of return, and the attentional blink. These three phenomena, it can be argued, tap into different aspects of inhibition. Monolinguals and bilinguals did not differ in stop signal reaction time and thus were comparable in terms of active-inhibitory efficiency. However, bilinguals showed no facilitation from spatial cues, showed a strong inhibition of return effect, and exhibited a more pronounced attentional blink. These results suggest that bilinguals do not differ from monolinguals in terms of active inhibition but have acquired a better ability to maintain action goals and to use them to bias goal-related information. Under some circumstances, this ability may indirectly lead to more pronounced reactive inhibition of irrelevant information.
The present study examined the separability of six executive functions (verbal storage-and-processing coordination, visuospatial storage-and-processing coordination, dual-task coordination, strategic retrieval, selective attention, and shifting) and their relationships, by means of confirmatory factor analysis. A set of tasks thought to primarily assess each target function was administered to 180 participants. The results demonstrated that five of the six functions initially considered were distinguishable albeit related constructs, with one of these functions combining inhibitory and strategic retrieval processes. The analyses failed to reveal a single dual-task coordination ability underlying performance on the dual-tasks. These findings provide further support for the fractionation of the central executive into several functions and also stress the need to approach executive functioning in terms of both dissociations within general functions and specific interactions between some of these functions.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
In this paper we review recent research on experimental psycholinguistic approaches to the bilingual lexicon. The focus in this work is to understand how it is that lexical access in both comprehension and production is fundamentally nonselective with respective to language, yet bilinguals are able to control the use of their two languages with relatively high accuracy. We first illustrate the nature of the data that support the claims of nonselectivity and then consider some of the factors that may modulate the resulting cross-language competition. These include differences in lexical parsing strategies across languages, in lexical cues that signal one language rather than another, in the ability to allocate cognitive resources, and in the nature of the tasks that initiate spoken production. We argue that the competitive nature of processing across the two languages of the bilingual provides an exquisite model to examine cognitive activity and its control.
Three experiments are reported in which picture naming and bilingual translation were performed in the context of semantically categorized or randomized lists. In Experiments 1 and 3 picture naming and bilingual translation were slower in the categorized than randomized conditions. In Experiment 2 this category interference effect in picture naming was eliminated when picture naming alternated with word naming. Taken together, the results of the three experiments suggest that in both picture naming and bilingual translation a conceptual representation of the word or picture is used to retrieve a lexical entry in one of the speaker's languages. When conceptual activity is sufficiently great to activate a multiple set of corresponding lexical representations, interference is produced in the process of retrieving a single best lexical candidate as the name or translation. The results of Experiment 3 showed further that category interference in bilingual translation occurred only when translation was performed from the first language to the second language, suggesting that the two directions of translation engage different interlanguage connections. A model to account for the asymmetric mappings of words to concepts in bilingual memory is described. (C) 1994 Academic Press, Inc.
The collection of essays on second language learning during study abroad includes: "Language Learning and Study Abroad" (Barbara F. Freed); "Predictors of Foreign Language Gain During Study Abroad" (Richard D. Brecht, Dan E. Davidson, Ralph B. Ginsberg); "A Canadian Interprovincial Exchange: Evaluating the Linguistic Impact of a Three-Month Stay in Quebec" (Sharon Lapkin, Doug Hart, Merrill Swain); "Getting Into, Through and Out of a Survival Situation: A Comparison of Communicative Strategies Used by Students Studying Spanish Abroad and 'At Home'" (Barbara A. Lafford); "What Makes Us Think that Students Who Study Abroad Become Fluent?" (Barbara F. Freed); "The Peace Corps Experience: Language Learning in Training and in the Field" (Gail Guntermann); "The Effects of Overseas Language Programs: Report on a Case Study of an Intensive Japanese Course" (Thom Huebner); "The Acquisition of Politeness Patterns by Exchange Students in Japan" (Helen Marriott); "Individual Differences and Study Abroad: Women Learning Japanese in Japan" (Meryl Siegal); "The Acquisition of Sociolinguistic Native Speech Norms: Effects of a Year Abroad on Second Language Learners of French" (Vera Regan); "Language Learning and Living Abroad: Stories from the Field" (Livia Polanyi); "Folklinguistic Theories of Language Learning" (Laura Miller, Ralph B. Ginsberg); and "On the Value for Formal Instruction in Study Abroad: Student Reactions in Context" (Richard D. Brecht, Jennifer L. Robinson). (MSE)
In an experimental study of language switching and selection, bilinguals named numerals in either their first or second language unpredictably. Response latencies (RTs) on switch trials (where the response language changed from the previous trial) were slower than on nonswitch trials. As predicted, the language-switching cost was consistently larger when switching to the dominant L₁ from the weaker L₂ than vice versa such that, on switch trials, L₁ responses were slower than in L₂. This "paradoxical" asymmetry in the cost of switching languages is explained in terms of differences in relative strength of the bilingual's two languages and the involuntary persistence of the previous language set across an intended switch of language. Naming in the weaker language, L₂, requires active inhibition or suppression of the stronger competitor language, L₁; the inhibition persists into the following (switch) trial in the form of "negative priming" of the L₁ lexicon as a whole. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
During early stages of second language acquisition adult learners make frequent errors of lexical form. An experiment was performed to examine this effect in the laboratory. More and less fluent bilinguals in English and Spanish performed a translation recognition task in which they decided whether the second of two words was the correct translation of the first. In the critical conditions of the experiment the words were not correct translation equivalents, but related by lexical form (e.g., man-hambre (hunger) instead of man-hombre (man)) or by meaning (e.g., man-mujer (woman) instead of man-hombre (man)). Less fluent participants suffered more interference for form-related than for semantically related words relative to unrelated controls, but the reverse pattern held for more fluent participants. The results support a progression from reliance on word form to reliance on meaning with increasing proficiency in the second language. The performance of the more fluent bilinguals further suggests that the ability to retrieve semantic information directly for second-language words can potentially override some of the costs associated with lexical competition in languages that access shared lexical features.
The paper opens with an evaluation of the BIA model of bilingual word recognition in the light of recent empirical evidence. After pointing out problems and omissions, a new model, called the BIA+, is proposed. Structurally, this new model extends the old one by adding phonological and semantic lexical representations to the available orthographic ones, and assigns a different role to the so-called language nodes. Furthermore, it makes a distinction between the effects of non-linguistic context (such as instruction and stimulus list composition) and linguistic context (such as the semantic and syntactic effects of sentence context), based on a distinction between the word identification system itself and a task/decision system that regulates control. At the end of the paper, the generalizability of the BIA+ model to different tasks and modalities is discussed.
Most work investigating the role of convergence in situations of language attrition has focused on the morpho-syntactic restructuring of the dying language variety. A central concern of such research has been untangling the factors driving the restructuring with an eye towards establishing whether the changes observed are best viewed as externally driven or, by contrast, as internally motivated. A second and equally important concern of this research attempts to define the domains of the linguistic system that may be the most permeable to external influence. The present study provides a contribution to this line of research and sheds light on its two leading concerns from the domain of phonology and phonetics. Specifically, we present the results of an instrumental study of the phonological vowel system of Frenchville French and argue that this linguistic variety is undergoing a perceptually striking process of phonetic convergence with English that is motivated by the auditory and acoustic similarity between a subset of vowels in the contact languages. An interesting consequence of our analysis is that bilingual phonologies may become particularly permeable to inter-linguistic influence precisely where they are acoustically and perceptually unstable, and where they are already congruent to some degree.
This study investigates whether proficient second language (L2) speakers of Spanish and English use the same parsing strategies as monolinguals when reading temporarily ambiguous sentences containing a complex noun phrase followed by a relative clause, such as Peter fell in love with the daughter of the psychologist who studied in California . Research with monolingual Spanish and English speakers (e.g., Cuetos & Mitchell, 1988) has suggested that, whereas English speakers show a bias to interpret the relative clause locally (i.e., to attach the relative clause to the noun immediately preceding it), Spanish speakers reading Spanish equivalents of English sentences attach the relative clause to the first noun in the complex noun phrase (i.e., nonlocal attachment). In this study, I assess whether speakers whose native language (L1) and L2 differ with respect to processing strategies were able to employ each strategy in the correct context. To this end, L1 Spanish–L2 English and L1 English–L2 Spanish speakers read ambiguous sentences in their L1 and L2. Data collection was carried out using a pencil-and-paper questionnaire and a self-paced reading task. Analyses of both sets of data revealed that both groups of speakers favored local over nonlocal attachment when reading in their L1 and L2. The results are discussed in the context of models that assume the existence of a fixed, universal set of parsing strategies. The implications of L2 parsing research for the field of SLA are also discussed.
This paper aims to foster discussion of the means by which bilinguals control their two language systems. It proposes an inhibitory control (IC) model that embodies the principle that there are multiple levels of control. In the model a language task schema (modulated by a higher level of control) “reactively” inhibits potential competitors for production at the lemma level by virtue of their language tags. The IC model is used to expand the explanation of the effect of category blocking in translation proposed by Kroll and Stewart (1994), and predictions of the model are tested against other data. Its relationship to other proposals and models is considered and future directions proposed.
This study examined the variables related to US immigrants' long-term attainment in English, their second language (L2), and their native language (L1). For 44 Mandarin-English bilinguals, with increasing age of arrival (AOA) in the United States, their accuracy in L2 grammatically judgment tasks decreased and accuracy in an L1 grammatically judgment task increased. Moreover, both AOA in the United States and mothers' English proficiency uniquely predicted a significant proportion of the variance for bilinguals' L2 proficiency. Finally, as a group, 72 speakers of three Asian languages showed lower levels of L2 proficiency and stronger AOA effects on the task performance than 32 speakers of six European languages. These differences in language proficiency were associated with differences in language use, language learning motivation, and cultural identification between the two groups. These findings suggest that L2 acquisition in the immigration setting is a complicated process involving the dynamic interactions of multiple variables.
Two eye-tracking experiments examined spoken language processing in Russian-English bilinguals. The proportion of looks to objects whose names were phonologically similar to the name of a target object in either the same language (within-language competition), the other language (between-language competition), or both languages at the same time (simultaneous competition) was compared to the proportion of looks in a control condition in which no objects overlapped phonologically with the target. Results support previous findings of parallel activation of lexical items within and between languages, but suggest that the magnitude of the between-language competition effect may vary across first and second languages and may be mediated by a number of factors such as stimuli, language background, and language mode.
Despite an impressive psycholinguistic effort to explore the way in which two or more languages are represented and controlled, controversy surrounds both issues. We argue that problems of representation and control are intimately connected and we propose that data from functional neuroimaging may advance a resolution. Neuroimaging data, we argue, support the notion that the neural representation of a second language converges with the representation of that language learned as a first language and that language production in bilinguals is a dynamic process involving cortical and subcortical structures that make use of inhibition to resolve lexical competition and to select the intended language.
If different languages map words onto referents in different ways, bilinguals must either (a) learn and maintain separate mappings for their two languages or (b) merge them and not be fully native-like in either. We replicated and extended past findings of cross-linguistic differences in word-to-referent mappings for common household objects using Belgian monolingual speakers of Dutch and French. We then examined word-to-referent mappings in Dutch–French bilinguals by comparing the way they named in their two languages. We found that the French and Dutch bilingual naming patterns converged on a common naming pattern, with only minor deviations. Through the mutual influence of the two languages, the category boundaries in each language move towards one another and hence diverge from the boundaries used by the native speakers of either language. Implications for the organization of the bilingual lexicon are discussed.
Lenneberg (1967) hypothesized that language could be acquired only within a critical period, extending from early infancy until puberty. In its basic form, the critical period hypothesis need only have consequences for first language acquisition. Nevertheless, it is essential to our understanding of the nature of the hypothesized critical period to determine whether or not it extends as well to second language acquisition. If so, it should be the case that young children are better second language learners than adults and should consequently reach higher levels of final proficiency in the second language. This prediction was tested by comparing the English proficiency attained by 46 native Korean or Chinese speakers who had arrived in the United States between the ages of 3 and 39, and who had lived in the United States between 3 and 26 years by the time of testing. These subjects were tested on a wide variety of structures of English grammar, using a grammaticality judgment task. Both correlational and t-test analyses demonstrated a clear and strong advantage for earlier arrivals over the later arrivals. Test performance was linearly related to age of arrival up to puberty; after puberty, performance was low but highly variable and unrelated to age of arrival. This age effect was shown not to be an inadvertent result of differences in amount of experience with English, motivation, self-consciousness, or American identification. The effect also appeared on every grammatical structure tested, although the structures varied markedly in the degree to which they were well mastered by later learners. The results support the conclusion that a critical period for language acquisition extends its effects to second language acquisition.
Two experiments demonstrated the existence of a strong population stereotype which affected the processing of verbal commands. In a choice RT task, Ss pressed the right- or left-hand key in response to the words "right" or "left" which were presented to the right or left ear. RT was significantly faster when the content of the command corresponded to the ear stimulated than when it did not, i.e., information processing was affected by a cue irrelevant to the task itself, the ear in which the command was heard. Removing S's uncertainty regarding the ear to be stimulated resulted in significantly faster RT, and reduced but did not eliminate the effect of the irrelevant directional cue.
Ninety-four subjects were tested on the Daneman and Carpenter (1980) reading span task, four versions of a related sentence span task in which reaction times and accuracy on sentence processing were measured along with sentence-final word recall, two number generation tasks designed to test working memory, digit span, and two shape-generation tasks designed to measure visual-spatial working memory. Forty-four subjects were retested on a subset of these measures at a 3-month interval. All subjects were tested on standard vocabulary and reading tests. Correlational analyses showed better internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the sentence span tasks than of the Daneman-Carpenter reading span task. Factor analysis showed no factor that could be related to a central verbal working memory; rotated factors suggested groupings of tests into factors that correspond to digit-related tasks, spatial tasks, sentence processing in sentence span tasks, and recall in sentence span tasks. Correlational analyses and regression analyses showed that the sentence processing component of the sentence span tasks was the best predictor of performance on the reading test, with a small independent contribution of the recall component. The results suggest that sentence span tasks are unreliable unless measurements are made of both their sentence processing and recall components, and that the predictive value of these tasks for reading comprehension abilities lies in the overlap of operations rather than in limitations in verbal working memory that apply to both.
Spanish-English bilinguals and English monolinguals completed 12 semantic, 10 letter, and 2 proper name fluency categories. Bilinguals produced fewer exemplars than monolinguals on all category types, but the difference between groups was larger (and more consistent) on semantic categories. Bilinguals and monolinguals produced the same number of errors across all category types. The authors discuss 2 accounts of the similarities and differences between groups and the interaction with category type, including (a) cross-language interference and (b) relatively weak connections in the bilingual lexical system because of reduced use of words specific to each language. Surprisingly, bilinguals' fluency scores did not improve when they used words in both languages. This result suggests that voluntary language switching incurs a processing cost.
This study used data from 220 adults to examine the relations among 3 inhibition-related functions. Confirmatory factor analysis suggested that Prepotent Response Inhibition and Resistance to Distractor Interference were closely related, but both were unrelated to Resistance to Proactive Interference. Structural equation modeling, which combined Prepotent Response Inhibition and Resistance to Distractor Interference into a single latent variable, indicated that 1 aspect of random number generation performance, task-switching ability, and everyday cognitive failures were related to Response-Distractor Inhibition, whereas reading span recall and unwanted intrusive thoughts were related to Resistance to Proactive Interference. These results suggest that the term inhibition has been overextended and that researchers need to be more specific when discussing and measuring inhibition-related functions.
The need of bilinguals to continuously control two languages during speech production may exert general effects on their attentional networks. To explore this issue we compared the performance of bilinguals and monolinguals in the attentional network task (ANT) developed by Fan et al. [Fan, J., McCandliss, B.D. Sommer, T., Raz, A., Posner, M.I. (2002). Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340-347]. This task is supposed to tap into three different attentional networks: alerting, orienting and executive control. The results revealed that bilingual participants were not only faster in performing the task, but also more efficient in the alerting and executive control networks. In particular, bilinguals were aided more by the presentation of an alerting cue, and were also better at resolving conflicting information. Furthermore, bilinguals experienced a reduced switching cost between the different type of trials compared to monolinguals. These results show that bilingualism exerts an influence in the attainment of efficient attentional mechanisms by young adults that are supposed to be at the peak of their attentional capabilities.
Bilinguals are faster to name a picture in one language when the picture's name is a cognate in the other language. We asked whether cognate facilitation in picture naming would be obtained for bilinguals whose two languages differ in script. Spanish-English and Japanese-English bilinguals named cognate and noncognate pictures in English, their second language (L2). Cognate facilitation was observed for both groups. The results suggest that there is cross-language activation of phonology even for different-script bilinguals.
Although bilinguals rarely make random errors of language when they speak, research on spoken production provides compelling evidence to suggest that both languages are active when only one language is spoken (e.g., [Poulisse, N. (1999). Slips of the tongue: Speech errors in first and second language production. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins]). Moreover, the parallel activation of the two languages appears to characterize the planning of speech for highly proficient bilinguals as well as second language learners. In this paper, we first review the evidence for cross-language activity during single word production and then consider the two major alternative models of how the intended language is eventually selected. According to language-specific selection models, both languages may be active but bilinguals develop the ability to selectively attend to candidates in the intended language. The alternative model, that candidates from both languages compete for selection, requires that cross-language activity be modulated to allow selection to occur. On the latter view, the selection mechanism may require that candidates in the nontarget language be inhibited. We consider the evidence for such an inhibitory mechanism in a series of recent behavioral and neuroimaging studies.
Cognate effects in picture naming: Does cross-language activation survive a change of script? CognitionPubMed: 17367774] Long-term language attainment of bilingual immigrants: Predictive variables and language group differences
- N Hoshino
- Kroll
- G Jia
- D Aaronson
- Wu
Hoshino N, Kroll JF. Cognate effects in picture naming: Does cross-language activation survive a change of script? Cognition. 2008; 106:501–511. [PubMed: 17367774] Jia G, Aaronson D, Wu Y. Long-term language attainment of bilingual immigrants: Predictive variables and language group differences. Applied Psycholinguistics. 2002; 23:599–621
Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task [PubMed: 17275801] De Groot AMB. Determinants of word translation
- A Costa
- M Hernandez
- Sebastian
- Galles
Costa A, Hernandez M, Sebastian-Galles N. Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition. 2008; 106:59–86. [PubMed: 17275801] De Groot AMB. Determinants of word translation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 1992; 18:1001–1018
The language-as-fixed-effect fallacy”: Some simple SPSS solutions to a complex problem London: Royal Holloway (Version 2.0) Bullock BE, Gerfen C. Phonological convergence in a contracting language variety
- M Brysbaert
Brysbaert, M. “The language-as-fixed-effect fallacy”: Some simple SPSS solutions to a complex problem. London: Royal Holloway, University of London; 2007. (Version 2.0) Bullock BE, Gerfen C. Phonological convergence in a contracting language variety. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition. 2004; 7:95–104
Semantic and letter fluency in Spanish-English bilinguals [PubMed: 12382994] Green D. Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system
- Th Gollan
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