Content uploaded by Shirin Akhter
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Shirin Akhter on May 19, 2024
Content may be subject to copyright.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
++ Associate Professors;
*Corresponding author: E-mail: shirinakhternaqvi@gmail.com;
J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024
Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science
Volume 37, Issue 4, Page 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
ISSN: 2456-981X
(Past name: British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science,
Past ISSN: 2278-0998)
Social Mobility and Youth Aspirations:
An Analysis of the Conditional
Convergence of Aspirations in India
Shirin Akhter a++* and Vijender Singh Chauhan a++
a Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of Delhi, India.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/JESBS/2024/v37i41313
Open Peer Review History:
This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers,
peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here:
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/116869
Received: 02/03/2024
Accepted: 06/05/2024
Published: 11/05/2024
ABSTRACT
This article examines the complex interplay between social mobility and the aspirations of Indian
youth within the context of India's modest ranking on the Global Social Mobility Index. Utilizing a
multidisciplinary approach, the study synthesizes empirical data and theoretical insights to explore
how socio-economic backgrounds, government policies, societal attitudes, and individual actions
shape aspirations. Central to this analysis is the concept of "conditionally convergent aspirations,"
which describes how socio-economic and cultural barriers lead to a narrowing of aspirations within
homogeneous groups, thereby limiting the potential for upward social mobility. The findings suggest
that effective policy interventions must address these foundational disparities through
comprehensive educational reforms, robust social equity measures, and economic empowerment
initiatives. By offering a detailed review of the literature and proposing targeted policy
recommendations, the study aims to contribute to the discourse on social justice and economic
development, advocating for a strategic approach to foster a more equitable society where the
aspirations of all Indian youth can be realised.
Original Research Article
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
2
Keywords: Social mobility; aspirations, socio-economic barriers; educational reforms; conditional
convergence; government policies; cultural capital; economic empowerment; social
Inequality; global social mobility index.
1. INTRODUCTION
Positioned at a poor 76th on the Global Social
Mobility Index
1
, India’s score of 42.7 out of 100
points a somber picture
2
of the challenges its
youth face. This number is a reflection of millions
of dreams deferred, talents undiscovered, and
potential unfulfilled. As the country strides
forward
3
, laying various claims on economic
development, bridging the gap between the world
of opportunities and the reality of its young
citizens remains one of its most pressing
challenges. This article is an attempt to bring out
the factors that tether aspirations to the rigid
socio-economic realities of birth, an examination
of how social (im)mobility
4
determines
aspirations.
In this article, we explore the stark realities of
social mobility in India, juxtaposed against the
global framework of opportunities, through an
analysis of India's performance on the Global
Social Mobility Index which highlights the
profound disparities faced by Indian youth and
underscores the vast chasm between their
aspirations and the socio-economic realities
dictated by their circumstances of birth. The
narrative of economic growth and progress is
often marred by the entrenched socio-economic
divisions that curtail the potential and aspirations
of many. Through a critical examination of the
interplay between socioeconomic factors and
individual aspirations, this article seeks to
unravel the complex and multifaceted dynamics
of social immobility in India.
Aspirations
5
, in the article, refer to individuals'
desires and goals for their future well-being,
which influence their economic decisions and
behaviour. They go beyond material
possessions, including social status,
relationships, and personal achievements,
affecting how individuals make decisions
1
Available: https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-
rankings/social-mobility-by-country
2
Available:https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/india-
ranks-low-at-76-on-social-mobility-index-29338
3
Available:https://www.forbesindia.com/article/explainers/top-
10-largest-economies-in-the-world/86159/1
4
Available:https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/1
1/28/a-lack-of-mobility-undermines-the-aspirations-of-
millions-and-may-threaten-stability-and-growth
5
Available: https://academic.oup.com/jeea/article-
pdf/17/6/1687/31558689/jvz057.pdf
regarding education, career choices, savings,
investments, and labor supply decisions. Several
factors like the socio-economic background,
cultural norms, and peer influences, shape
individuals' aspirations. For instance, being born
into families with higher income or wealth can
influence aspirations by expanding the range of
possibilities and opportunities available to
individuals, education can play a crucial role in
shaping aspirations by providing individuals with
information, skills, and exposure to different
possibilities.
Thus the article aims to illuminate the pivotal role
of circumstances of birth
6
, government policies,
societal attitudes, and individual actions in
shaping the aspirations of young Indians and the
collective need to address these gaps in pursuit
of a more equitable society. This discourse
invites a deeper reflection on how India can
transform its approach to social mobility,
ensuring that the aspirations of its youth are not
just dreams but attainable realities, fostering a
future where economic and social equality are
not aspirations but assured realities.
The article is organized to address the
multifaceted aspects of social mobility in India,
guiding the reader through a systematic
exploration of the socio-economic challenges
that shape the aspirations and realities of India’s
youth. The introduction presents India’s ranking
on the Global Social Mobility Index and outlines
the central thesis: the profound disparity
between the aspirations of Indian youth
and the socio-economic realities imposed by
their birth. It establishes the significance of
examining how social immobility affects these
aspirations.
Exploration of Social Mobility Realities analyzes
India’s performance on the Global Social Mobility
Index, highlighting the disparities faced by Indian
youth. The narrative of economic growth and
progress being marred by entrenched socio-
economic divisions is emphasized, laying the
groundwork for a deeper investigation into the
factors influencing social mobility. The next part
discusses how various factors like socio-
6
Available: https://time.com/6961171/india-british-rule-
income-inequality/
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
3
economic background, cultural norms, and
peer influences shape these aspirations,
stressing the importance of education in
expanding the range of possibilities available to
individuals.
The next part of the article features a
comprehensive review of selected studies that
examine the impact of social mobility on
aspirations. This section synthesizes key
theoretical and empirical contributions,
discussing foundational works by scholars such
as M.N. Srinivas, André Béteille, and
contemporary studies by authors like Banerjee
and Duflo. It also introduces the concept of
“conditionally convergent aspirations,” where
socio-economic and cultural barriers lead to a
narrowing of aspiration ranges within similar
socio-economic groups. It utilizes a theoretical
framework based on the works of Amartya Sen,
Pierre Bourdieu, and Arjun Appadurai. The
analysis further leverages empirical data from the
Global Social Mobility Index to illustrate how the
interplay between socioeconomic factors and
government policies affects individual aspirations
and social mobility.
The section on Policy Analysis and
Recommendations discusses potential
interventions that could enhance social mobility.
Drawing from the literature review and theoretical
insights, it proposes specific policies targeting
education, anti-discrimination laws, and
economic empowerment, aiming to broaden the
spectrum of aspirational choices for the youth.
Finally, the conclusion ties together the findings
and discussions from the previous sections,
emphasizing the critical need for addressing the
aspiration-reality gap through inclusive policies. It
reiterates the significance of fostering a society
where social mobility is enhanced, ensuring that
the aspirations of India’s youth are supported by
a reality that promotes and celebrates their
potential.
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The discussion on the impact of social immobility
on the conditional convergence of aspirations
among Indian youth draws on a variety of
theoretical and empirical studies that explore the
interplay of socio-economic factors, cultural
dynamics, and institutional frameworks. This
literature review presents key contributions to the
field, highlighting the complexity and diversity of
experiences that shape social mobility and
aspirations in India.
Srinivas introduced the concept of Sanskritisation
in his ethnographic work, providing a cultural
anthropological perspective on how lower castes
adopt the practices of higher castes to improve
their societal status. This concept is pivotal for
understanding the mechanisms through which
individuals and groups seek to enhance their
social mobility within rigid caste structures [1].
Béteille’s examination of social stratification in a
South Indian village offers insights into the
microcosmic shifts in social mobility influenced
by education, land ownership, and political
power. His findings suggest that social mobility is
not merely an economic transition but also a
function of changing social relations and cultural
capital [2].
Through their empirical research, Banerjee and
Duflo illustrate how economic constraints shape
the decision-making processes regarding
education, savings, and other economic
behaviours among the poor in India. Their work
underscores the restrictive impact of limited
economic environments on individual aspirations
[3]. Deshpande explores the extension of caste-
based discrimination into economic spheres,
affecting individuals’ access to opportunities and
thereby influencing their aspirations. This study
highlights the persistent barriers imposed by the
caste system, which hinder social mobility and
lead to a convergence of aspirations within caste
boundaries [4].
Kapur and Prasad discuss the significant role
state policies play in shaping educational and
economic opportunities. Their analysis points to
the ways in which governmental actions can
either facilitate or obstruct social mobility,
affecting the broad spectrum of aspirations
among youth [5]. Majumdar, Manabi, & Mooij,
Jos’ work on the disparities in educational quality
across different social groups in India reflects
how socio-economic inequalities are mirrored in
the educational sector. Such disparities crucially
affect the aspirations and potential mobility of
students, contributing to a conditional
convergence where aspirations are shaped by
the available quality of education [6].
Appadurai’s concept of the ‘capacity to aspire’ is
instrumental in understanding how cultural
factors and media exposure shape and
sometimes limit the aspirations based on socio-
cultural environments. This framework is
essential for analyzing how aspirations are not
only formed in response to material conditions
but are also significantly influenced by cultural
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
4
narratives and expectations [7]. Bourdieu’s
discussions on social and cultural capital provide
a deeper understanding of how non-economic
forms of capital impact an individual’s potential
for social mobility. His theory emphasizes that
aspirations are deeply embedded in social
practices and the availability of cultural
resources, which can lead to a convergence of
aspirations within similar socio-economic groups
[8].
Sen, Amartya [9] in his seminal work
“Development as Freedom,” Sen argues that
development entails the removal of various types
of unfreedoms that leave people with little choice
and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned
agency. The central thesis of Sen’s work is that
freedom is both the primary goal of development
and its principal means. By enhancing freedoms,
individuals can expand their aspirations
beyond the immediate constraints of their
socio-economic conditions. Sen’s perspective is
crucial for understanding how increased access
to education, healthcare, and economic
opportunities can significantly broaden
individual aspirations and facilitate social mobility
[9].
In “Fault Lines,” Rajan argues that unchecked
economic inequalities can lead to systemic
crises, akin to geological fault lines leading to
earthquakes. He asserts that such disparities, if
not addressed, can create severe economic and
social turbulence, which resonates with the
theme of social mobility and the risks associated
with the conditional convergence of aspirations.
This perspective is crucial for understanding the
broader implications of failing to address
structural inequalities, which can culminate in the
collapse of socio-economic systems [10].
A recent study on Multigenerational Educational
and Occupational Mobility examines the
educational and occupational mobility across
three generations in India, revealing significant
insights into the intergenerational transmission of
socio-economic status. It highlights that while
educational mobility has seen some
improvements across generations, occupational
mobility remains largely stagnant, suggesting
that educational gains are not fully translating
into better occupational outcomes, emphasising
the complexity of social mobility in India and the
need for policies that enhance both educational
and occupational mobility to ensure sustainable
socio-economic development [11].
Focusing on disadvantaged groups, a paper on
Social Mobility among Disadvantaged Groups in
India explores how affirmative action and other
social policies have impacted the social mobility
of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes
(STs), and Muslims in India. The findings
suggest that while there has been some
progress, significant challenges remain,
particularly in achieving upward occupational
mobility for these groups. The study calls for a
multifaceted policy approach that addresses
both educational and occupational
mobility to dismantle entrenched inequalities
[12,13-15].
A paper entitled Education and Social Mobility in
India provides a comprehensive analysis of how
education influences social mobility in India. It
discusses the role of education in breaking the
cycle of poverty and enhancing upward mobility
among youth. The study emphasises the need
for quality education and access to higher
education as crucial factors for improving social
mobility, particularly for those from lower socio-
economic backgrounds [16,17,18].
The study is based on established theoretical
frameworks derived from the seminal works of
scholars such as Amartya Sen and Pierre
Bourdieu, alongside contemporary insights from
Arjun Appadurai. Specifically, it employs Sen’s
ideas on capabilities and freedoms to explore
how systemic restrictions influence individual
aspirations and potential for upward mobility.
Bourdieu’s concepts of social and cultural capital
are utilized to examine the socio-economic
barriers that individuals face within their
environments. Furthermore, Arjun Appadurai’s
notion of “the capacity to aspire” is central to our
analysis [19-21]. This concept provides a lens
through which the impact of cultural factors on
individual aspirations can be assessed,
highlighting the constraints imposed by existing
socio-economic structures and policies.
This literature review reveals that social
immobility leads to a conditional convergence of
aspirations among Indian youth, where
aspirations are not only constrained by economic
limitations but are also significantly shaped by
cultural, educational, and policy-related factors
[22-24]. The synthesis of these studies offers a
comprehensive picture of how aspirations are
formed, constrained, and often standardized
within certain socio-economic and cultural
confines. This conditional convergence is a
strategic response to perceived barriers and
opportunities, reflecting a broader socio-
economic phenomenon where systemic
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
5
constraints shape individual and collective
outlooks on possible futures.
3. METHODOLOGY
This article adopts a comprehensive analytical
framework to investigate the multifaceted issues
of social mobility in India. Drawing on empirical
data from the Global Social Mobility Index, it
explores the dynamic interplay between socio-
economic backgrounds, governmental policies,
societal attitudes, and individual actions that
shape the aspirations of young Indians. The
empirical analysis utilizes data from the Global
Social Mobility Index, which provides a
quantitative foundation to evaluate and discuss
social mobility across different contexts in India.
This data is analyzed to correlate the theoretical
discourse with observed patterns in social
mobility, examining how variations in social
mobility indices relate to the broader socio-
economic and policy landscape in India.
A key conceptual contribution of this article is the
introduction of “conditionally convergent
aspirations.” This concept elucidates how socio-
economic and cultural barriers facilitate a
convergence of aspirations within homogeneous
socio-economic groups, effectively narrowing the
scope of perceived possible futures. This
convergence is termed ‘conditional’ as it is
contingent upon the socio-economic strata and
the cultural context of the groups being
considered. The conditional nature of this
convergence suggests that while aspirations may
be uniformly high within certain groups, they are
simultaneously limited by the structural
opportunities available.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The interplay of economic, social, and structural
barriers is crucial in understanding the restricted
social mobility in India, where different levels of
economic security and social status influence
aspirations and mobility differently. The
aspirations are formed and deformed at various
stages and as a result of intersectionalities of
multiple factors. Besides the individual’s micro
traits of class, caste, religion, gender, the macro
attributes of the society like how the media and
the state function, also work to influence how
individuals perceive possible futures and their
own potential for mobility. This study brings forth
a very important concept of conditionally
convergent aspirations, wherein we discuss how
stratification of society causes individuals
belonging to different groups to form very similar
aspirations within the group. However, these
aspirations differ with the group, with individuals
belonging to different social groups aspiring for
upwards socio-economic mobility but only within
the limited confines of their perceived reach.
The media
7
, especially the social media
8
, plays a
significant role in shaping aspirations, while the
exposure that media gives can broaden
individuals' horizons, expand their awareness of
possibilities, and inspire new aspirations based
on diverse role models and success stories it can
also lead to a dissemination of misinformation,
unrealistic standards, and harmful ideologies.
The state
9
also plays a crucial role in shaping
aspirations through its policies. Access to quality
education, opportunities for skill development,
and exposure to diverse experiences can
significantly impact individuals' aspirations.
Policies related to employment,
entrepreneurship, investment in infrastructure,
industry development, and access to credit can
either stimulate economic growth and aspiration-
building or contribute to stagnation and limited
opportunities.
The aspirations of India’s youth
10
however, are
not merely about acquiring wealth or status; they
also include breaking free
11
from the chains of
their birth, achieving upward social mobility along
with the universally sought after economic
mobility. Yet, the path to these aspirations is
often fraught with barriers, economic, social, and
structural, that many find insurmountable
12
.
Further, the social barriers like caste, religion,
gender, limit the economic mobility and the
interplay of all these barriers ensure that an
individual belonging to the intersection of lower
economic strata and vulnerable social group
finds it impossible to overcome the barriers to
social mobility. This is where the structures and
the state become important, it is the
responsibility of a welfare state to ensure that
7
Available: https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/7946
8
Available:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3741256
94_The_Role_of_Social_Media_in_Shaping_Public_Opinion
_and_Its_Influence_on_Economic_Decisions
9
Available: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---
ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_755248.pdf
10
Available: https://scroll.in/article/880627/a-chasm-between-
education-and-expectations-leaves-indians-unprepared-for-
their-countrys-realities
11
Available: https://www.oxfam.org/en/india-extreme-
inequality-numbers
12
Available:https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/
misleading-analyses-of-poverty-complacency-from-
policymakers-will-worsen-indias-inequality-crisis-9270216/
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
6
structures are created such that they work to
weaken the aforementioned barriers to mobility
and not strengthen them. States that prioritise
social welfare, inclusivity, and equality tend to
foster higher aspirations among their citizens.
Conversely, policies that reinforce stereotypes,
discrimination, or social divisions can stifle
aspirations and limit opportunities for certain
groups.
Structural inequalities
13
can erode individuals'
self-esteem, confidence, capabilities and belief in
their own abilities, leading to feelings of
hopelessness, resignation, and diminished
aspirations
14
. This can contribute to a cycle of
low expectations, underachievement, and
severely limited socio-economic mobility. Further,
in an environment characterised by social
immobility, aspirations tend to be constrained not
by a lack of ambition but by a practical response
to the limited pathways available proving that
social mobility or the lack thereof, is an
important determinant of the aspirations that the
youth hold.Besides a general dip in the levels of
aspirations, the aspirations of youth often
converge into a singularity, driven by the desire
for social and economic advancement. This
convergence occurs when the pathways to socio-
economic mobility are arduous, riddled with
systemic barriers that impede progress for many.
In such cases, limited avenues for advancement,
coupled with unequal access to resources and
opportunities, amplify the allure of upward
mobility, creating a scenario where aspirations
converge around securing financial stability,
along with breaking free from the constraints of
inherited social status. Further, this convergence
is not unconditional, it takes the form of
conditional convergence, where aspirations are
determined by existing inequalities. Further, the
aspirations are not only limited by these
inequalities but are also bound by an
internalisation of these inequalities. As a result,
the dreams and ambitions of young individuals
belonging to similar strata of class, caste,
religion, gender, or other vulnerable groups,
become strikingly similar, revolving around the
pursuit of upward mobility, as a means to
transcend societal constraints.
15
13
Available:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC83
53929/
14
Available: https://www.cnbctv18.com/personal-
finance/aspiration-index-decline-rising-cost-inflation-high-
interest-rates-loan-expensive-emi-bankbazaar-17748241.htm
15
Available:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC37
69688/
This phenomenon of conditionally convergent
aspirations is not necessarily indicative of
passion, but is rather a strategic manoeuvre to
achieve the desired socio-economic mobility
within the structural confines of the job market,
and the limited opportunities at hand. The
societal glorification of certain professions that
yield more power over others, add to the clamour
for these limited jobs. This clamour opens up
space for a market that sells promises of getting
these aspirations met, and the intangible
aspirations are turned into a marketable
commodity. The gap between the number of
people who aspire for these jobs and the number
of people whose aspirations can be fulfilled is
determined by the availability of these jobs.
Since the number of jobs available is few, and
the demand high, the willingness to pay for the
aspirations of getting these jobs is high. Like any
other commodity, the rich are better equipped to
pay for aspirations as compared to the poor,
which they do, perpetuating existing social
inequalities.
In the Indian society, religion, gender, caste, and
economic status intertwine, the aspirations of the
youth are continually shaped and reshaped by
this intersectionality, deeply influencing social
mobility and the aspirations of marginalised
groups. Gender in India carries the weight of
historical and cultural expectations that often
dictate the roles deemed appropriate for women,
confining their aspirations within the domestic
sphere or limited occupational roles. This societal
imposition not only restricts women's access to
educational and vocational opportunities but also
subtly engrains a belief system where aspirations
are adjusted to fit the mold crafted by patriarchal
norms. Similarly, the shadows of the caste
system cast long and dark over the aspirations of
those born into its lower tiers. The stigmatisation
and limited access to resources faced by lower
castes are not merely about economic
deprivation but a social ostracisation that
narrows life's possibilities to a preordained path,
seldom leading upwards.
Economic status, or the lack thereof, further
complicates this confluence of barriers. Poverty
curtails not just access to material resources like
quality education and health care but also the
very ability to dream beyond immediate
necessities. The youth in economically
disadvantaged settings often find themselves
forsaking long-term educational pursuits for
immediate economic contributions to their
households. The tragic irony here lies in the
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
7
cyclical perpetuation of poverty and restricted
social mobility, a self-fulfilling prophecy that
reinforces itself across generations. The interplay
of these factors, religion, gender, caste, and
economic status, creates a complex matrix of
barriers that can seem insurmountable. Consider
a young woman from a lower caste or a
discriminated against religion, who by sheer
misfortune also has economically poor
background. Her trajectory is doubly bound by
the societal chains of gender and caste, while
her economic reality shackles her aspirations to
immediate survival rather than future flourishing.
This convergence of constraints not only
externalises barriers but also internalises
limitations, leading to what Pierre Bourdieu might
describe as symbolic violence—a state where
the oppressed accept their social order as the
natural order.
To dismantle these barriers, a multifaceted
approach is essential, one that acknowledges
and addresses the compounded nature of these
challenges. Educational reforms must be
inclusive, not only providing seats for
marginalised groups but also ensuring that these
seats lead to real educational attainment through
comprehensive support systems. Economic
policies should be crafted with an eye towards
empowerment, targeting not just general
economic growth but specific initiatives that
elevate the marginalised, microcredit schemes
for women, entrepreneurial training for lower
castes, and robust job creation that cuts across
traditional caste occupations.Moreover, the legal
framework must be fortified to enforce anti-
discrimination laws vigorously. But beyond legal
measures, a cultural shift is imperative—a shift
towards a society that recognises and actively
rejects the discrimination woven into its fabric.
This involves not only policies but public
awareness campaigns that challenge and
change how society views gender roles, caste
distinctions, and economic inequalities.
The constructed dichotomy between success
and failure, amplified by societal norms and a
market dominated by a highly competitive
industry exploiting these aspirations, generates a
precarious situation where unfulfilled ambitions
lead to frustration and disillusionment in many,
especially the weak, the vulnerable, the
marginalised and the women. When the weaker
and the marginal groups face systematic
disillusionment, individuals belonging to these
groups internalise these lack of fulfilment of
aspirations and begin considering a failure to
raise upto the societal expectations as a
personal and not a systemic failure. This false
narrative of personal failure leads to
discontentment, unrest and chaos in the society.
Social unrest and chaos, besides having a
negative face value also has an intrinsic
negative value, that is a potential to slow down
economic growth in the long run. Social capital
erosion that ensues thus, can erode trust
amongst groups, undermining the effectiveness
of institutions and hindering the collaborative
efforts needed for economic growth and
development of a society.
The problem of lack of aspirations
16
, or of
conditionally convergent aspirations
17
,
necessitates a multifaceted approach to allow
social mobility, which goes beyond income
mobility and cuts into the caste, religion, gender,
based societal fabric. Policies aimed at
expanding the economy, diversifying industries,
and regulating the informal sector are necessary
but not sufficient. These economic reforms must
be complemented by policies that equip the
youth with a broad spectrum of skills and
knowledge, preparing them for a variety of career
paths. Moreover, there needs to be a concerted
effort to shift societal perceptions, valuing all
forms of work and recognising the dignity of labor
in its diverse manifestations, which will be a
result of education in its truest form. Addressing
these challenges requires comprehensive
strategies that focus on improving opportunities,
reducing inequality, promoting social mobility,
enhancing governance and accountability, and
fostering inclusive economic growth.
Failure to address aspiration-reality gaps
effectively can create conditions akin to a ‘ticking
time bomb’, where underlying social tensions and
discontent may escalate into more severe crises.
The role of the state is pivotal in shaping the
aspirations of individuals and societies.
Depending on its policies, governance, and
institutional framework, the state can either
contribute to the building of aspirations or
inadvertently foster a lack of aspirations. Since
the aspirations of youth are not just individual
dreams but blueprints for our country’s future,
they should be carefully moulded to embody the
potential for innovation, progress, and build a
society that thrives on diversity and equality.
16
Available: https://www.ideasforindia.in/topics/poverty-
inequality/lack-of-aspirations-as-a-poverty-trap.html
17
Available:https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers
/w19976/w19976.pdf
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
8
Addressing the aspiration-reality gap is not
merely an act of social justice; it is an investment
in our collective future, a step towards
unleashing the boundless potential of India’s
most valuable asset—its young minds.
4.1 Policy Suggestions
Several policy recommendations emerge from
the study, the aim of which can be to potentially
enhance social mobility and empower the
aspirations of Indian youth. This study is a call to
Implement policies that ensure equitable access
to high-quality education for all socio-economic
groups, especially in rural and underserved
urban areas. This includes improving
infrastructure, increasing teacher training, and
integrating technology in classrooms and revising
the educational curriculum to include more
emphasis on critical thinking, problem-solving,
and practical skills that align with current job
market demands. Incorporate lessons on social
equality and mobility to raise awareness and
foster a more inclusive societal outlook.
Increased funding for vocational training and skill
development programs that are aligned with
emerging industries is also important. This can
be achieved through public-private partnerships
and by incentivizing companies to offer
apprenticeships and training. We also need to
Develop programs that support young
entrepreneurs with subsidies, grants, and low-
interest loans. Focus particularly on those from
marginalized communities to stimulate economic
diversity and innovation.
Besides improving education, skills and
innovations, measures to strengthen and
rigorously enforce anti-discrimination laws within
educational institutions and workplaces is
important. This should include measures to
combat caste, gender, and religious
discrimination, Involving diverse community
representatives in the policy-making process to
ensure that the voices of all socio-economic
strata are heard and considered when
formulating policies that affect their lives. Policies
should encourage transparency in recruitment
processes by implementing fair hiring practices
that are monitored by independent bodies to
prevent bias based on socio-economic
background or identity. It should be ensured that
there are sufficient media and cultural
promotions of stories and role models from
diverse backgrounds of having successfully
achieved social mobility.
These policies, if implemented effectively, could
significantly mitigate the factors that contribute to
social immobility and help cultivate an
environment where the aspirations of all Indian
youth, irrespective of their socio-economic
status, can be nurtured and achieved. Such
comprehensive approaches not only address
immediate disparities but also lay the
groundwork for sustainable, long-term social and
economic development.
Before we touch upon the final section of this
paper let us take a look at social mobility
from a global perspective, consider the following
cases: South Africa, In the post-apartheid era,
despite reforms aimed at increasing educational
and employment opportunities, historical
inequalities continue to impact social mobility
significantly. The country's efforts in education
reform and affirmative action in employment
share similarities with India's reservation system,
illustrating the challenges of overcoming
entrenched social divisions.
Often perceived as the land of opportunity, the
U.S. has seen declining social mobility over
recent decades. The persistence of economic
disparities, exacerbated by a market-driven
approach that does not adequately redistribute
economic gains, presents a cautionary tale for
India. The American experience highlights the
necessity of ensuring that economic growth
benefits all segments of society to foster genuine
social mobility.
The Bolsa Família program is a cornerstone in
Brazil's approach to enhancing social mobility
among its poorest citizens. By providing financial
assistance tied to educational and health
conditions, such as ensuring children attend
school and receive vaccinations, the program
aims to break the cycle of poverty. This strategy
not only addresses immediate financial needs
but also invests in the human capital of future
generations, which is crucial for long-term social
mobility [25,26].
Known for its high levels of social mobility,
Sweden's model is underpinned by a robust
welfare state, with significant public investment in
education and healthcare. The country's
approach provides a stark contrast to India's,
emphasising the role of government in levelling
the playing field from an early age. This proactive
involvement helps to minimise the impact of
economic background on educational outcomes
and long-term social mobility.
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
9
These examples show that while socio-economic
barriers to social mobility are a universal
challenge, the strategies to overcome these
barriers vary widely. Successful approaches
typically combine direct financial support with
comprehensive educational reforms and robust
anti-discrimination laws, tailored to the specific
cultural, economic, and political contexts of each
country. While Brazil and Sweden mark the
success stories, the case of the U.S. shows that
in face of lax policies the social mobility can
actually dip.
5. CONCLUSION
The narrative of India’s development is intricately
linked to the aspirations of its youth, which are
profoundly influenced by their social mobility or
lack thereof. As illustrated throughout this article,
the challenges posed by entrenched socio-
economic divisions not only limit individual
potential but also curtail the collective progress of
the nation. Addressing these barriers through
thoughtful and inclusive policies is not merely an
act of rectifying historical injustices but a crucial
investment in the future of India.
To bridge the wedge between aspirations and
the socio-economic realities that many Indian
youths face, a multi-faceted strategy is essential.
This strategy should encompass comprehensive
educational reforms, economic empowerment
initiatives, robust social equity measures, and
substantial investments in health and
infrastructure. By doing so, we can create a
foundation that not only supports but actively
elevates those from disadvantaged backgrounds,
offering them the genuine opportunity to
change their destinies through their efforts and
talents.
Moreover, it is imperative that these efforts are
supported by transparent governance and
inclusive policy-making that considers the voices
and needs of all segments of society. Only
through a collective and committed effort can we
ensure that the dreams of India’s youth are not
deferred but are instead supported by a reality
that encourages and celebrates their aspirations.
As the economy lays its claims on economic
growth, it is important to distribute the gains from
that growth, ensuring that growth culminates in to
development. Fostering social mobility is not just
about economic gains but about nurturing a
society that values equality, justice, and human
dignity. It is about building a nation where every
individual has the space, opportunity, and
support to reach their fullest potential. This is the
path to a resilient and vibrant India, marked not
by the constraints of birth but by the
boundless possibilities of merit, effort, and
aspiration.
the story of India’s progress must be one of
inclusivity, where social mobility is not a privilege
but a norm. Where the dreams of the youth are
not constrained by the circumstances of their
birth but nurtured by the opportunities afforded to
them. Let us commit to building a nation where
every aspiration has the soil to take root, the
water to grow, and the space to blossom into
reality. Our journey towards economic and social
equality is long and fraught with challenges, but it
is a journey worth embarking on—for the sake of
every dream waiting to take flight.
6. LIMITATIONS
While the study extensively examines the factors
affecting social mobility and aspirations in Indian
society, there are certain limitations in the study;
for instance, the article might not fully address
the dynamic nature of social mobility and
aspirations, which can change over time due to
technological advancements, economic shifts,
and policy changes. The longitudinal impact of
these factors is crucial but remains under
explored in the present study, which might
require longitudinal studies to fully understand
trends over time. Further, the practicality of
implementing suggested policies, given
economic constraints and political feasibility, is
not thoroughly examined. The economic
implications of large-scale educational
reforms or social welfare programs are
significant and require detailed cost-benefit
analyses.
SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
To enhance the comprehensiveness and
relevance of social mobility research in India,
there is a need for robust longitudinal studies.
These studies should aim to track individuals
from different socio-economic backgrounds over
many years to observe the direct and indirect
effects of specific policy interventions like
educational reforms, economic assistance
programs, or affirmative action measures. Such
research could examine various dimensions of
social mobility, including educational attainment,
employment outcomes, income levels, etc.
Employing a mix of qualitative and quantitative
research methods to capture a broad spectrum
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
10
of impacts can also add value to this study.
Quantitative data can come from governmental
and non-governmental databases tracking
educational, financial, and occupational
outcomes. Qualitative insights could be gathered
through interviews and ethnographic studies to
understand the personal and community-level
impacts of policies.
COMPETING INTERESTS
Authors have declared that no competing
interests exist.
REFERENCES
1. Srinivas MN. Religion and Society among
the Coorgs of South India. Clarendon
Press; 1952.
2. Béteille A. Caste, Class, and Power:
Changing Patterns of Stratification in a
Tanjore Village. University of California
Press; 1965.
3. Banerjee AV, Duflo E. Poor economics: A
radical rethinking of the way to fight global
poverty. PublicAffairs; 2011.
4. Deshpande A. The grammar of
caste: Economic discrimination in
contemporary India. Oxford University
Press; 2011.
5. Kapur D, Prasad CB. Social mobility in
India: Concepts, research, and results.
Oxford University Press; 2018.
6. Majumdar M, Mooij J. Education and
inequality in India: A classroom view.
Routledge; 2012.
7. Appadurai A. The capacity to aspire:
Culture and the terms of recognition. In V.
Rao & M. Walton (Eds.), Culture and public
action. Stanford University Press. 2004:59-
84.
8. Bourdieu P. The forms of capital. In J. G.
Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of
theory and research for the sociology of
education. Greenwood. 1986:241-
258.
9. Sen A. Development as freedom. Oxford
University Press; 1999.
10. Rajan RG, Zingales L. Saving Capitalism
from the Capitalists. Crown Business;
2003.
11. Kundu and Sen. on multigenerational
mobility; 2023.
Available:https://globaldev.blog
12. UNU-WIDER. on social mobility among
disadvantaged groups; 2023
Available:https://www.wider.unu.edu
13. Pande A. Not an ‘Angel’, not a ‘Whore’:
Surrogates as ‘Dirty’ Workers in India.
Indian Journal of Gender Studies. 2009;
16(2), 141-173.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1177/09715215
0901600202
14. Shah G. Caste and Democratic Politics in
India. Permanent Black; 2002.
15. Stahl G. Aspiration paradoxes: Working-
class student conceptions of power in
‘engines of social mobility’. International
Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education.
2018;31(7):557-71.
16. International Journal of Social
Impact (2023) on education and social
mobility.
Availablehttps://ijsi.in
17. Drèze J, Sen A. An Uncertain Glory: India
and its Contradictions. Princeton University
Press; 2013.
18. Hoskins K, Barker B. Aspirations and
young people’s constructions of their
futures: Investigating review form. social
mobility and social reproduction. British
Journal of Educational Studies. 2017;65
(1):45- 67.
19. Agarwal B. A Field of One’s Own: Gender
and Land Rights in South Asia. Cambridge
University Press; 1994.
20. Banerjee AV, Duflo E. What is middle class
about the middle classes around the
world? Journal of Economic Perspectives.
2007;22(2):3-28.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.22.2.3
21. Das V. Life and Words: Violence and the
Descent into the Ordinary. University of
California Press; 2007.
22. Kingdon GG. The progress of school
education in India. Oxford Review of
Economic Policy. 2007;23(2):168-195.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grm
014
23. Mehta PB. The Burden of Democracy.
Penguin Books India; 2003.
24. Munshi K. Networks in the modern
economy: Mexican migrants in the U.S.
labor market. Quarterly Journal of
Economics. 2003;118(2):549-599.
Available:https://doi.org/10.1162/00335530
3321675455
25. Hunter, Wendy, and Natasha Borges
Sugiyama. Transforming Subjects into
Citizens: Insights from Brazil’s Bolsa
Família. Perspectives on Politics. 2014;
12(4):829.
Available:https://www.cambridge.org/core/j
ournals/perspectives-on-
Akhter and Chauhan; J. Educ. Soc. Behav. Sci., vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1-11, 2024; Article no.JESBS.116869
11
politics/article/abs/transforming-subjects-
into-citizens-insights-from-brazils-bolsa-
familia/44E9F7
3B5CDEE7989A138C36FDC09AC5)
26. Centre For Public Impact, Bolsa Família in
Brazil.
Available:https://www.centreforpublicimpac
t.org/case-study/bolsa-familia-in-brazil)
_________________________________________________________________________________
© Copyright (2024): Author(s). The licensee is the journal publisher. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Peer-review history:
The peer review history for this paper can be accessed here:
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/116869
