Validation of the Indigenous Technical Knowledge of Cattle Pastoralists of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, India

Abstract

Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) of livestock breeding is often tacit and not necessarily expressed in conventional forms of scientific research and documentation. Indigenous livestock breeding systems rely mostly on qualitative traits than pure quantitative qualities. Qualitative traits are difficult to measure and most of the indigenous knowledge systems are in forms of qualitative traits. The lack of documentation and predominant qualitative nature makes it difficult to validate the ITK related to livestock breeding. In this context a study was conducted to examine the traditional breeding practices associated with two heritage cattle breeds of the Deccan Plateau region of India. The study examines the criteria used for selection of the breeding bulls of the indigenous Poda Thurpu and Nallmala-Pasa/Kamma, cattle breeds native to the study area. Results of the study identifies fourteen traits specific to breeding bulls and four traits that are generic to the breeding stock/cows. These traits/characteristics are ‘deemed desirable’ by the local cattle breeders for the ‘heritage breeds’, believed to have been bred and managed by them for generations. Observations of the present study supports the notion that traditional breeders of heritage breeds lay more emphasis on qualitative traits (ability to warding-off predators, fending off-springs, coat colour and texture, gait of the animal, temperament, and response and obedience to instructions of the master) than quantitative traits. It was found that local breeders give significant importance to the fertility of bovine bulls than cows. Breeding bulls are meticulously chosen with extreme caution and care, following a very long and meticulous selection process that could last for four years. Traditionally local cattle breeders of the study follow open nucleus breeding system for breeding and are strictly against promotion of inbreeding among their cattle herds. Only men are involved in cattle breeding in the study area and women usually stay away.

Full text

Validation of the Indigenous Technical
Knowledge of Cattle Pastoralists of
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, India
Kanna K. Siripurapu1*, Faisal Moola2, Shilpi Sharma3,
Anushree Sainger4, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju5
1*School of Arts and Design, Woxsen University, Sangareddy District, Hyderabad - 502 345.
India. Email: kanna.siripurapu@gmail.com | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1244-4373
2Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics at the University of Guelph,
50 Stone Road East, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1. Email: fmoola@uoguelph.ca
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9803-8514
3Telangana State Biodiversity Board, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
Email: shilpibiodiversity@gmail.com | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0003-2809-7959
4MART Global Management Solutions, Sutra Consulting Pvt. Ltd., Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
India. Email: anushreesinghvns@gmail.com | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9899-5475
5Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India.
Email: kotamrajukkrao@gmail.com | ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5826-9622
*Corresponding author
Abstract
Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) of livestock breeding is often tacit
and not necessarily expressed in conventional forms of scientific
research and documentation. Indigenous livestock breeding systems
rely mostly on qualitative traits than pure quantitative qualities.
Qualitative traits are difficult to measure and most of the indigenous
knowledge systems are in forms of qualitative traits. The lack of
documentation and predominant qualitative nature makes it difficult to
validate the ITK related to livestock breeding. In this context a study was
conducted to examine the traditional breeding practices associated with
two heritage cattle breeds of the Deccan Plateau region of India. The
study examines the criteria used for selection of the breeding bulls of the
indigenous Poda Thurpu and Nallmala-Pasa/Kamma, cattle breeds
native to the study area. Results of the study identifies fourteen traits
specific to breeding bulls and four traits that are generic to the breeding
stock/cows. These traits/characteristics are ‘
deemed desirable
’ by the
local cattle breeders for the ‘heritage breeds’, believed to have been bred
and managed by them for generations. Observations of the present study
supports the notion that traditional breeders of heritage breeds lay more
emphasis on qualitative traits (ability to warding-off predators, fending
off-springs, coat colour and texture, gait of the animal, temperament, and
response and obedience to instructions of the master) than quantitative
traits. It was found that local breeders give significant importance to the
fertility of bovine bulls than cows. Breeding bulls are meticulously
chosen with extreme caution and care, following a very long and
meticulous selection process that could last for four years. Traditionally
local cattle breeders of the study follow open nucleus breeding system
for breeding and are strictly against promotion of inbreeding among
their cattle herds. Only men are involved in cattle breeding in the study
area and women usually stay away.
Keywords
Heritage breeds, Indigenous cattle, Pastoralists, Deccan Plateau,
Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)
How to cite this paper: Siripurapu, K.K.,
Moola, F., Sharma, S., Sainger, A., & Kotamraju,
K.R. (2024). Validation of the Indigenous
Technical Knowledge of Cattle Pastoralists of
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, India.
Pastures & Pastoralism
,
02
, 49-81. Doi:
https://doi.org/10.33002/pp0204
Received: 14 January 2023
Reviewed: 21 February 2023
Revised: 13 May 2024
Accepted: 15 May 2024
Published: 20 May 2024
Copyright © 2024 by author(s)
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Commons Attribution International
License (CC BY 4.0).
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4.0/
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Associate Editors
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This article is edited by
Dr. Arushi and Dr. Arjjumend
ISSN 2817-3457 | 02(2024)
Pas tures & Pastoral ism
Published by The Grassroots Institute
Website: https://grassrootsjournals.org/pp
M – 00383 | Research Article | Open Access

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1. Introduction
Heritage breeds,
1
represent the collective knowledge and heritage of the communities
they had been associated with. Unlike the wild populations, domestic livestock breeds,
especially the Indigenous heritage breeds may have co-evolved with the Indigenous
socio-, cultural, economic and ecological systems (LPPS and Köhler-Rollefson, 2005;
Siripurapu et al., 2021; Swiderska, 2020). Perhaps, such breeds may survive only when
their associated Indigenous systems and indigenous technical knowledge (ITK)
2
, is
kept intact (Casabianca and Vallerand, 1994; Kohler-Rollefson, and League for Pastoral
Peoples, 2003).
ITK of livestock breeding is often ‘tacit’ and not necessarily expressed in conventional
forms, such as scientific research, documentation and publications (ICAR, 2004; Sow
and Ranjan, 2021; Slade, and Yoong, 2014). Conventional livestock breeding often
focuses only a few quantitative traits, such as the quantity of milk, or pounds of meat
produced; on the contrary, ITK of livestock breeding prioritizes a wide range of
qualitative traits such as endurance and the ability to walk long distances over difficult
terrains (Jaritz et al., 2010), resistance to diseases, warding-off predators, fending off-
springs, coat colour and texture, gait of the animal, temperament, and response and
obedience to instructions of the master (Dwivedi, 2022; LPPS and Köhler-Rollefson,
2005; Marsoner et al., 2018; Simon et al., 2021; Siripurapu et al., 2020; Tada et al.,
2013). Indigenous livestock production systems lay emphasis on minimizing risks
rather than maximizing profits (Prakash et al., n.d.).
ITK related to animal husbandry is considered as old as the domestication of livestock
itself. Since time immemorial, pastoralists and Indigenous communities have been
applying ITK and ethnoveterinary practices (Balaji and Chakravarthy, 2010) to
increase milk production, improve fertility, retention of placenta, prolapse, care for the
young stock, animal health care (Mir et al., 2020), and preparation of traditional
livestock-based products (Devaki and Mathialagan, 2015; Padmakumar, 1998; Rajan
and Sethuraman, 1997; Shubeena et al., 2018). Studies on ITK related to livestock
management in India are highly concentrated around ethnoveterinary practices and
very little information is available on ITK related to bovine breeding. Pastoralists and
Indigenous livestock keepers of India have been developing and applying ITK to
improve heritage breeds not only to satisfy their own needs but also ensure the
survival of such breeds in difficult environmental conditions and terrains.
Furthermore, ITK plays a crucial role in conservation of the heritage breeds and the
unique animal genetic resources (Jaritz et al., 2010; LPPS and Köhler-Rollefson, 2005;
Marsoner et al., 2018; Siripurapu et al., 2020; Siripurapu et al., 2021).
Indigenous communities develop ITK based on their way of life, their day-to-day
experiences, improving constantly through experimentation and transferring such
knowledge to next generations often through customs, traditions, rituals, folklore, arts,
and belief systems (CBD, 2021; ICAR, 2021). ITKs are often adapted according to the
local culture and traditions, subsistence, economic needs, and environment. They are
very dynamic and continuously changing and evolving in time. The tried and tested ITK
pertaining to agriculture, livestock and other allied sectors is often intricately
interwoven with the socio-cultural fabric and traditional practices followed by them
(ICAR, 2004; Prakash et al., n.d.; Siripurapu and Iyengar, 2023). Similarly, ITK of
1
According to the Livestock Conservancy, heritage breeds are traditional livestock breeds that
were raised by our forefathers, before industrial agriculture became mainstream. These are the
breeds of bygone era, which were carefully selected and bred over time and well-adapted to the
local environment and the purpose which they were bred for.
https://livestockconservancy.org/heritage-breeds/
2
The ICAR-National Academy of Agricultural Research Management of India elucidates
Indigenous Traditional Knowledge (ITK), as the actual application of it in various operations of
agriculture and allied sectors. https://naarm.org.in/itk/

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livestock breeding is often transferred orally to next generations, through traditions,
rituals, beliefs, values, folklore, and cultural practices (Bruchac, 2014; CBD, 2021;
Devaki and Mathialagan, 2015; Siripurapu and Iyengar, 2023). Unfortunately, the age
old ITK related to animal husbandry, once widely practiced across the country was
seldom scientifically studied and documented, consequently, leading to the loss of such
valuable information, which is now at the verge of extinction (Borthakur and Singh,
2012; De Amitendu, et al., 2004).
In India, ITK related to agriculture, forestry, fisheries and animal husbandry is as
diverse and rich as its unique biodiversity and genetic resources. India has a total
livestock population of 536.76 million, comprising of bovine (cattle, buffalo, Drung ox,
and yak) population of 303.76 million, sheep 74.26 million, goat 148.89 million, pigs
9.06 million, mithun and yak 0.39 million, horses and ponies 0.34 million, camel 0.25
million, mules and donkeys 0.2 million, stray dogs 10.5 million, and poultry 851.81
million (MoFAHD, 2022). The Indian Council of Agricultural Research - National
Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBAGR), the nodal agency for the
registration of livestock breeds of the country has registered 212 livestock breeds
(Shagun, 2023), which includes 20 domestic buffalo breeds, 53 cattle breeds , 37 goat
breeds, 44 sheep breeds, 7 horse and pony breeds, 9 camel breeds, 3 dog breeds, 19
chicken breeds, 13 pig breeds, 3 donkey breeds, 1 yak breed, 2 duck breeds, and 1 geese
breed (ICAR-NBAGR, 2023). However, about 70 per cent of the total livestock breeds
of India still remain non-descript and yet to be registered as defined breeds (Dwivedi,
2022; Ghai, 2022). Except for the crossbreeds, there are hardly any endigenous bovine,
camel, equestrian, yak, breeds evolved by the Indian Council of Agriculture Research
(ICAR), Institutes of India. It is widely accepted that almost all the livestock breeds
(both registered and yet to be registered) of the country are Indigenous and heritage
breeds, evolved predominantly by the pastoralists and indigenous livestock keepers of
the country, applying ITK.
Traditionally, cattle had been the backbone of Indian agriculture and livestock plays a
major role in the economy of the country. In India, livestock sector is an important
source of employment and income generation. An estimated 5.51 per cent of the
population of the country is directly dependent on it for employment, income and
livelihood (DAHD, 2023). It is the primary source of meat, eggs, fibre, hide, draught
energy, and dung, besides providing cultural services and performing crucial ecological
functions such as nutrient recycling in the traditional penning (Siripurapu, 2023) and
in rotational grazing systems still practiced in the country (Dubeux et al., 2007; Dubeux
et al., 2009; Haynes and Williams, 1993; Silveira, et al., 2013; Sollenberger, et al., 2002).
Livestock contributes to 30.87 per cent of the total agricultural and allied sector Gross
Value Added (GVA) and accounts to 6.17 per cent of the total GVA of India (DAHD,
2023; NSO, 2022). The unaccounted value of draught animal energy (DAE) in India is
estimated at ₹75 – 95 Crores, (US$ 14 – 17.5 million) a day (Singh and Singh, 2021;
Phaniraja and Panchasara, 2009). If both the unaccounted dung and draught energy
economy are also added, the GVA of the Indian livestock sector could be much higher
than the estimated value (Natarajan et al., 2016; Siripurapu, 2022; Siripurapu, 2023).
Usually the males of cattle, buffalo, camel, horses, yak, etc. are used for DAE purpose in
India. However, oxen of the Indian Zebu cattle (
Bos indicus
) breeds remain the
mainstay of DAE in the country (Manomohan et al., 2021; Natarajan et al., 2016). The
Indian Zebu cattle breeds can be classified into three major types: draught purpose,
dairy purpose and dual-purpose breeds. Manomohan et al. (2021) observes that dairy
and dual-purpose cattle breeds are predominantly distributed in North and North-
Western India, and draught purpose cattle breeds are predominantly distributed in
Southern and Eastern India. South India is home to diverse, draught purpose zebu
cattle breeds of different shapes and sizes: Vechur and Punganur (dwarf size), Hallikar,
Bargur, Poda Thurpu (compact size), Umbalchery, Pulikulam, (medium size), and
Ongloe, Deoni, Kangayam (large size) (Manomohan et al., 2021). It is widely accepted

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
that diversity of the Indian Zebu cattle breeds is the product of ITK of the traditional
pastoralists and livestock keepers of India.
Breeding bulls are extremely important in the DAE, dairy, and beef industry; however,
Butler et al. (2020) points out that in the conventional bovine breeding research and
programmes, female bovine fertility is given significant attention, and the
improvement of breeding bulls has not received the same. Conventionally, female
bovine fertility is enhanced through advanced technologies like the improved assisted
reproductive technologies, genetic selection, semen, and embryo sexing, among others,
but the same is not true for breeding bulls (Bora, 2022; Quelhas et al., 2021). On the
contrary, traditional pastoralists and livestock keepers in India are found to lay
emphasis on breeding bulls than cows (Siripurapu et al., 2020).
A cross-sectional study was conducted on the ITK related to bovine breeding, in the
background of the lack of adequate scientific documentation of ITK related to livestock
breeding, prevalence of the notion that traditional animal husbandry practices are
unscientific and backward among the mainstream academia and scientific
communities. The study assumes significance in the context of the widespread notion
that indigenous and heritage livestock breeds are inferior to the exotic and
crossbreeds. And the dwindling populations of the Indigenous livestock breeds, and
the lack of focus on the improvement of fertility of bovine breeding bulls in the
conventional bovine breeding research programmes in India.
The objective of the present study is to examine the traditional breeding practices of
associated with the heritage cattle breeds in the study area. The study examines the
criteria used by pastoralists of the study area for selection and management of
breeding bulls of heritage cattle breeds. For this purpose, ITK related to breeding and
management of two Indigenous cattle breeds, Poda Thurpu (Siripuapu et al., 2019a)
and Nallmala-Pasa/Kamma (Siripurapu et al., 2019b), native to the Deccan Plateau
region of India (also the study area), was investigated and the results are presented as
follows.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study Area
South India is known for the presence of diverse draught energy and dual-purpose
Indigenous Zebu cattle breeds. It is also home to many traditional pastoralists
belonging to the Kuruma, Kuruba, Golla, Lambadi, Sugali, Toda, and Konar ethnic
communities (Sharma et al., 2003; Siripurapu et al., 2020). Based on the
aforementioned information, two South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh (AP) and
Telangana are selected as the study area. The study area is geographically located in
the Deccan plateau region of India. Topography of the study area is highly undulating
and hilly, covered in dry mixed deciduous forests and tall grasses. Nagarkurnool
district of Telangana and Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh are designated as the
study sites of the present study (Figure 1).
Nagarkurnool district is located at 16.4833°N 78.3333°E, at an elevation of 458 m. It has
an area of 6,924 km², comprising of 358 villages (including inhabited hamlets) and a total
population of 861,766 (Telangana Government, 2019). Nagarkurnool district
experiences a hot savannah type climate with the average summer temperature of 42°C.
Kurnool district is located 15.6443° N, 78.1108° E, at an elevation of 273 m. It has an area
of 17,658 km², comprising of 921 villages and a total population of 4,053,463 (Andhra
Pradesh Government, 2019). Kurnool experiences a hot savannah climate, with summer
temperatures ranging from 26°C – 46°C. The entire study area falls under the scarce
rainfall zones of India and receives an average annual rainfall of 500-750 mm. Agro-

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
ecologically, it is located in the Deccan Plateau, hot arid eco-region and agro-climatically
it is located in the Southern Plateau and hills region (Venkateswarlu et al., 2011).
.Figure 1: Map of the Study Area and Study Sites of the Present Study
2.2 The Cattle Breeds Selected for the Present Study
During the period 2016-19, a rapid survey and reconnaissance study (Holtzman,
1986) was conducted by the Watershed Support Services and Activities Network
(WASSAN), a non-profit based out of Hyderabad city, Telangana, for the identification
of yet to be descript populations of Indigenous cattle breeds in the study area. The
objective of the survey was to identify and characterize the non-descript Indigenous
cattle populations and register them as defined breeds with the ICAR-NBAGR. The
survey led to the identification of two Indigenous cattle populations of Poda Thurpu in
Telangana state (Siripurapu et al., 2019a) and Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle
population in AP (Siripurapu et al., 2019b). Both the identified cattle populations are
found to be draught energy purpose breeds and are used extensively for draught
purposes across the South Indian states of Karnataka, Telangana and AP. The native
breeding tract of Poda Thurpu and Nallamala-Pasa /Kamma cattle are Nagarkurnool
and Kurnool districts, respectively. The population of Poda Thurpu cattle breed is
found in 27 villages, across 4 mandals of Nagarkurnool district of Telangana. The
population of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle is found in 34 villages, across 6 mandals
of Kurnool district of AP.
Poda Thurpu made history in 2021 when it was registered as a defined Indigenous
draught power and heritage cattle breed with the ICAR-NBAGR, (Accession number
INDIA_CATTLE_3600_PODATHURPU_03044), (ICAR-NBAGR, 2022). The hardy breed
is very popular among the farmers of Telangana as well as the neighbouring states of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Oxen of this breed are famous for excellent draught
power and their ability to work both in dry (cotton farms) and wet (inundated paddy
farms) agricultural operations. A state level breed survey conducted in 2016-17 by
WASSAN, a national level non-profit based in Hyderabad city, Telangana, suggests that
around 2500 - 3000 male calves/bullocks, worth USD 0.3 – 0.5 million are sold every

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
year in its native breeding tract. The annual economy of Poda Thurpu cattle in the state
is estimated at USD 1.8 – 2.4 million. The estimated total population of the breed is
15,000 individuals, confined to a very small geographic area, which makes the breed
extremely vulnerable to genetic erosion, decimation from disease outbreaks, among
others. The breed is traditionally maintained as a nucleus herd under extensive mobile
pastoral systems. Breeders sell dung to farmers and practice the traditional penning
system (Siripurapu, 2023), accounting to the second most important household
income, next to the sale of live animals for draught purposes. The traditional breeders
of the breed have registered themselves into an association named “Amrabad Poda
Lakshmi Govu Sangham (APLGS)”. The registration was facilitated by WASSAN with
the grants from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and Telangana State
Biodiversity Board, Telangana. Further, documentation of biocultural diversity
(Siripurapu and Iyengar, 2023) and ITK associated with the breed helped APLGS to
win the coveted India Biodiversity Awards 2021 for conservation of Domesticated
Indigenous/Local Species.
Photo 1: Breeding Bull of Poda Thurpu Cattle Breed (Photo credit: Chandrasekhar
Nemani, WASSAN)
The Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle is a medium sized, zebu cattle breed, belonging to
the draught energy group. The populations predominantly have white coat. Oxen of
this cattle population are famous for their excellent draught power and hard hooves.
Oxen of this cattle can work for an average 7.5 hours a day, under harsh weather and
field conditions. A pair of bullocks (4 yr old) of Nallamala-Kamma cattle could cost
anywhere between USD 721–841, at the local market. Oxen are usually leased to
farmers for agriculture operations for a fee of USD 30/day. Cows are very poor milk
yielders, (1.23 litres/milking), therefore, not preferred for dairy production. A state
level breed survey conducted by WASSAN, during 2018-19, suggests that
approximately 7,248 breeding animals are found in the native breeding tract. Similar
to the other study cattle breed, Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle are also maintained
under nucleus herd system. Significant number of the non-breeding population (only
bullocks) of the cattle population has been reported from few districts in the
neighbouring Telangana state. Traditionally, the herds of this cattle are managed under
extensive pastoral system. Breeders are also involved in the sale of dung to farmers,
accounting to the second important source of household income, next to the sale of life
animals for draught purposes. The traditional breeders of the cattle have been
registered into an association named “Nallamal-Kamma Govu Sangham (NKGS)”. The

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
registration was facilitated by WASSAN with the grants from ICAR-NBAGR. The
registration of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle population as a defined breed is in
progress. At the moment it was unclear whether the cattle population will be
registered as ‘Nallamala-Pasa’ or ‘Nallamala-Kamma’ cattle. Therefore, the cattle
population is referred as Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma in this article.
Photo 2: Breeding Bull of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma Cattle Breed, (Image credit:
Megavardhan Reddy Pothula, WASSAN)
Both Poda Thurpu and Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle breeds are primarily used for
draught energy purposes in their respective native breeding tracts. Farmers in the
study area believe that hooves of these breeds are harder than other similar breeds,
therefore, less susceptible to infections. Gelded bulls of these breeds are widely used
for wet (inundated paddy fields) and dry (cotton, millets, peanuts) agriculture
operations, as well as off-farm activities (threshing and carting). Oxen of these breeds
are known for endurance, agility, and tolerance to extreme temperatures (Siripurapu
et al., 2019a; Siripurapu et al., 2019b). Cows of both the breeds are poor milk yielders,
therefore, not preferred for dairy purposes.
Traditionally, herds of both the breeds are used for penning in exchange for a fee and
food grains, to improve soil fertility of farmlands in the study area (Siripurapu, 2023).
Besides penning, cattle dung is also sold to farmers by the pastoralists and livestock
keepers in the study area. Sale of live animals (male calves for draught energy
purposes), and dung economy (penning and sale of dung), are the primary and
secondary sources of household income of pastoralists in the study area, respectively
(Siripurapu et al., 2020).
2.3 The Traditional Cattle Breeders of the Study Area
The rapid survey and reconnaissance study resulted in the identification of a total 204
traditional cattle breeds in the study area. Out of which, 101 are Poda Thurpu cattle
breeders and 103 are breeders of the Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle breed. The Poda
Thurpu cattle breeders inhabit 27 villages across 4 mandals of Nagarkurnool district
of Telangana. Traditional breeders of Poda Thurpu cattle predominantly belong to Golla,
and Lambadi pastoralist communities. Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle breeders reside

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
in 34 villages, across 6 mandals of Kurnool district of AP. The dominant communities
breeding and managing Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle are Jangala, Sugali and Golla
communities. The Golla and Jangala communities belong to the other backward caste (OBC), and
both the Lambadi and Sugali communities, also known as Banjara, a notified nomadic tribe, by
the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes of India. Traditionally, all the dominant
communities of the present study are pastoralist communities and lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle,
traversing across the Deccan Plateau region along with their livestock and cattle herds
(Siripurapu et al., 2020).
2.4 Materials and Methods
Out of the 204 traditional cattle breeders identified through the rapid and
reconnaissance study, only 86 cattle breeders (45 Poda Thurpu and 41 Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma), were available and agreed to participate in the present study. The main
reasons for their unavailability are seasonal migration and remoteness. Traditional
cattle breeders of both the cattle breeds practice seasonal migration from November
to June (Siripurapu et al., 2020). For almost half of the year (July to October), they graze
their cattle herds among the customary grazing pastures located inside the Nallamala
forest. Such customary grazing pastures often remain inaccessible due to their remote
location inside the Nallamala forest, making it difficult to establish contact with
pastoralists for data collection.
Primary data related to traditional cattle breeding practices of the pastoralists was
collected through personal interviews and focused group discussions (FGDs). A total
12 FGDs (7 Poda Thurpu cattle breeders and 5 Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle
breeders), consisting of 5-7 participants was conducted for this purpose. In addition to
the FGDs, 27 personal interviews (15 Poda Thurpu and 12) were conducted for
collection and triangulation of the primary data. Prior oral consent of the study
participants was taken before data collection. Almost all the 86 pastoralists
participated in the FGDs and personal interviews were men and women did not show
any interest to participate in the interviews for multiple reasons: traditionally, cattle
pastoralist women of the study area are not associated with cattle breeding and it is
purely men’s domain; women are highly associated with nurturing the young calves,
and injured and sick animals; women are not comfortable discussing about cattle
breeding, especially when the interviewer/researcher is a man. In cases when women
joined the FGDs, they simply walked out when they realized that the focus of the
interview was cattle breeding.
Open ended questions like, “do you practice artificial insemination, why; why not?”,
“how do you select the breeding stock?”, “what is more important, cow or bull, for
breeding?”, “how is the breeding bull selected?”, “what are the traits of a breeding
bull?”, were asked during the interviews and FGDs. Primary data collected was
predominantly qualitative in nature. During the interviews, it was noticed that
traditional cattle breeders attach the highest importance to the selection and
management of the breeding bulls. Conducting FGDs and personal interviews was
stopped at the point of achieving data saturation, when no further new data was
produced (Cresswell, 2013).
The data collected through personal interviews and FGDs was predominantly
qualitative in nature. Interviews were captured through audio recordings and field
notes. The recorded information was transcribed into Microsoft Word document and
subjected to further analysis. Transcripts were manually coded (Strauss, 1987),
adopting the inductive coding process (Leech and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Inductive
coding not only helped in breaking the data into chunks, but also allowed the codes to
emerge naturally from the data itself. Codes such as the size and shape of the head of
the cattle, gait of the animal, hair whorls on the body, size of the tail, coat colour,
temperament, and behaviour of the animal, etc. have emerged naturally from the data
itself (Fereday andMuir-Cochrane, 2006; Leech and Onwuegbuzie, 2007). The list of

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
codes was entered into an excel sheet and a matrix was generated for all the 86
transcripts for identification of the ‘shared beliefs’ (i.e. same code mentioned by two
or more participants) (Francis et al., 2010). The presence/absence and the frequency
of occurrence of shared beliefs was used to arrive at data saturation. Inductive coding
of the shared beliefs has resulted in the identification of 14 codes (broad criteria
adopted by the traditional cattle breeders) related to the selection of breeding bulls
(Table 1).
Table 1: The Traits Used by Traditional Cattle Breeders for the Selection of Breeding
Bulls in the Study Area
S.No.
Codes Identified for Selection of
Breeding Bulls of Poda Thurpu
Cattle
Codes Identified for Selection of
Breeding Bulls of Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma Cattle
1.
Size of the head (length and width)
Size of the head (length and width)
2.
Shape of the forehead
--
3.
Number and position of hair whorls
on the body
Number and position of hair whorls
on the body
4.
Nature of the hooves (hard/soft)
Nature of the hooves (hard/soft)
5.
Colour of the hooves
--
6.
Length of the tail
--
7.
Gait of the animal (strut/drag)
Gait of the animal (strut/drag)
8.
Shape of the legs
Shape of the legs
9.
Colour of the horns
Colour of the horns
10.
Shape and orientation of the horns
Shape and orientation of the horns
11.
Coat colour
Coat colour
12.
--
Height of the animal
13.
Temperament and response of the
animal to instructions
Temperament and response of the
animal to instructions
14.
Duration of the observation
Duration of the observation
Inductive coding has also resulted in generating 4 codes (broad criteria used by
traditional cattle breeders) with regards to retention of female breeding stock in the
herd (Table 2). These codes formed the basis for further data collection and analysis
to validate ITK. The participant cattle breeders were asked to choose codes (traits) that
are perceived very important to them and are also quantifiable. The breeders of Poda
Thurpu cattle chose colour of the coat, horns and hooves and orientation of the horns
as the most important traits. And the breeders of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle chose
height and coat colour as important. It was assumed that traits that were ‘
deemed
desirable
’ by the traditional cattle breeders are transposed upon the respective cattle
populations employing ITK. To validate our assumption, however, biometric data of
the study cattle populations was collected for further investigation and analysis.
Table 2: The -Traits Used by Traditional Cattle Breeders for Retention of Female
Breeding Stock in the Study Area
S.No.
Codes Identified for Retention of
Female Breeding Stock of Poda
Thurpu Cattle
Codes Identified for Retention of
Female Breeding Stock of Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma Cattle
1.
Number and position of hair whorls
on the body
Number and position of hair whorls
on the body
2.
Colour of the hooves
--
3.
Coat colour
Coat colour
4.
--
Height of the animal
Based on the codes (14 for breeding bulls and 4 for breeding stock/cows), pertinent
biometry data (coat colour, size, shape and colour of horns, head size, body size) of the
study cattle population was collected from a sample of 595 adult (above 4 years old)
animals (303 Poda Thurpu cattle and 292 Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle). Out of the

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
total 595 cattle sampled, 196 are breeding bulls (101 Poda Thurpu and 95 Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma cattle), and the remaining 399 are cows (202 Poda Thurpu and 197
Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma).
Biometry data of the study cattle was deemed as empirical evidence to support our
assumptions. The purpose of collecting biometry data is to check whether the study
cattle population possess the traits ‘deemed desirable’ by the traditional cattle
breeders. However, 57 per cent of the codes generated are qualitative in nature. For
instance, traditional breeders’ preferences for temperament and obedience to
instructions, nature of the hooves, colour of the coat, and hooves, and shape of the
horns were qualitative in nature (Table 3). So, proxy biometry (numerical) data was
collected to measure the codes that are qualitative in nature. For instance, number of
animals that have preferred coat colour, horns, etc were counted and recorded for
analysis.
Table 3: Nature of the Traits Used by Traditional Cattle Breeders for the Selection of
Breeding Bulls in the Study Area
S.No.
Qualitative traits
1.
Nature of the hooves (hard/soft)
2.
Colour of the hooves
3.
Gait of the animal (strut/drag)
4.
Shape of the legs
5.
Colour of the horns
6.
Shape and orientation of the horns
7.
Coat colour
8.
Temperament and response of the animal to instructions
Quantifiable traits
9.
Height of the animal
10.
Size of the head (length and width)
11.
Shape of the Forehead
12.
Number and position of hair whorls on the body
13.
Length of the tail
14.
Duration of the observation
For the purpose of biometry data collection, the questionnaire ‘breed descriptor for
registration’ prescribed by the ICAR-NBAGR, was adopted (ICAR-NBAGR, 2010).
Biometry of adult animals was analysed against the codes generated through inductive
coding. The frequency of occurrence of each code was calculated from the biometry
data. For instance, the frequency of codes like the desired colour of the coat, colour the
hooves, and the colour and orientation of horns among Poda Thurpu cattle population
was calculated from the biometry data. Similarly, the frequency of codes such as the
desired height and coat colour among Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle was calculated.
The presence of a desired trait (code) and the frequency of its occurrence among the
study cattle population was deemed as the proxy indicator of the ITK of traditional
cattle breeders of the study.
To validate our assumption, however, this study adopted the QuIK (Quantification of
indigenous knowledge) method (De Villiers, 1996). The basic principle of this method
was that local communities know and understand the environment in which they live
and answers for many questions can be found in the collective knowledge and
experience of the community, livestock breeders in the present context. Therefore,
traditional livestock keepers perceived to be experts in a particular ITK was consulted
for triangulation and validation of the results, and confirmed by them (De Amitendu et
al., 2004; Mahto, 2012). During the QuIK, triangulation process, the authors have also
learned about a simple but an effective traditional measurement technique used by the
breeders of Nallamala-Pasa/kamma cattle to measure and maintain the height of the

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
animals. Cattle breeders use the terms “
Padigi Aavu
” and “
Aidu Jaanala Aavu
”, referring
to cattle that are believed to be suitable for life in hilly and undulating terrains covered
in forests and usually experiences extreme temperatures. The terms “
Padigi Aavu
” and
“
Aidu Jaanala Aavu
”, and the traditional height measuring techniques are discussed in
detail in table (4).
Table 4: Traditional Techniques for Measuring and Maintaining the Height of the Cattle
S.No.
Type of Animal
by Height
(Local Name)
Indigenous
Unit of
Measurement
Unit in
Inches
Traditional Height Measuring
Technique
1.
Padigi Aavu
Forearm
18
inches
Local communities use just a
baton and forearm to measure
height of the animal. The
length of a forearm (elbow to
fingertip) is called locally as
“mora” which is approximately
1.5 feet (18 inch).
The animal should be
approximately 4 inches less to
three mora or 4.5 feet (137.16
cm). Any animal which stands
more than the desired height
will be eliminated from the
herd as it is unsuitable for life
in the hillocks and high
temperatures.
Results of the study suggests
that the average height of
Nallamala-Kamma cow is
126.58 cm / 4.15 ft and the
breeding bull is 135.82 cm /
4.45 ft.
2
Aidu Zaanala
Aavu
Hands high
4
inches
Local communities also keep
smaller size cattle
(approximately 3.5 feet in
height), known locally as
“
Buddaaavu
”.
The other indigenous
technique which is used to
select
Buddaaavu
is by using
the length of a hand (tip of the
little finger to the tip of the
thumb) known locally as
“
Zaana
”. A baton is used for a
ruler.
Ideally, the animal should be
aidu
(five)
zaanalu
tall to
qualify for a
Buddaaavu
and
any animal either short or tall
are eliminated from the herd.

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3. Results and Discussion
Inductive coding (Leech and Onwuegbuzie, 2007) of the transcripts has generated 14
codes specific to breeding bulls and 4 codes generic to the breeding stock/cows. These
codes are the traits or characteristics ‘
deemed desirable
’ for the ‘heritage cattle breeds’
managed by the traditional cattle breeders participated in the study. Biometry data of
the cattle related to the codes was collected and analysed. The frequency of occurrence
of each code was considered as the proxy evidence to support our assumption that the
study cattle populations possess the traits deemed desirable by the cattle breeders.
And such traits are transposed on to the cattle populations of the study through the
application of ITK. The results of the study are presented in this section.
Traditionally, both Poda Thurpu and Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle are managed
under ‘nucleus herd system’ and breeders strictly follow 100 per cent natural
servicing. The average herd size of Poda Thurpu and Nallamal-Pasa/Kamma cattle is
45 and 72, respectively. Cattle breeders of both the study cattle populations practice
selective breeding to maintain high genetic purity, and preferred physical traits such
as the desired coat colour, orientation of horns, size of the animal, and temperament.
One of the important traits breeders of Poda Thurpu cattle look for in the breeding bull
is the size (length and width), and shape of the head. Local breeders describe it as ‘large
and prominent’ and the biometry data analysis suggests that the average head size of
the breeding bull are 43.74 and 20.17 cm, respectively. A convex shaped forehead with
a deep furrow in the centre is considered desirable by the breeders. It was found that
100 per cent of the breeding bulls have convex shaped foreheads with deep furrows in
the centre (Table 5).
The number and location position of hair whorls (cowlicks) on the animal’s body is an
extremely important characteristic to the participant cattle breeders. Breeders
associate the number and location of the hair whorls with fertility and virulence of the
breeding bull. Breeders of Poda Thurpu cattle prefer breeding bulls with a single hair
whorl on the forehead and another whorl on the back, right behind the hump. Breeders
do not prefer breeding bulls with two coexisting hair whorls on any part of the animal.
Breeders also do not prefer animals with hair whorls over the tailbone for breeding
(Table 5).
Similarly, the breeders of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle also are emphatic on the
shape, location and number of hair whorls. However, it was found that breeders of
Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle have a more elaborate vocabulary and description of
hair whorls than their Poda Thurpu cattle breeder counterparts. The Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma cattle breeders distinguish hair whorls based on their location on the
animal’s body and ascribe different qualities to each (Table 6). They distinguish
location of the hair whorls on three distinct locations, the back (on the spine), the
dewlap, and the forehead. The description of the qualities of hair whorl based on their
location on the animal’s body are as follow:
Hair whorl on the back (on the spine)
:
i).
Dhanaraasi sudi
(Wealth hair whorl) is a single hair whorl located on top of the
hump, and the animal with such a hair whorl is considered healthy and brings good
luck to the master. Breeding bulls with Dhanaraasi sudi are highly priced and are in
demand. ii). Paataala sudi, is a single hair whorl located at the base of the hump
towards the posterior side is considered second best to Dhanaraasi sudi. iii). Maamolu
sudi (common hair whorl) is a single hair whorl located 4 inches away from the place
of Paataala sudi towards the posterior side. iv). Dabbodu sudi, is a single hair whorl
present close to the tail bone. v). Poraka sudi, is a single hair whorl present on the tail
bone. And vi). Toda giri sudi, (hair whorl on the thigh) is the single hair whorl present
over tail at thigh region.

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
Hair whorl on the dewlap
:
i). Potu sudi is the single hair whorl present on the left side of the dewlap. It is
considered that a bull with Potu sudi is extremely virulent. ii). The bull with a hair
whorl one on each side of the dewlap is considered good. And iii). The bull with hair
whorl only on the right side is considered unfit.
Hair whorl on the forehead
:
i). Manchi sudi, is the single hair whorl present right at the center of the forehead. It is
considered good. And ii). Kumpati sudi, is the hair whorl present towards the muzzle.
The number and location of cowlicks is associated with good or bad luck to the master’s
family and the master. Any animal with an undesirable number or position of hair
whorl is usually rejected by the breeders and the local people to avoid a potential bad
luck. Breeders’ preference for animals with a certain shape, number and location of
hair whorls may have some scientific legitimacy and is not entirely baseless. Studies
found an association between shape and position of hair whorls with genes, heredity,
cognisance, temperament, brain development, health conditions and sexuality, in cattle
(Craft and Warner, 1934; Deesing, 2020), dogs (Lillebo, 2014; Tomkins and McGreevy,
2010), horses (Cruz et al., 2021; Encina et al., 2023), swine (Craft and Warner, 1934)
and human beings (Aksu et al., 2013; Csabi et al., 2014; Kiil, 1948; Klar, 2005; Luo et
al., 2023; McDonald, 2011; Ruiz-Maldonado, 2002; Sechi, et al., 2020; Smith and Gong,
1973; Smith and Gong, 1974; Tirosh et al., 1987). Studies found that cattle with hair
whorls above the eyes are more agitated during restraint (Grandin et al., 1995), and in
the auction ring (Lanier et al., 2001). Broucek et al. (2004) reports an association of
hair whorl position and learning ability and locomotor behaviour in cattle. Aierqing et
al. (2020) found a relationship between the location of the hair whorl and the animal’s
adaptability, obedience, and excitability. Couse (2015) reports that bulls with a round
hair whorl between their eyes are more likely to produce high quality sperm than bulls
without the same. Scientific studies related to hair whorls in cattle are highly
concentrated on hair whorls located on the head and not many studies have focused
on hair whorls found on other body parts.
Cattle breeders of both the study cattle breeds prefer animals with hooves that are
hard, thick, large, and firmly held together, and not be split wide and loose (Table 5 &
6). Poda Thurpu cattle breeders prefer breeding bulls that have copper brown colour
horns and hooves and Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma, cattle breeders have a preference for
breeding bulls that have slate coloured horns and hooves. Breeders of both the study
cattle breeds are very particular about the shape of the legs and gait of the breeding
bulls. They prefer bulls with thick and stout fore and hind legs, and with their knees
not touching each other. Strides of the animal should be composed, firm and not
wobbly. Strides of the animal should resemble a trot, lifting the feet high off the ground
and step down firmly, as if rocks would get crushed under its feet. The animal should
not stagger or drag its feet.
Breeders of Poda Thurpu prefer bulls with short and lean tails with the tail switch
ending just above the knees, a short tail is a symbol of agility in breeding bulls.
However, such preference was not observed among Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle
breeders. Poda Thurpu cattle breeders show preference for bulls with strong and
upward curved horns pointing forward. Breeders of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle are
fond of bulls with short and strong horns that are wide at the base. Breeders of both
the breeds show an extremely strong and different preferences when it comes to coat
colour. Poda Thurpu cattle breeders show very strong affinity for breeding bulls with
chocolate brown blotches/speckles on a white coat. Breeders prefer animals to have
chocolate brown blotches/speckles on cheeks and shoulders. Correspondingly, 93.26
per cent of breeding bulls and 88.2 percent of cows of Poda Thurpu cattle are found to
have brown blotches/speckles on a white coat. On the contrary, breeders of Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma cattle prefers milky white coat colour. The word ‘
Pasa
’ means ‘white’ in

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
Telugu, a regional language in India. Correspondingly, 97 per cent of breeding bulls and
89 per cent of cows of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle have a white coat (Table 5 & 6).
Height of the animal is one of the characteristics breeders of the study cattle
populations are very particular about. Although, height preference was a pronounced
trait among Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle breeders than breeders of Poda Thurpu
cattle. Both the study cattle breeds are medium-compact size breeds, suitable for life
in undulating, hilly, and semi-arid geographies (Siripurapu et al., 2019a; Siripurapu et
al., 2019b). The average height of a Poda Thurpu cattle bull and cow is 119.38 and
111.84 cm, respectively. Similarly, the average height of a Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma bull
and cow is 135.82 and 126.58 cm, respectively. Nallamala-Kamma cattle population is
referred to locally as
Padigi Aavu
because of its ‘specific height’ (4.5 ft / 137.16 cm)
and size. Breeders of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle say that it is necessary to maintain
a specific height and body size to enable the animal to tolerate heat and thrive in
undulating, hilly terrains experiencing semi-arid and harsh weather conditions.
Breeders rely on ITK to maintain the desired height among the cattle population. They
deploy a very simple and easily accessible, yet effective indigenous technique to
achieve this. Breeders use their forearm and hands high measurement techniques to
measure the height of animals (Table 4). Using this indigenous technique breeder
retains only “
Padigi Aavu
” and “
Aidu Jaanala Aavu
” (approx. 3.5 ft height), believed to
be suitable for life in the local environment, which is often harsh and unforgiving.
Cattle breeding is the domain of men among the participant communities of the study.
In general women do not interfere in cattle breeding in the study area. Breeding bull
selection is a very meticulous and time-consuming process, which may take between
2-4 years of careful observation, scrutiny, and care for the animal. Bulls are available
for servicing when they are about 46 and 41 months old in Poda Thurpu and Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma cattle respectively (Siripurapu et al., 2019a, 2019b). Breeders of
Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle only prefer male calves born in the 2–3 pregnancies for
breeding bulls. Breeders say that cattle, similar to humans, are neither physically nor
mentally prepared for motherhood during their first pregnancy (Table 5 & 6). Also,
breeders believe that cows often lose virulence post their third pregnancy, and they
usually give birth to inferior calves, therefore, a male calf born after the third
pregnancy is not preferred for breeding.
Table 5: The Criteria Used by Traditional Cattle Breeders Breeding of Poda Thurpu
Cattle in the Study Area
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Poda Thurpu
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 101)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 202)
1.
Size of the head
(length and
width)
Large and
prominent
Average length:
43.74 & Width:
20.17 cm
Average length:
41.72 & width:
18.45 cm
2.
Shape of the
Forehead
Convex with a
deep furrow in
the centre
100 %
NA
3.
Number and
position of hair
whorls on the
body
Should have
single hair whorl
on the forehead
and one on the
back, right
behind the
hump. There
should not be
two hair whorls
together and
---
---

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Poda Thurpu
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 101)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 202)
there should not
be any hair
whorls over the
tailbone.
4.
Nature of the
hooves
Should be hard,
thick, large, and
firmly together,
should not be
split wide, and
should not be
loose
---
NA
5.
Colour of the
hooves
The colour
should be
copper brown.
Copper brown
colour
(91.01%)
Copper brown
colour
(89.20%)
6.
Length of the tail
Should be lean
and end above
the knees –
symbol of agility.
Average length:
119.17 cm
Average length:
113.12 cm
7.
Gait of the animal
Strides should
be composed
and firm. The
stride should
resemble a trot,
lifting the feet off
the ground and
stepping firmly
back, as if rocks
would be
crushed under
the feet. There
should not be
any staggering
or dragging of
feet.
NA
8.
Shape of the legs
Should be thick
and stout, and
knees should not
touch each
other.
NA
9.
Colour of the
horns
Should be
copper brown in
colour.
Copper brown
colour
(93.26%)
Copper brown
colour
(85.23%)
10.
Shape and
orientation of the
horns
Should be
strong, curved,
and pointed
forward (esp. for
breeding bulls)
Forward:
28.09%
Upward:
29.21%
NA
11.
Coat colour
Brown speckles
on a white coat
(speckles should
be on the cheeks
and shoulders)
93.26%
88.2%

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Poda Thurpu
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 101)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 202)
12.
Temperament
and response of
the animal to
instructions
Breeding bull
should respond
to the
instructions of
its care taker. It
should play a
major role in
maintaining and
protecting the
herd. Breeding
bulls are
expected to lead
the herd, warn /
alert and protect
the herd from
predators and
other dangers.
13.
Duration of the
observation
0 - 4 years
Calves selected
for breeding
purposes are
kept under
observation for
4 years. It is
allowed to mate
and its progeny
is observed for
one generation.
The bull will be
retained if
calves born to it
exhibit the
desired
qualities (coat,
hooves and
horn colour).
Else, it is gelded
and sold or used
for draught
purposes.
NA
14.
Height of the
animal
Average Height:
119.38 cm
Average Height:
111.84 cm
The breeding bulls are kept within the herd for about 10 years, till they pass their
prime. Bulls that are past their prime are permanently separated from the herd, used
for draft purposes or allowed to grow old naturally, with care, and never slaughtered.
One of the highly valued traits in a breeding bull is its temperament and response to
the instructions of the master. Breeders of both the study cattle breeds believe that a
breeding bull is more than a breeding machine, it plays a major role in leading,
maintaining, defending and protecting the herd from predators and other dangers. A
breeding bull is expected to be aggressive, but also respond and obey to the
instructions of the master (Table 5 & 6). Breeders of Nallamala-Pasa/Kamma cattle
believe that a ring forms on cow’s horns every time it calves. And said that it is possible
to guess the number of times the cow calved by counting the rings on its horns.

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
Table 6: The Criteria Used by Traditional Cattle Breeders for Breeding of Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma Cattle in the Study Area
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 95)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 197)
1.
Size of the head
(length and
width)
Large and heavy
Average length:
& width: 22.91
cm
Average length:
& width: cm
2.
Number and
position of hair
whorls on the
body
Whorl on the
back (over the
spine)
:
i). Dhanaraasi
sudi (Wealth
hair whorl) is a
single hair whorl
located on top of
the hump. It is
considered the
best. Breeding
bulls with
Dhanaraasi sudi
are highly priced
and are in
demand.
ii). Paataala sudi,
is a single hair
whorl located at
the base of the
hump towards
the posterior
side is
considered
second best to
Dhanaraasi sudi.
iii). Maamolu
sudi (common
hair whorl) is a
single hair whorl
located 4 inches
away from the
place of Paataala
sudi towards the
posterior side.
iv). Dabbodu
sudi, is a single
hair whorl
present close to
the tail bone.
v). Poraka sudi,
is a single hair
whorl present
on the tail bone.
About 80% of
the breeding
bulls have
Paataala sudi.
About 20% of
the breeding
bulls have
Dhanaraasi sudi.
Breeding bulls
with Paatala
sudi are more
common than
bulls with
Dhanaraasi sudi.
Position of hair
whorls on the
dewlap is not
applicable to
cows.

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 95)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 197)
vi). Toda giri
sudi, (hair whorl
on thigh) is the
single hair whorl
present over tail
at thigh region.
On the Dewlap
:
i). Potu sudi is
the single hair
whorl present
on the left side
of the dewlap. It
is considered
that a bull with
Potu sudi is
extremely
virulent.
ii). The bull with
a hair whorl one
on each side of
the dewlap is
considered good.
iii). The bull
with hair whorl
only on the right
side is
considered unfit.
On the forehead
:
i). Manchi sudi,
is the single hair
whorl present
right at the
center of the
forehead. It is
considered good.
ii). Kumpati
sudi, is the hair
whorl present
towards the
muzzle.
3.
Nature of the
hooves
Should be hard,
thick, large, and
firmly together,
should not be
split wide, and
should not be
loose

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 95)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 197)
4.
Gait of the animal
Strides should
be composed
and firm. The
stride should
resemble a trot,
lifting the feet
off the ground
and stepping
firmly back, as if
rocks would be
crushed under
the feet. There
should not be
any staggering
or dragging of
feet.
NA
5.
Shape of the legs
Should be thick
and stout, and
knees should not
touch each
other.
NA
6.
Colour of the
horns
Slate
100%
100%
7.
Shape and
orientation of the
horns
Should be short,
strong and wide
at the base
(especially for
breeding bulls)
Average length:
15.35 cm
Average length:
19.38 cm
8.
Coat colour
White coat
among cows and
White coat with
grey colour over
the nape for
breeding bulls
97%
89%
9.
Height of the
animal
Less than 4.5
feet (137.16 cm)
at the shoulder
Average Height:
135.82 cm
Average Height:
126.58 cm
10.
Temperament
and response of
the animal to
instructions
Breeding bull
should respond
to the
instructions of
its care taker. It
should play a
major role in
maintaining and
protecting the
herd. Breeding
bulls are
expected to lead
the herd, warn /
alert and protect
the herd from

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
S.No.
Codes Generated
for Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma
Cattle
Traditionally
Deemed Desired
Traits
Occurrence
among Breeding
Bulls
(n = 95)
Occurrence
among Cows (n
= 197)
predators and
other dangers.
11.
Duration of the
observation
0 - 4 years
Male calves
born during the
2 – 3
pregnancies are
selected for
breeding bulls.
It is kept under
constant
observation
since the time it
was born till it
is ready to mate
when it is 4
years old.
NA
Both the study cattle breeds are maintained in herds and the average herd size of Poda
Thurpu cattle is 45 (Siripurapu et al., 2019a) and the average herd size of Nallamala-
Pasa/Kamma cattle is 75 (Siripurapu et al., 2019b). In both the cases a single breeding
bull is maintained in the herd for breeding purpose. Traditionally local cattle breeders
of both the cattle breeds follow an open nucleus breeding system for breeding (Bondoc
and Smith, 1993; Shrivastava et al., 2018). Shrivastava et al. (2018), suggests that the
average genetic merit of a nucleus herd is usually far greater and improves the overall
genetic merit of the breed. Local cattle breeders are strictly against in-breeding among
their cattle herds. They take precautions to discourage it among their herds.
Inbreeding is considered morally wrong because local cattle breeders believe that it is
equivalent to promotion of incest. Therefore, calves selected for breeding are usually
sold or exchanged with other breeders and seldom are kept in the same herd which
they were born into. This traditional practice prevents inbreeding and helps in
maintaining healthy gene pool.
4. Conclusion
A combination of QuIK method, biometry data and qualitative methods for
investigation was found to be effective in generating the desired data and results for
the present study that examines ITK associated with the breeding of heritage breeds.
Observations of the present study support the notion that traditional breeders of
heritage breeds lay more emphasis on the qualitative traits than the quantitative traits.
One of the highly valued qualitative traits by the local cattle breeders in a breeding bull
is its temperament and its response to the instructions of the master. It was found that
breeders of the study give significant importance to the fertility of bovine bulls than
cows. Breeding bulls are meticulously chosen with extreme caution and care, following
a very long and time-consuming selection process that could take up to four years.
Traditionally local cattle breeders of both the cattle breeds follow an open nucleus
breeding system for improving the overall genetic merit of the breed. Traditionally
only men are involved in cattle breeding in the study area and women usually stay
away from it. Inbreeding among the cattle is discouraged by the local cattle breeders
by removing the male calves that were born into the herd. The local cattle breeders
take a great interest in the number and position of hair whorls on the animals.
However, further studies are necessary to develop a deeper understanding of the ITK
associated with hair whorls, especially in the Indian context. Studies on hair whorls
remain highly concentrated on hair whorls located on animal’s head and information

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Kanna K. Siripurapu, Faisal Moola, Shilpi Sharma, Anushree Sainger, Kameswara Rao Kotamraju
about the same on other parts of the body is meagre. Furthermore, studies on hair
whorls were predominantly conducted outside of India and there are hardly any
studies found in the Indian context. Dearth of studies exploring such minute details and
fine nuances, such as hair whorls in the Indian context leaves a huge gap in
understanding the role of ITK in breeding and management of heritage breeds and
indigenous livestock germplasm. The present study fills the existing information and
knowledge gaps associated with ITK and breeding of heritage breeds in India. Besides,
the study indicates the presence of priceless ITK and tacit knowledge associated with
livestock breeding waiting to be discovered and scientifically documented. The study
opens the doors for further studies on ITK associated with livestock breeding and
management in India.
5. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the traditional cattle breeders for appreciating our
research, participating in the study, spending time and sharing their knowledge with
us, without which this study would not have been possible. The authors would also like
to thank profusely the Global Environment Facility (GEF), Telangana State Biodiversity
Board and NBAGR-ICAR for supporting the biometry data collection and providing
technical support. The authors would like to thank Megavardhan Reddy Pothula,
Watershed Support Services and Activities Network (WASSAN) for the immense field
support and data collection. WASSAN is also acknowledged for providing all the
administrative support for the study. The authors would like to thank the anonymous
reviewers for their valuable feedback which helped enormously in improving the
article.
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Authors’ Declarations and Essential Ethical Compliances
Authors’ Contributions (in accordance with ICMJE criteria for authorship)
Contribution
Author 1
Author 2
Author 3
Author 4
Author 5
Conceived and designed the
research or analysis
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Collected the data
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
Contributed to data analysis &
interpretation
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Wrote the article/paper
Yes
No
No
No
No
Critical revision of the
article/paper
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Editing of the article/paper
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Supervision
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Project Administration
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Funding Acquisition
No
No
Yes
No
No
Overall Contribution Proportion
(%)
40
20
30
5
5
Funding
The funding for this research was made available by the Global Environment Facility
(GEF), Telangana State Biodiversity Board and National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources-ICAR, India, for collection of biometry data. Although the main objetive of
the funding was not about studying the traditional cattle breeding practices but the
richness of data and information guided us in the new direction and contributed to
designing and conducting this study.
Research involving human bodies or organs or tissues (Helsinki Declaration)
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved any human
subject (body or organs) for experimentation. It was not a clinical research. The
contexts of human population/participation were only indirectly covered through
literature review. Therefore, an Ethical Clearance (from a Committee or Authority) or
ethical obligation of Helsinki Declaration does not apply in cases of this study or
written work.
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The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved any animal
subject (body or organs) for experimentation. The research was not based on
laboratory experiment involving any kind of animal. Some contexts of animals are also
indirectly covered through literature review. Therefore, an Ethical Clearance (from a
Committee or Authority) does not apply in cases of this study or written work.
Research on Indigenous Peoples and/or Traditional Knowledge
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has involved Indigenous Peoples
as participants or respondents, with the documentation of their Indigenous
Knowledge. Some other contexts of Indigenous Peoples or Indigenous Knowledge are
only indirectly covered through literature review. An Ethical Clearance ‘to conduct
research on indigenous peoples’ Indigenous knowledge is relevant. Therefore, an
Ethical Clearance (from a Committee or Authority) and Self-Declaration in this regard
do apply in cases of this study or written work. Both the documents are appended.
Research involving Plants
The author(s) solemnly declare(s) that this research has not involved the plants for
experiment or field studies. The contexts of plants were only indirectly covered
through literature review. Thus, during this research the author(s) obeyed the
principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on the Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.

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participants or respondents belonging to non-Indigenous peoples. Yet, this study did
not involve any child in any form directly. The contexts of different humans, people,
populations, men/women/children and ethnic people are also indirectly covered
through literature review. Therefore, an Ethical Clearance (from a Committee or
Authority) or prior informed consent (PIC) of the respondents or Self-Declaration in
this regard does not apply in cases of this study or written work.
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The author(s) has/have NOT complied with PRISMA standards. It is not relevant in
case of this study or written work.
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other parties or in publishing this manuscript. There is no conflict of interest with the
publisher or the editorial team or the reviewers.
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