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Abstract

The innovative use of photovoltaics (PV) on parking lots, water bodies, or agricultural areas reduces land use conflicts by co-using land with renewable PV production. In contrast to conventional open-field PV, their potential role in future energy systems has not been comprehensively defined yet. This study provides a global overview of existing potential analyses on innovative PV technologies and provides a transparent, reproducible, and transferable methodology using land eligibility analyses with a high spatial resolution of 10 m x 10 m, applied for different scenarios in Germany. For current legislation, the potential of floating PV in Germany is 4.7 GW(p) but shows a high sensitivity towards the considered water bodies and allowed area coverage of the water bodies. Parking PV has a potential of up to 24.6 GW(p), depending on the minimum number of required parking spaces. The potential of agricultural (agri) PV lies between 3215 GW(p) and 5437 GW(p), depending on the crop types considered and the corresponding system designs. While agri PV could significantly contribute to the national PV targets of 400 GW(p) by 2040, floating PV and parking PV can only support a maximum of 1.2 % and 6.2 %, respectively. The spatially explicit potentials are openly available and create the basis for further research about the future role of innovative PV technologies, e.g. by energy system modelers.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
1364-0321/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Original Research Article
Potential of floating, parking, and agri photovoltaics in Germany
Rachel Maier a,b,, Luna Lütz a,b, Stanley Risch a,b, Felix Kullmann a, Jann Weinand a,
Detlef Stolten a,b
aForschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute of Energy and Climate Research - Techno-economic Systems Analysis
(IEK-3), Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, 52428 Jülich, Germany
bRWTH Aachen University, Chair for Fuel Cells, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Aachen, 52062, Germany
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Photovoltaics
Floating PV
Agri PV
Agrivoltaics
Parking PV
Potential analysis
Energy system modeling
ABSTRACT
The innovative use of photovoltaics (PV) on parking lots, water bodies, or agricultural areas reduces land
use conflicts by co-using land with renewable PV production. In contrast to conventional open-field PV, their
potential role in future energy systems has not been comprehensively defined yet. This study provides a global
overview of existing potential analyses on innovative PV technologies and provides a transparent, reproducible,
and transferable methodology using land eligibility analyses with a high spatial resolution of 10 m x10 m,
applied for different scenarios in Germany. For current legislation, the potential of floating PV in Germany is
4.7 GWpbut shows a high sensitivity towards the considered water bodies and allowed area coverage of the
water bodies. Parking PV has a potential of up to 24.6 GWp, depending on the minimum number of required
parking spaces. The potential of agricultural (agri) PV lies between 3215 GWpand 5437 GWp, depending on the
crop types considered and the corresponding system designs. While agri PV could significantly contribute to
the national PV targets of 400 GWpby 2040, floating PV and parking PV can only support a maximum of 1.2 %
and 6.2 %, respectively. The spatially explicit potentials are openly available and create the basis for further
research about the future role of innovative PV technologies, e.g. by energy system modelers.
1. Introduction
Climate change is an urgent and complex challenge that requires
a multifaceted response. To contribute to climate change mitigation
action, Germany has set the target of greenhouse gas neutrality by
2045 [1]. To achieve this goal, existing studies [25] show that a large
photovoltaic (PV) expansion of between 230 and 659 GWpis required.
Furthermore, Germany has defined a target of 400 GWpuntil 2040 [6].
However, building PV modules on open-field areas could lead to land
use conflicts [7]. In a current legislative draft, the Photovoltaic Strategy
of Germany’s Federal Ministry of Economics and Climate Protection
aims to promote the construction of PV in co-used areas [6], including
parking, floating, and agricultural PV (agri PV).
Floating PV describes the use of water bodies for PV installations.
PV modules are mounted on rafts and are mainly installed on inland
still water bodies [8]. In the current German legislation, the expansion
of floating PV is restricted to artificial or heavily modified lakes, with
a minimum distance of 40 m to shore and a maximum area coverage of
15% of each lake [9]. These requirements are justified by the lack of
knowledge about the changes in the ecosystem caused by the shading
Corresponding author at: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Institute of Energy and Climate Research - Techno-economic Systems Analysis (IEK-3),
Wilhelm-Johnen-Straße, 52428 Jülich, Germany.
E-mail address: ra.maier@fz-juelich.de (R. Maier).
of PV modules [9]. In addition, the construction on other water bodies
is only permitted, if defined by the water management plan [9].
Parking PV describes the co-usage of parking lots for PV, whereby
PV modules are constructed on roofs above parking spaces. This co-
usage leads to positive effects such as the shading of the vehicles, an
easy connection to the electrical grid, and demand proximity because
of the urban environment [10]. Five German federal states passed laws
for the mandatory construction of parking PV on newly-built parking
lots; however, these laws differ with respect to parking lot type and
the minimum number of parking spaces. The minimum number of
parking spaces is 35 for Baden-Wuerttemberg [11] and North Rhine-
Westphalia [12], 50 in Hesse [13] and Rhineland-Palatinate [14], and
100 in Schleswig Holstein [10].
Agri PV describes the co-usage of agricultural land for PV. Land use
conflicts can occur between agriculture and energy production as both
compete for limited land in two facets. Firstly agriculture competes
with ground-mounted PV on arable lands. Secondly, energy crops are
grown on arable land and could provide base-load energy in biomass
plants but also show a 32 times lower total energy yield than ground-
mounted PV in the same area [15]. Agri PV could reduce land use
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2024.114500
Received 11 January 2024; Received in revised form 14 April 2024; Accepted 22 April 2024
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
2
R. Maier et al.
conflicts by combining PV and agriculture on the same land; however,
the eligibility of crops differs [1517]. To account for different crop
eligibility, the system design of the agri PV plant can be tailored [18].
The system can be differentiated between various options, includ-
ing horizontally-elevated agricultural PV systems (hereinafter termed
horizontal agri PV), where agriculture is carried out beneath the PV
modules, and vertically-oriented agricultural PV systems (vertical agri
PV), where agriculture is conducted between the agri PV modules
(cf. [19]). The construction of agri PV can provide micro-climate bene-
fits for some crops and further protect against extreme weather events
such as hail or drought, as well as reduce water consumption in warm
regions. However, one challenge of large-scale agri PV deployment
is that the design of today’s farming machinery is not necessarily
compatible with the construction of agri PV systems [2022].
The German PV strategy [6] considers peatlands PV as another inno-
vative PV technology, however, the rewetting of peatlands is prioritized
over the installation of PV [23] and therefore this technology is not
further considered.
The future role of the innovative technologies of floating, parking,
and agri PV is not yet defined, as it depends, among others, on regional
capacity potentials, generation potentials, levelized costs of electricity,
environmental impacts, and public acceptance. The technologies are
often not considered in energy system models, to the author’s knowl-
edge, and not yet integrated in German energy transition studies. To
consider these technologies in energy system analyses, adapt policies
to enhance the expansion, or define business cases, the transparency of
the regional potential is the first step. Due to the geographical scope
of regional energy system models or detailed grid expansion plan-
ning, high-resolution regionalized potentials are required for further
research.
For renewable energy sources such as open-field PV and wind
technologies, various potential analyses exist, varying in methodologies
and assumptions, e.g., due to different relevant underlying legislation.
Typical potential analyses first identify eligible areas for the renewable
energy plants of a specific technology by means of, for example, a land
eligibility analysis and afterwards derive the technical potential of this
area [24]. However, the few potential analyses for innovative PV tech-
nologies often lack a reproducible methodology or a data publication
or do not comply with current legislation.
Therefore, in this paper, the first overview of existing potential
analyses is provided for floating, parking, and agri PV (Section 2). Then,
their potential in Germany is estimated for the first time using repro-
ducible land eligibility analyses (Section 3) and the openly published
results (Section 4) as base for further research is described. Some of
the considered scenarios reflect current legislation and some expand on
this with by further calculations. The methodology used to estimate the
potential is transferable to further regions. Finally, Section 5discusses
the results and Section 6presents the conclusion of the study.
2. Previous research on innovative photovoltaic potentials
In the following, existing potential analyses for parking
(Section 2.1), floating (Section 2.2), and agri PV (Section 2.3) systems
are reviewed. In this section, we refer to geographical potential in
km2, technical potential in kWp, and economic potential in kWp. If not
otherwise stated, the term ‘potential’ refers to the technical potential.
For a definition of the different potential types in resource assessments,
please refer to [7,25].
2.1. Parking photovoltaics
In this section on existing potential analyses for parking PV, the
term ‘parking lot’ is used to describe entire car parks (i.e. access roads,
Table 1
Overview of the parameters in parking PV potential analyses. The capacity density is
defined on the potential area for placing PV modules and not the entire parking lot
area.
Parameter Value Study
Coverage
factor [%]
15 [26]
35 [27]
50 [10,26]
75 [26]
79.4[33]
Capacity
density
[MWp∕km2]
65 [34]
163 [26]
170 [34]
175 [26]
200 [10]
202 [27]
movement areas, etc.), whereas ‘parking space’ describes the actual spot
for vehicle parking. The ‘area coverage’ refers to the share of eligible
area for parking PV in the parking lot.
On a national level, the parking PV potential is estimated by Quax
et al. [26] for the Netherlands and by Wirth [16] for Germany. Another
international potential assessment is performed by Julieta et al. [27]
for the Canary Islands. Quax et al. [26] analyze the potential for public
and non-public parking lots with an area coverage of 50% and 15%, re-
spectively, without further description of the methodology used. Julieta
et al. [27] assess open parking lots above 200 m2on the Canary Islands
by means of a photo and geodata analysis. The parking PV potential
is derived by an area coverage factor of 35% and a capacity density
factor of 202 MWp∕km2for the remaining area. Wirth [16] identifies a
potential of 59 GWpfor the 300,000 largest parking lots in Germany,
without elaborating on the underlying methodology.
For Germany, several potential analyses for parking PV are per-
formed at a federal state level. For Schleswig Holstein, Stryi-Hipp et al.
[10] estimate the potential for parking lots with more than 100 park-
ing spaces. To identify above-ground hard-surfaced parking lots, data
from OpenStreetMap [28] is combined with the real estate cadastre
and landscape model of the federal state [29]. A parking lot area of
10.6 km2and a potential of 1058 MWpis derived for an area coverage
of 50% and an assumed parking space area of 12.5 m2. An additional
potential of 40.2 MWpis estimated for parking lots built until 2030.
For Baden-Wuerttemberg a potential of 4.8 GWpon 16,600 existing
public parking lots with more than 40 parking spaces is estimated
in another study [30]. An area coverage for parking PV of 40 to
50% is used [30]. For Lower Saxony and Hamburg, Barbara Mussack
[31] and Erneuerbare Energien Hamburg Clusteragentur [32] estimate
a potential of 3.5 GWpon a parking lot area of about 30 km2[31]
and 42 MWpon an area of 0.21 km2[32], respectively. However, it is
unclear whether the area describes the parking lot or that for parking
PV, as a description of the methodology is missing for both studies.
For Brandenburg, another study [33] identifies a parking lot area of
6.44 km2, of which 24.6% is suitable for parking PV. An area coverage
factor of 79.4% is assumed, leading to a potential of 144 MWp.Table 1
provides an overview of the presented parameters used in the presented
articles. The area coverage of the parking lot ranges between 15 and
79.4% and the capacity density is between 65 and 202 MWp.
2.2. Floating photovoltaics
In contrast to parking PV, a higher number of studies have investi-
gated floating PV potentials. The regional scope of these studies varies
from single locations [3540], up to the national [27,4150], conti-
nental [5153], and global levels [5458]. The water bodies assumed
eligible for floating PV also deviate between them: The majority of
studies consider the water bodies of dam and hydro power plants [37
43,5154,5658], which are for continental and global studies
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
Table 2
Overview of the parameters in floating PV potential analyses.
Parameter Value Study
Coverage
factor [%]
1[35,42,43,47,51,5355]
2[35,50]
4.7[60]
5[38,42,43,48,54,55]
10 [35,37,4145,5255,62]
15 [43]
20 [35,36,38]
25 [37,58]
27 [46]
30 [3840,56]
40 [27]
45 [35,62]
50 [38,51]
70 [63]
80 [35]
100 [45,49,52,53,62]
Capacity
density
[MWp∕km2]
60 [62]
66.82 [58]
76.11 [64]
80.97 [27]
approx. 100 [35,38,42,46,53,54,57]
118 [62]
133 [60]
180 [51]
120 and 200 [43]
mostly identified by the Global Reservoir and Dam Database [59].
Other studies considered reservoirs [27,35,36,42,44,50,56], artificial/
man-made water [46,47,55], waste water reservoirs [49], ‘natural,
heavily modified and natural water’ [45], or all water bodies [50]. The
potential of maritime floating PV is only estimated by Silalahi et al.
[48] for Indonesia.
Only a few, non-peer-reviewed, articles are published that address
the potential of floating PV in Germany. Wirth [16] states a tech-
nical potential of 44 GWpfor artificial lakes. Furthermore, another
article [60] estimates a technical potential of 56 GWpfor lignite mining
lakes in Germany. To determine the economic potential, areas for
recreation activities, tourism, and nature conservation are excluded, as
well as lakes with an area of less than 0.01 km2and excessive lake depth
fluctuation. The exclusions result in a reduction factor of 4.9%, leading
to an economic potential of 2.74 GWp. Weigl [61] estimates the floating
PV potential on unused, man-made lakes outside protected areas and
competing land uses, e.g., tourism and recreational areas. Only lakes
with more than 0.1 km2are considered, which results in 469 eligible
lakes with an area of 140 km2. The theoretical potential is 20 to 25 GWp
for Germany and reduces to 4to 5 GWpwith a coverage factor of 20%.
Other potential analyses for floating PV were conducted at the
individual federal state level in Germany: Ilgen [62] estimates three
potential scenarios for 69 eligible open-cast mining lakes in Baden-
Wuerttemberg. The first scenario assumes 100% area coverage at
60 MWp∕km2, leading to a potential of 1070 MWp; the second scenario
assumes a 45% area coverage at 118 MWp∕km2, leading to 1130 MWp;
and the third scenario assumes a 10% area coverage at 118 MWp∕km2,
leading to 280 MWp. To maintain a shore distance, the area of each con-
sidered water body is reduced by 10% in advance. For Brandenburg, a
potential of 817 MWpis identified in another study, but without stating
the methodology [33]. Erneuerbare Energien Hamburg Clusteragentur
[32] shows that Hamburg has no floating PV potential at all.
Table 2 provides an overview of the assumed coverage factors and
capacity densities in the studies presented. The coverage factor covers
the full range from 1to 100% and the capacity density is between 60
and 200 MWp∕km2.
2.3. Agri photovoltaics
While the majority of agri PV studies focus on the design of single
agri PV systems or the eligibility of crops, only a few potential anal-
yses were performed. Yeligeti et al. [65] estimate the global agri PV
potential based on the suitability of crops with a geospatial analysis of
10 × 10 km2resolution. The geodata of EarthStat and Copernicus Land
cover [66,67] are used to geographically identify the arable lands of 18
different crop types. The different crop types are aggregated into two
categories (Low and High) according to their suitability for agri PV.
Three potential scenarios are estimated resulting in 48 TWpto 217 TWp.
It should be noted that crop suitability is defined on a global level and
is not adapted to regional climatic conditions. Willockx et al. [68] focus
on optimal area coverage and economic factors for agri PV in Europe.
The study further performs a geospatial potential analysis on potato
farmland in Europe. Steadman and Higgins [69] estimate the potential
of agri PV with a geospatial analysis along rural highways in Oregon,
USA, to support charging stations of electric vehicles. Farming areas
with low soil class ratings within a five miles distance are assumed to
be eligible for agri PV, whereas protected areas, forests, and wetlands
are excluded. The following three studies estimate the agri PV potential
with statistical data: Silalahi et al. [48] determine the area potential of
agri PV for Indonesia on the arable areas of maize, coffee, and other
low-growing crops. An area potential is estimated by statistical data of
farming areas and area coverage between 10% and 30%. Tajima and
Iida [70] estimate the potential of abandoned farming areas in Japan
by using the statistical data of abandoned farms and a capacity density
factor of 66.18 MWp∕km2. Malu et al. [71] use a similar approach for
grape farms in India but with a capacity density of 41.72 MWp∕km2.
Further studies focus on agri PV potentials in Germany: Beck et al.
[72] estimate the potential in Germany for crops with statistical data.
Crops are considered, which are either positively affected by agri PV
(potatoes, lettuce, spinach) or not affected (rape, rye, oats). The tech-
nical potential of 533 GWpon 12.400 km2is estimated, and a reduced
potential of 10% (53 GWp) is defined as practical potential. Wirth
[16] estimates a potential of 1700 GWpfor highly-mounted agri PV
in Germany considering the arable land of shade-tolerant crops and a
capacity density of 60 MWp∕km2. Land with permanent crops (e.g., or-
chards and vineyards) is fully considered, whereas other arable land
(without maize cultivation) is only considered by a third of the area.
Furthermore, a potential of 1200 GWpis estimated for vertical systems
on permanent grassland with a capacity density of 25 MWp∕km2[15].
Moreover, several studies have been conducted at the federal state
level in Germany: Schneider et al. [73] estimate a potential of 79 GWp
for agri PV in Lower Saxony on areas with low biodiversity potential,
using a geospatial analysis and a capacity density of 75.6 MWp∕km2.
Unger and Lakes [74] focus on identifying conflict areas for agriculture
in Brandenburg. Within the study, possible areas of synergy for agri PV
are identified on arable lands with more than 0.1 km2on sandy soil
outside protected areas. Another study [33] of Brandenburg estimates
a potential of either 238 GWpon arable land and 28 GWpon grassland
if all areas are combined with horizontal PV, or 106 GWpon arable
land and 13 GWpon grassland for vertical agri PV. These values are
derived from open-access landscape data (ALKIS DLM50 [75]) using a
geospatial analysis. Protected areas, flood plains, wind acreage, con-
version areas, lakes, residential areas, and areas of the open area
network are excluded and assigned with buffer distances. Dröschel et al.
[76] perform a geospatial potential analysis for Rhineland-Palatinate
and Saarland using an area coverage of 31 MWp∕km2. These areas
are geospatially identified by geodata from the European agricultural
subsidy [77]. Areas with a slope of more than 20°, flood areas, and
forest fringe areas with a 100 m buffer are excluded. In addition, high-
growing crops and geographical potentials below 0.1 km2are excluded
for the economic potential. Scenarios are defined based on legal pa-
rameters. In Rhineland-Palatinate, 4734.2 km2is identified as a usable
area for agri PV. A share of 40% is considered suitable (of which 25%
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
Table 3
Overview of parameter for agri PV potential analyses.
Parameter Regional
scope
Value Study
Analysis
type
Inter-
national
Statistical [48,70,71]
Geospatial [68,69]
Germany
Statistical [72,78,79]
Geospatial [16,33,73,74,76]
Capacity
density
[MWp∕km2]
Inter-
national
41.7[71]
66.2[70]
75.9[68]
Germany
Vertical
31 [76]
39.5[78]
Horizontal
43 [72]
52 [79]
60 [16]
70 [78]
75.6[73]
85 [68]
is preferred), 53% less suitable and 7% not suitable. The economic
potential of preferred areas is given as 7.4 GWp. For Saarland, 509.3 km2
is classified as a usable area. Of this area, 17% is considered suitable (of
which 6% is preferred), 63% as less suitable, and 20% as not suitable.
The economic potential of the preferred areas is stated as 1.7 GWp.
Wydra et al. [78] estimate the agri PV potential for Thuringia for
arable land without tall-growing crops based on statistical data. Nature
conservation areas are excluded. For high-mounted agri PV, a potential
of 424 GWpis determined with a capacity factor of 70 MWp∕km2on
arable land and permanent crops. Furthermore, a potential of 66.5 GWp
is derived for vertical agri PV on grassland with a capacity factor of
39.5 MWp∕km2.
Table 3 presents an overview of the methodology used and the
capacity density factors in the studies. While international studies use
a single capacity density factor, German studies differentiate between
vertical and horizontal agri PV.
3. Methodology
The potential of parking, floating, and agri PV in Germany is
determined by detailed geospatial land eligibility analyses, as only
high resolution geographical potentials fulfill the requirements listed
in Section 1. The analyses are performed using the tool TREP [24] for
geospatial potential analyses based on the open-source tool GLAES [80]
with a resolution of 10 m × 10 m. GLAES performs the necessary geospa-
tial operations to determine potential locations for renewable energy
installations. The first step is to initialize the study region for the
potential analysis of a technology. The next optional step is defining
suitable areas, for example, parking lots for parking PV. All other
areas are thereby excluded as potential areas. Subsequently, unsuitable
land for construction as natural protection areas are excluded. The
remaining area with an optional reduction factor describes the geo-
graphically identified potential area of the technology. This reduction
factor describes the usage area share of the analyzed area, for example,
the share of parking spaces within the parking lot. For a more detailed
description refer to Risch et al. [24]. The results are published in the
open-access database trep-db [81].
3.1. Parking photovoltaics
The following describes the methodology for estimating the parking
PV potential above parking spaces on existing open-space parking lots.
Hereby, three scenarios are defined with consideration of parking lots
Fig. 1. Area of parking lots with 35,50, and 100 parking spaces from OpenStreetMap,
horizontal light blue line shows the median.
with either more than 35,50, or 100 parking spaces, in accordance with
the legislation of the German federal states. However, in contrast to the
legislation that only considers newly built parking lots, the potential of
existing parking lots is estimated.
Prior to the potential analysis, relevant assumptions and parame-
ters must be specified. First, parking lots with more than a certain
number of parking spaces must be identified. To the knowledge of
the authors, there is no dataset with consistent information on the
number of parking spaces for all parking lots in Germany. However,
OpenStreetMap [28] provides this information for an excerpt of parking
lots. OpenStreetMap is therefore used and the data is extracted using
the following query per federal state (NAME_OF _FEDERAL_STATE):
[out:json];
area[name=NAME_OF_FEDERAL_STATE]->.searchArea;
way["parking"="surface"](area.searchArea);
out geom;
As the number of parking spaces is not consequently given in
OpenStreetMap, parking lots with more than a specifically defined
number of parking spaces are determined by area. To this end, a
minimal area for parking lots per scenario is determined and all parking
lots are filtered by this. To identify this minimal area, parking lots
with information regarding parking spaces are filtered by the defined
number of parking spaces, and their area is determined. Fig. 1 shows
the area distribution of parking lots with more than 35,50, and 100
parking spaces, respectively. The median value of each scenario is
rounded to 100 m2due to the resolution of the land eligibility analysis
of 10 m × 10 m. Based on the median, parking lots with more than
35 parking spaces are identified by a minimal area of 1100 m2, for 50
parking spaces by 1600 m2, and for 100 parking spaces by 3100 m2.
To identify the usable area for PV installations, the area coverage
factor for parking PV is needed. In the following, solely the roofing
of parking spaces within the parking lot is considered, thus requiring
the area share of parking spaces in relation to the total parking lot. To
define this factor, the OpenStreetMap data is filtered for parking lots
with at least the corresponding number of parking spaces. Then, the
area share is determined by the number of parking spaces multiplied by
the assumed area of 12.5 m2per parking space [10] and divided by the
total area of the parking lot. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of the parking
space share in parking lots per scenario. The median ranges between
41.6% and 42.9%. For all scenarios, the area coverage is therefore set
to 42.2%.
Three potential scenarios are analyzed with the determined factors:
first, parking lots are extracted and filtered by the determined minimal
area. Then, protected areas are excluded based on the world database
on protected areas [82] and forests are excluded based on a digital
landscape model (Basis-DLM [83]). The queries can be found in Table 5.
Then, the area as geographical potential for parking PV is determined
by the area coverage factor. Finally, the technical potential can be
derived with a capacity density of 200 MWp∕km2, which is in line
with Stryi-Hipp et al. [10] (Section 2.1).
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
Fig. 2. Share of parking spaces area of parking lot area from OpenStreetMap.
3.2. Floating photovoltaics
The potential of floating PV is estimated on artificial and heavily
modified lakes with an area coverage of maximum 15% and a distance
of 40 m to shore, which is in line with current legislation. Furthermore,
sensitivities for the distance to shore, the maximum area coverage, and
the considered lakes are performed. The considered lakes are either
‘artificial and heavily modified lakes’ or ‘all lakes’.
First, datasets are required to either identify artificial and heavily
modified water bodies or all water bodies in Germany: to identify
all lakes in Germany, the Basis-DLM [83] of the Federal Agency for
Cartography and Geodesy is used with the following query:
OBJART_TXT = ’AX_StehendesGewaesser’
However, the dataset does not contain information about the type
of the water body. To this end, the dataset ‘Wasserkörper-DE (Wasser-
rahmenrichtlinie 3. Zyklus 2022–2027)’ [84] of the German Federal
Institute of Hydrology is used to identify artificial and heavily modified
water bodies with the following query:
MODIFIED = ’Y’ OR ARTIFICIAL = ’Y’
Afterwards, protected areas are identified by WDPA [82] and ex-
cluded as potential areas. The corresponding queries can be found in
Table 5. Additionally, areas closer to shore than the specified distance
are excluded depending on the scenario.
As only 15% of a lake is allowed to be used for floating PV in the
legislation, two areas are compared for every lake: firstly, the remaining
area after all exclusions and, secondly, 15% of the total lake area. The
lower of the two values represents the geographical potential as an area
of floating PV for the lake.
The technical potential is derived from the resulting geographical
potential with a capacity density factor of 100 MWp∕km2, which is in
line with the existing studies (Section 2.2) and used by the floating PV
report of the World Bank Group, ESMAP and SERIS [54].
3.3. Agri photovoltaics
The suitability of areas for agri PV varies for different crop types.
Therefore, to perform geospatial potential analyses, a dataset is re-
quired that locates the agricultural areas of different crops. Basis-
DLM [83] also provides geodata for cultivated areas; however, it fea-
tures low detail on crop categorization. In comparison, Blickensdörfer
et al. [85] published a high-resolution dataset of 10 m × 10 m that clas-
sifies 23 crop classes in Germany. This dataset is used in the following
to locate the agricultural land of different crop types.
Ten studies [15,18,20,65,68,72,78,8690] make statements regard-
ing the eligibility of different crop types. These studies are analyzed to
define the eligibility of the crop types of the geodata of Blickensdörfer
et al. [85]. In addition to the suitability of crops, current machinery
design restricts the combination with agri PV for some crops or plant
designs (horizontal or vertical orientation), according to experts. In the
following, four scenarios based on the crop classes of Blickensdörfer
et al. [85] are defined considering crop suitability and accounting for
current machinery design:
Vertical Grassland: grassland areas are considered for vertical agri
PV.
Vertical Grain: the current machinery design for wheat, barley,
and rye crops does not support the combination with horizontal
agri PV. This scenario therefore considers grains with vertical agri
PV.
Horizontal Conservative: with current machinery design, the
crops lupine, soy, grapevine, hops, and orchards are considered
eligible based on their shading tolerance for horizontal agri PV.
Horizontal Innovative: several crop categories are added com-
pared to the Horizontal Conservative scenario. After adapting the
machinery design, the grain crops, oats, potatoes, sugar beet,
rapeseed, peas, and broad beans allow the combination with
agri PV due to their suitable shading tolerance, according to
expert opinion. Furthermore, the vegetable category combines
several subcategories with diverse eligibility for agri PV. Although
vegetables were not considered in the conservative category, they
are considered here.
A detailed overview of the crop categories, the crop suitability ac-
cording to the existing studies, the scenario definition, and the capacity
density factors used can be found in Table 4. The total German agri
PV potential can be derived from the combination of the scenarios
Vertical Grassland, Vertical Grains, and Horizontal Conservative or,
alternatively, the combination of Vertical Grassland and Horizontal
Innovative.
Comparable to the potential analyses of floating and parking PV,
protected areas are excluded, as are peatlands. Today, 7% of agricul-
tural land is located on drained peatlands; however, intact peatlands
are an essential greenhouse gas storage [23]. The draining of peat-
lands, e.g., for agricultural purposes, releases the stored emissions,
currently accounting for 7% of Germany’s man-made greenhouse gas
emissions [23]. Therefore, the rewetting of currently drained peatlands
takes priority over PV installation [23]. The dual usage with PV is
only permitted on rewetted peatlands, named ‘Moor PV’ in the current
legislation [9,23]. However, as the implementation is not conclusively
clarified [91,92], a potential analysis for peatland PV itself is not
included in this analysis. In the following, the peatland areas based on
the dataset by Tegetmeyer et al. [93] are excluded as potential areas
for agri PV. To the knowledge of the authors, it is the only dataset that
provides the location of drained and irrigated peatlands. Furthermore,
flood plains, water protection areas (water catchment area I and closer
protection area II), and biosphere maintenance and core zones are
excluded, which is in accordance with previous studies [33,76]. The
corresponding queries can be found in Table 5.
After the identification of the geographical potential for the sce-
narios, the technical potential is derived. In contrast to parking and
floating PV, a variable capacity density is used. The capacity density
is varied per area with the shading tolerance of the corresponding
crop (see Table 4). For horizontal agri PV, the capacity density varies
between 60 MWp∕km2and 85 MWp∕km2depending on the shading
tolerance, which is in line with Willockx et al. [68]. For vertical agri
PV, a fixed capacity density of 39.5 MWp∕km2is assumed, according
to Wydra [18].
4. Results
In the following, the results of the potential analyses for parking,
floating, and agri PV are presented. These results are published in the
open-access database trep-db [81].
4.1. Parking photovoltaics
The technical potential of parking PV on existing parking lots in
Germany is 24.6 GWpfor a minimum of 35 parking spaces, 22.2 GWp
for a minimum of 50 parking spaces, and 16.5 GWpfor a minimum of
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Table 4
Crops identified by Blickensdörfer et al. [85] and their eligibility for agri PV. (: Shade tolerant crop, suitable for agri PV, : Shade tolerant crop, partly suitable for agri PV, :
Neutral effect on crop, : Negative shade tolerant crop, less suitable for agri PV, : shade intolerant crop, not suitable for agri PV, div: Different information for various crops of
this group, : Included in the analysis, : Not included in the analysis, V: Vertical orientation, H: Horizontal orientation)
Class name Studies Scenario
Albrecht [86]
Frauhofer ISE [87]
ISE-modified by Wydra [18]
Fraunhofer ISE guide [15]
Beck et al. [72]
Laub et al. [88]
Yeligeti et al. [65]
Weselek et al. [89] (worldwide)
Wydra et al. [78]
Mamun et al. [90] (worldwide)
Literature average
with expert correc-
tions
Assumed capacity
density [MWp∕km2]
Horizontal Conservative
Horizontal Innovative
Vertical Grain
Vertical Grassland
Winter wheat H: , V: H: 60, V: 39.5
Winter barley H: , V: H: 60, V: 39.5
Winter rye H: , V: H: 60, V: 39.5
Springbarley H: , V: H: 60, V: 39.5
Oat H: , V: H: 60, V: 39.5
Maize
Potato H: H: 85
Sugar beet H: H: 60
Rapeseed H: H: 60
Sunflower
Peas H: H: 60
Broad beans H: H: 85
Lupine H: H: 85
Soy H: H: 85
Vegetables div div div div div H: H: 85
Cultivated grassland V: V: 39.5
Permanent grassland V: V: 39.5
Grapevine H: H: 85
Hops H: H: 85
Orchard div H: H: 60
Fallow land Not considered
Small woody features Not considered
Other areas Not considered
100 parking spaces. Fig. 3 shows the potentials on the federal state
level in Germany, a detailed overview can be found in Table 6. For
all scenarios, North Rhine-Westphalia shows the highest potential, with
5.0 GWp,4.5 GWp, and 3.3 GWp, respectively. In contrast, Bremen dis-
plays the lowest potentials with 210.7 MWp,192.2 MWp, and 159.1 MWp,
respectively.
When comparing the potentials of the federal states to either their
areas or populations, no clear correlation can be identified, but a trend
can be observed. Larger federal states tend to have higher potential.
However, North Rhine-Westphalia has a higher potential than Bavaria,
while being half its size. Furthermore, federal states with a higher pop-
ulation tend to have more potential. However, there are also exceptions
to this trend, such as the fact that Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania has
a higher potential than Hamburg, despite having a lower population.
Fig. 4 shows the resulting capacity density in Germany. While the
capacity density in the methodology defined the specific capacity per
potential area, the resulting capacity density refers to capacity results
per region area. This distribution highlights the larger potential in
urban areas, such as Hamburg, Berlin, the Rhineland Ruhr area, and
Munich. The potential decreases when increasing the minimum number
of parking spaces. Compared to a minimum of 35 parking spaces, the
potential of the federal states decreases between 8.09% and 13.26%
for a minimum of 50 parking spaces, and 28.11% and 42.40% for a
minimum of 100.
4.2. Floating photovoltaics
The technical potential of floating PV for current legislation in
Germany, with a minimum distance to shore of 40 m and a maximum
coverage of 15% on artificial and heavily modified lakes, is 4.7 GWp.
Fig. 3. Technical potential of parking photovoltaics of the federal states for parking
lots with a minimum of 35,50, and 100 parking spaces.
Fig. 5 shows the distribution of the resulting potentials by the capacity
density in Germany, a more detailed overview of the potential of the
federal states can be found in Table 6. The potential is concentrated
in a few federal states that have artificial and heavily modified lakes
outside protected areas.
Fig. 6 shows the sensitivity analysis of the floating PV potential
for the lake coverage between 15% and 90%, with exclusion of areas
between 10 m and 40 m to shore and for the usage of either artificial
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
Fig. 4. Capacity density of the technical parking photovoltaics potentials in Germany
with a minimum of 35 parking spaces.
Fig. 5. Capacity density of the technical floating PV potentials in Germany with current
legislation restricting floating PV plants to artificial and highly modified lakes with a
minimum distance of 40 m to shore and a maximum of 15%.
and heavily modified lakes or all lakes in Germany. For artificial and
heavily modified lakes, the decrease in the minimal distance to shore
does not lead to a significant potential increase for maximum lake
shares below 60%. Even for a coverage of 90%, the potential only
increases by 17% if the distance to shore is decreased from 40 m to
10 m. In contrast, by doubling the allowed coverage of the water body
from 15% to 30%, the potential increases by 96% This shows the higher
impact of changes in legislation on the lake coverage, in contrast to the
distance to shore for artificial and heavily modified lakes.
As expected, the potential significantly increases by considering all
lakes instead of only artificial and highly modified ones. Considering
the same lake share and distance to shore of the current legislation, the
potential can be increased by 467% to 22.2 GWp. Across all sensitivities
of distance to shore and area coverage, the capacity for all lakes is
between 3.9and 4.7times higher than for artificial and highly modified
lakes.
Fig. 6. Sensitivity of the technical floating PV potential for water coverage, distance
to shore and usable lake category.
4.3. Agri photovoltaics
The technical potential in the agri PV scenarios highly varies be-
tween 232 GWpfor the scenario Horizontal Conservative and 4391 GWp
for the scenario Horizontal Innovative, as is shown in Fig. 7. The main
difference between the two scenarios arises from the consideration of
grains for horizontal agri PV. As is shown in the Vertical Grain scenario,
the combination of grains with vertical agri PV already leads to a
potential of 1937 GWp. The potential of grain arable land is increased by
around 50% if it is combined with horizontal agri PV due to its higher
capacity density factor. Grassland areas are only considered for vertical
agri PV, resulting in a potential of 1046 GWp.
However, the total agri PV potential in Germany is a combination of
the scenario results. Due to the overlapping crop categories considered
in the scenarios, only two combinations are possible. The combination
of Horizontal Conservative, Vertical Grassland, and Vertical Grains
leads to a potential of 3215 GWp, whereas that of Horizontal Innovative
and Vertical Grassland leads to a higher potential of 5437 GWp.
Fig. 7 shows the potential distribution of the agri PV scenario in
Germany. The scenarios Vertical Grassland and Vertical Grains show
a complementary distribution of grassland and grains in Germany. In
combination, they are more evenly distributed than the potentials in the
scenario Horizontal Conservative. The latter are concentrated in a few
regions, such as, for example, in Rhineland-Palatinate. Furthermore,
the scenario Horizontal Innovative indicates potential hotspots as well,
as in Saxony or Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Detailed results per
federal state can be found in Table 6.
5. Discussion
The following section, first, discusses the results of parking (Sec-
tion 5.1), floating (Section 5.2), and agri PV separately (Section 5.3).
Then, all three technologies are discussed to show the bigger picture
(Section 5.4).
5.1. Parking photovoltaics
The results of the presented parking PV potential scenarios can only
be compared to the potential analysis of Wirth [16] on a national
level. The potentials of the presented scenarios are between 58% and
72% lower than that of Wirth [16]; however, due to the unknown
methodology of the study, the differences cannot be explained. Possible
factors leading to higher potentials include higher capacity densities
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
Fig. 7. Capacity density of the technical agri photovoltaics potential in Germany.
or a higher area coverage, e.g., by assuming the roofing of the entire
parking lot instead of only the parking spaces.
On the federal states level, the presented results are lower than
in studies from the literature for Schleswig Holstein [10], Baden-
Wuerttemberg [30], and Lower Saxony [94], however, they are higher
for Brandenburg [33] and Hamburg [94]. The comparability is again
limited, due to missing descriptions of the methodology in many stud-
ies.
Only five of 16 federal states have passed laws that also only apply
to newly-built parking lots. The potential according to legislation is
therefore only a fraction of the presented results.
In future studies, the potential analysis for parking PV could be
improved, e.g., by taking shading aspects into account. For this, 3D
building data or tree population data could be incorporated into the
analyses. Furthermore, a larger area than only the parking spaces
within the parking lot could be considered for parking PV.
5.2. Floating photovoltaics
Two previous studies assess the potential of floating PV on a na-
tional scale, but neither aligns with current legislation in Germany.
Wirth [16] calculates the economic potential for open-cast lignite lakes,
which represents only part of the artificial and heavily modified water
bodies. In contrast, Weigl [61] considers man-made inland waters
and uses an area coverage of 20%. The potential of 4to 5 GWpis
comparable to the presented results for artificial lakes, even though the
area coverage is higher.
On a federal state level, three studies focus on Brandenburg, Baden-
Wuertemberg, and Hamburg: Energieagentur Brandenburg [33] esti-
mates a 242% higher potential for Brandenburg; however, due to the
missing description, a comparison is not possible. Ilgen [62] indicates
a potential of 280 to 1130 MWpin different scenarios for quarry ponds.
As Ilgen [62] uses only open-cast mining lakes, the results are not
comparable due to the different considered water bodies. Erneuer-
bare Energien Hamburg Clusteragentur [32] identifies no potential for
Hamburg, whereas the presented results show 16.6 MWp.
In addition to the potential according to legislation, several sensi-
tivities are examined. The adaptation of the distance to shore does not
have a significant impact on the potential for a maximum area coverage
lower than 60%, whereas the potential is highly sensitive towards the
maximum area coverage. Furthermore, a high sensitivity to the allowed
water body types is demonstrated, as the potential is increased by a
factor of four when considering all lakes instead of only artificial and
highly modified ones. Adapting the maximum area coverage or allowed
water bodies in the legislation would significantly increase the German
floating PV potential.
However, two negative aspects could result from such legislative
changes. First, the impact of floating PV on biodiversity is unknown,
which is one of the reasons why the area coverage in current legislation
is set to 15%. Further analyses of biodiversity could therefore be the
key to enabling higher area coverage. Secondly, land use conflicts can
occur, as many water bodies are used for leisure. Therefore, a political
balance must be achieved in each case.
Future potential analyses for floating PV in Germany could evaluate
the potential of slow-flowing waters or near-shore maritime floating PV.
Furthermore, the potential of the future artificial lakes deriving from
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
phased-out lignite mining sites could be estimated. However, due to
the long time required for utilization, these are not relevant for the
expansion targets in the next few years [95].
5.3. Agri photovoltaics
The potential of agri PV in Germany largely exceeds the potential
of the other innovative PV technologies presented in this study, as well
as the potential of rooftop PV and open-field PV [24].
By comparing the results with previous studies, a deviation from
Wirth [16] on a national scale can be seen. The horizontal agri PV
potential of 1700 GWpof Wirth [16] is considerably lower than the
presented results for the Horizontal Innovative scenario with 4391 GWp.
One reason for this is that Wirth [16] only uses a third of certain
croplands; however, without a further explanation of this factor. The
vertical PV potential on grassland is stated as 1200 GWpand uses a
capacity density of 25 MWp∕km2, whereas the presented results show a
capacity of 1046 GWp, with a higher capacity density of 39.5 MWp∕km2.
Therefore, the area is around 81% larger, which could be due to a
different dataset or to the missing exclusion of protected areas or
peatlands. Beck et al. [72] estimate a technical potential of 533 GWp
based on statistical data, which deviates highly from the presented
results and Wirth [16].
On the federal state level, the results are only comparable with
two other studies [33,78]. For Brandenburg, the presented results are
higher than in another study [33], which either uses all arable lands
and grassland for vertical or horizontal PV. Thus, a direct comparison
is not possible. For vertical grasslands, however, the presented results
are around 23% higher. One reason for this could be differences in the
dataset used to identify arable land or different capacity density factors.
The presented results also deviate from Wydra et al. [78] for Thuringia,
in which the capacity for horizontal agri PV is 56% higher than the
Horizontal Innovative scenario and around 95% higher for vertical
agri PV on grassland. As comparable capacity densities are used, the
potential areas differ between the studies. These deviations could arise
due to different crop types and different datasets being considered. The
results of other studies on the federal state level are not comparable
due to different considered areas with a focus on biodiversity [73] and
conflict areas [74], or due to non-comparable reduction factors [76].
Another strong impact besides the used areas, crop categories, and
capacity densities is the dataset for identifying agricultural and crop-
land. In the presented methodology, the dataset of Blickensdörfer et al.
[85] is used, which to the authors’ knowledge is the only dataset with
georeferenced crop categories for Germany, and therefore the results
are strongly dependent on its quality. The methodology, however,
can also be applied to different regions, if geodata for crop areas is
available. The dataset Schneider et al. [96], for example, provides full-
coverage of some other countries in Europe. Furthermore, the potential
analyses could be improved by a further subdivision of plant categories
for the fairly generalized vegetable and orchard categories. However,
these crops are grown in comparatively small areas and do not have a
significant impact on the overall potential.
A limiting condition for the expansion of horizontal agri PV is
the current machinery design. As shown with the scenarios Horizontal
Conservative and Horizontal Innovative, the potential can be massively
increased by adapting the machinery design to be compatible with
horizontal agri PV systems. Another challenge for agri PV potential
analyses is the alternating cultivation of crops on arable land. The
installation of an agri PV system therefore requires compatibility with
all crops for the systems’ lifetimes. This study only considers a single
crop type per land, but it could be advanced in the future to take
alternating cultivation into account.
As initially stated, the agri PV plants reduce the land use conflicts
between agricultural land and open-field PV plants. Further analyses
could estimate the conflict areas via the intersection of the potentials
of the two technologies.
5.4. Innovative PV technologies
This study reviews existing potential analyses for the innovative
technologies agri PV, floating PV, and parking PV globally with an
additional focus on German analyses and shows a wide range of used
methodologies and parameters. The presented transparent and repro-
ducible methodology with high geographical resolution is developed
for the regional scope of Germany, however, it is transferable to other
regions and countries if required land use datasets are available and
suitable crops are defined for agri PV. The detailed site-specific localiza-
tion of the potentials allows further consideration of these technologies
for planning processes from a localized regional level up to an ag-
gregated national level and can be utilized for identifying relevant
technologies for example for subsidies.
These results, however, are highly dependent on the quality of the
geographical datasets. For the analyses of Germany, only the used
datasets fulfilled the requirement of high geographical resolution com-
bined with detailed descriptions, such as crop type or parking lot
type, to identify relevant areas. Due to the missing comparability, the
uncertainty in the used dataset cannot be quantified. For countries and
regions with several datasets, the quality of those could be compared
as was done in Risch et al. [24] for other renewable technologies.
For Germany as the region examined in the analysis, currently
(October 2023), around 22 GWpof open-field PV plants are in opera-
tion [97], which is approximately in the range of parking PV potential
on existing parking lots with more than 35 parking lots. Compared
to the potential of ground-mounted open-field and rooftop PV [24],
parking and floating PV have substantially lower potentials, whereas
agri PV exhibits a higher potential. Regarding the PV expansion targets
of 400 GWpuntil 2040 in Germany, parking PV could have a maximal
contribution of 6.15% and floating PV only 1.18% for the current
legislation, whereas agri PV shows higher potentials than the defined
targets. A quick expansion of agri PV could therefore have a major
impact on the German energy system transformation and could be
supported by policy adjustments. The distribution of the potentials
indicates that parking PV and floating PV show the potential for
regionalized contribution, while the agri PV potentials are well spread
over Germany.
The potential is, however, a necessary but not sufficient condition
for contributing to the future energy system design. In addition to the
potential, the possible impact of the technology also depends on the
generation potential, levelized costs of electricity, public acceptance,
and environmental impact. While the potentials are the first step in
determining the role of these technologies in the future, these topics
require further research to give a comprehensive overview.
6. Conclusion
Innovative PV technologies constitute a promising approach to in-
creasing renewable energy production by co-usage of land and thereby
reducing land use conflicts and are considered in the newest legislation
in Germany. However, existing studies show a wide range of method-
ologies and parameters in the potential analyses of the technologies
globally and do not provide reproducible and transparent potentials for
Germany.
This study presents the first potential analyses of the innovative PV
technologies for parking, floating, and agri PV in Germany, with region-
alized results and transparent methodologies, which can be transferred
to other countries. The results enable initial insights into the maximum
contribution of the technologies to the energy system and set the base
for further research, e.g. about local acceptance and economic aspects,
to define the future role of these technologies. The analysis of parking
PV shows a potential of 24.6 GWpfor existing parking lots with more
than 35 parking spaces, 22.2 GWpfor those with more than 50 parking
spaces, and 16.5 GWpfor those over 100 parking spaces. As only five
federal states currently have legislation for this, which furthermore
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10
R. Maier et al.
only applies to newly-built parking lots, the presented scenarios exceed
the potentials of current legislation. The current legislation on floating
PV leads to a potential of 4.7 GWp. The potential is only marginally
increased by reducing the minimum distance to shore, but significantly
by the area coverage and the permitted lake types. To maximize po-
tential contributions, it is necessary to investigate the environmental
impact and, if possible, relax legislative restrictions. The analysis of
agri PV potentials reveals a high potential in Germany of between
3215 GWpand 5437 GWpand can therefore make a major contribution
to Germany’s target of 400 GWpof PV for achieving greenhouse gas
neutrality in 2045. The methodology can be transferred to other re-
gions globally. Furthermore, the enclosed data publication allows for
further evaluation of the potential of innovative PV technologies and
consideration in energy system models and planning processes of local
and national energy transition strategies in Germany.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Rachel Maier: Conceptualization, Investigation, Data curation,
Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Visualization, Writing
original draft. Luna Lütz: Investigation, Data curation, Methodology,
Writing original draft. Stanley Risch: Methodology, Software,
Writing review & editing. Felix Kullmann: Writing review &
editing, Supervision. Jann Weinand: Writing review & editing,
Supervision. Detlef Stolten: Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The regionalized results of the potential analyses are added to [81]
in version 1.1.0.
Acknowledgments
We thank Matthias Meier and Christoph Jedmowski for the valuable
discussions and the insights on agri PV.
This work was supported by the Helmholtz Association, Germany
under the program ‘‘Energy System Design’’.
Appendix
See Tables 5 and 6.
Table 5
Land use exclusions in the land eligibility analysis.
Land use category Dataset, Institution Query
National parks WDPA [82]Desig=’Nationalpark’
Nature protection WDPA [82]Desig=’Naturschutzgebiet’
Habitats WDPA [82]Desig=’Site of Community Importance (Habitats Directive)’
Birds WDPA [82]DESIG_ENG = ’Special Protection Area (Birds Directive)’
Forests Basis-DLM [83]Dataset: veg02_f.shp
No query
Peatlands Tegetmeyer et al. [93] No query
Water Protection I & II
BfG [84]
Dataset: AM_drinkingWaterProtectionArea-DE.shp
Query: WSG_ ZONE in ( ’1’ , ’1A’, ’1B’, ’2’, ’2A’ , ’2a’, ’2b’, ’2B’,
’2B1’ , ’2B2’ ,’GW_ I’, ’GW_ II’, ’I’, ’II’, ’IIA’, ’IIB’, ’IIC’,
’qual I’, ’qual II’, ’TWS I’, ’TWS II’, ’TWS II/1’,
’TWS II/2’, ’TWS II/3’, ’Zone I’, ’Zone II’, ’keine Angabe’)
LUBW [98]ZONE in (’Zone I und II bzw. IIA’ , ’Zone IIB’ )
LFU-RP [99]SCHUTZZO_ 1 in (’Zone I’ , ’Zone II’ , ’Zone II A’ , ’Zone II S’ )
Floodplain
BfG [84] Dataset: AM_floodplain-DE.shp
LfU [100] Dataset: UEGeb_festgesetzt_09 _11 _2021.shp and UEGeb_vor_gesichert _09 _11 _2021.shp
LUBW [98] Dataset: Ueberschwemmungsgebiet (M1_M2)_polygon.shp
Biosphere -
Core and maintenance
zones
BfN [101] Dataset: Bio_Zonierung2021_3035
Query: ZONIERUNG in (’Kernzone’, ’Pflegezone’)
Table 6
Results of the potential analysis per federal state and for Germany.
Federal states Parking PV Floating PV Agri PV
Potentials in MWp
>35 parking spaces
>50 parking spaces
>100 parking spaces
Current legislation
(15% area coverage
and 40 m distance
from shore)
Horizontal Conservative
Horizontal Innovative
Vertical Grain
Vertical Grassland
Schleswig Holstein 950 862 640 011 149 226 073 97 392 83 523
Hamburg 270 235 169 16 1769 3619 713 1382
Lower Saxony 2540 2335 1826 197 19 037 589 280 235 798 117 920
Bremen 210 192 149 0 120 528 158 581
North Rhine-Westphalia 4978 4479 3316 854 7872 394 725 166 840 102 724
Hesse 1768 1586 1173 290 7818 210 691 97 167 53 306
Rhineland-Palatinate 1309 1198 924 0 58 103 231 575 77 208 57 707
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 200 (2024) 114500
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R. Maier et al.
Table 6 (continued).
Federal states Parking PV Floating PV Agri PV
Potentials in MWp
>35 parking spaces
>50 parking spaces
>100 parking spaces
Current legislation
(15% area coverage
and 40 m distance
from shore)
Horizontal Conservative
Horizontal Innovative
Vertical Grain
Vertical Grassland
Baden-Wuerttemberg 3317 2972 2163 175 52 924 339 927 140 247 115 399
Bavaria 4039 3702 2845 672 48 569 688 916 324 858 301 726
Saarland 283 255 186 0 636 14 422 7212 7244
Berlin 483 421 279 8 23 798 388 253
Brandenburg 970 889 660 337 15 493 298 952 150 439 50956
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania 762 687 479 0 9263 392336 168 361 40 864
Saxony 1316 1175 821 582 5564 291 135 133 862 44 555
Saxony-Anhalt 756 686 489 1183 9605 436 290 208 970 33 168
Thuringia 610 545 370 397 3259 272 190 127738 34 606
Germany 24 567 22 220 16 488 4717 232 167 4 391 457 1 937 349 1 045 915
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... Although 10% coverage was assumed for the FPV potential estimation presented in section 3.2, higher coverage ratios are the norm (68% of FPV installations has coverage ratio above 10%), as shown in figure 20(a). Nevertheless, some countries have limited the coverage ratio of reservoir by FPV systems, for example only up to 5%-15% in Spain [98], 15% in Germany [99], and 20% in Indonesia [100]. These regulations are still evolving and it is important to check the prevailing regulations in the project location. ...
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Most EU countries are trying to develop new sources of energy to meet local power requirements due to energy shortages. The most popular renewable energy developments include biogas stations, wind turbines, water turbines, and solar systems. This article focuses on reviewing studies concerning the utilization of solar energy systems, especially photovoltaic (PV) ones, in European countries such as Germany, Italy, Spain, and Poland, which are leaders in PV installations. The review identifies factors influencing the development of PV investments and the energy situation in these countries. Economic, market, environmental, and infrastructural barriers, as well as driving factors, are presented. In all countries, the majority of installations were in the prosumer sector, with only a very small percentage in the state-owned sector. The methodology of the study covered the mentioned barriers, which were identified using scientific databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and branch organizations websites like the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). The novelty of the article lies in its examination of special barriers concerning green energy production in chosen EU countries. Normally, when reading articles on PV installations, as presented in the References section, one primarily observes a description of the construction process without deep involvement in the presented ideas.