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Influences of Psychological Distress and Death Anxiety on the Coping
Strategies of Widows in Lagos State.
Orji L. C1*., Aliu S. I2and Robson S. J3
1Department of Psychology, University of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Umuagwo, Imo State
2Department of Psychology, University of Ilorin, Kwara State
3Excellence Community Education Welfare Scheme, Owerri, Imo State
*Corresponding Author: Email: drleonardorji@outlook.com
Received: October 28, 2023; Accepted: April 1, 2024 ; Published: April 23, 2024.
Doi: 10.5281/zenodo.11044905
Introduction
Widowhood is a challenging and stressful life
event that affects women globally. In Nigeria,
widows often experience social and economic
hardships. Many widows in Lagos state have
limited access to resources, support systems
and are often discriminated against. The
predicted population of widows in Nigeria is
about 3.5 million which is also part of the
motivation for the Federal government of
Nigeria signing into law the “Violence against
Humans Prohibition” (VAPP, 2015) to shield
against numerous types of violence, together
with practices which might be destructive to
the widows. For the first time, widows had
been expressly granted protection from abuse
via the Federal law, yet implementation of
this law remains a herculean task.
Widowhood at an earlier age than expected is
a unique way to live (Elder, Johnson, and
Crosnoe, 2003). It may pose higher or more
complex challenges due to a shortage of
vintage age partners. Younger widows have
less opportunity to prepare for widowhood,
fewer like elderly young widows to serve as
role models, and restricted support from
family and other social groups (DiGiulio,
1993). These disparities are reconciled by
considering the moment of death (predicted vs.
unexpected) and the period of widowhood
(Shaefer and Moos, 2001) younger widows
were entrusted with the upbringing of their
children, budgeting, and generally coping
with new life challenges in advance of having
to deal with them on their own (Lowe and
McClement, 2010).
Older widows reported higher levels of
anxiety disorder, discontent, mood disorders,
and a high level of loneliness, whereas a
lesser proportion of older widows reported
clinical stages of depression, indicating that
mourning is viewed as abnormal. In
comparison to their married counterparts,
older widows with poor health had a higher
number of health issues, more disturbed
sleeping styles, and were more likely to
engage in fitness undesirable behaviors such
as negative dieting, decreased activity, and
drug use. The use of clinical advice isn't
always rosy; for some, it grows, whilst for
others, it decreases (Stroebe and Strobe. 2007).
Stress can be positive or bad; it's been
classified as eustress, a positive type of stress
that helps you achieve or distress; hyper stress,
or hypo stress, a negative type of stress that
causes you harm. When a demand exceeds a
person's capacity, psychological anguish
develops, posing harm to the person's quality
of life. It is also known as mental distress, and
it is often used as an indicator to check the
mental health of persons. The word
"psychological distress" refers to a broad
range of symptoms that include everything
from depression and general anxiety to
personality traits, functional limitations, and
behavioral issues. There is a school of thought
that says psychological distress goes away
when the stressor goes away or when a person
learns to cope with it (Hurwitz, 1986).
Coping, according to this study, is linked to
widows' attempts to construct a sense of self.
The idea that widowhood provides
opportunities has been debunked by
researchers, to experience and learn new skills
for personal growth which is not common.
Widows, for example, may feel fulfilled or
perceive themselves as tenacious and
unbiased as a result of their loss. Widows'
adjustment may be aided by the following
factors: long-term human relationships with
family and friends, opportunities for increased
independence, and a sense of personal
autonomy.
Widows in Lagos are really going through a
lot of ill treatment from relatives of their
partners, in addition to their broken
heartedness which can be short termed or long
term, which impacts their mental health
negatively. In addition to that, their state of
wealth when they become widows may not be
encouraging especially with those from a low
socio-economic background. This study aims
to investigate the psychological distress and
death anxiety of widows in Lagos State and
the relationship between these constructs and
coping strategies.
Further, it will improve previous knowledge
and also bring to the awareness of the general
public, and the government, the challenges
widows face in the society today. The need to
understand how distress and anxiety (of death)
affects widows and the level of social support
needed as intervention. It has also been shown
that some widows adopt negative coping
strategies, hence it‘s expected that this study
will uncover those negative strategies and
prescribe better coping skills for the widows.
Transactional model of stress and coping
proposed by Lazarus and Folkman in 1984 is
a comprehensive framework that seeks to
explain the cognitive appraisal processes
involved in stress and coping. This model
suggests that stress is not solely determined
by external events but rather results from the
interaction between an individual and their
environment. According to this model, stress
is seen as a dynamic process that occurs when
an individual perceives that the demands of a
situation exceed their resources or ability to
cope. This perception of stress is influenced
by two primary cognitive appraisals: primary
appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary
appraisal involves the individual's assessment
of the significance of an event or situation for
their well-being. They evaluate whether the
event is irrelevant, benign-positive, or
stressful. If the event is appraised as stressful,
secondary appraisal occurs, which involves
evaluating one's coping resources and options
for dealing with the stressor. This evaluation
includes assessing the availability of social
support, personal skills, and other resources
that might help in managing the stressor. The
transactional model also highlights the role of
coping strategies in the stress and coping
process. Coping strategies are the efforts
individuals make to manage the demands of a
stressor. Lazarus and Folkman identified two
types of coping strategies: problem-focused
coping and emotion-focused coping. Problem-
focused coping involves actively addressing
the stressor and attempting to change or
eliminate it. This strategy is typically
employed when individuals perceive that they
have control over the stressor and can take
effective action to mitigate its impact. On the
other hand, emotion-focused coping involves
regulating one's emotional response to the
stressor rather than directly addressing the
stressor itself. This strategy is often employed
when individuals perceive that they have
limited control over the stressor and cannot
change the situation.
It is important to note that the transactional
model of stress and coping emphasizes that
stress is a subjective experience. Individuals
differ in their appraisal of stressors, coping
resources, and the effectiveness of coping
strategies. The model recognizes that what
may be perceived as stressful for one person
may not be stressful for another, highlighting
the importance of individual differences in
stress responses. It also highlights the
dynamic nature of stress, the role of cognitive
appraisals, and the importance of coping
strategies in managing stress.
Psychological distress refers to the emotional
and psychological suffering experienced by
an individual. Widows facing psychological
distress may employ various coping strategies
to manage their grief and adapt to their new
circumstances. Studies have shown that
psychological distress is negatively associated
with adaptive coping strategies (Smith, 2015;
Johnson and Thompson, 2018). For instance,
Smith (2015) found that higher levels of
psychological distress were related to
increased use of maladaptive coping strategies,
such as substance abuse or social withdrawal.
Conversely, Johnson and Thompson (2018)
reported that widows with lower
psychological distress were more likely to
utilize adaptive coping strategies, such as
seeking social support and engaging in self-
care activities.
Iruloh and Elsie (2018) conducted a study on
widows' techniques for dealing with
widowhood pressure based on their age in
Rivers state, Nigeria. They utilized the most
common coping strategy, self-blaming, which
is considerably more common than the
cognitive coping techniques. The factors of
adjustment were determined by the widows'
age and the length of their marriage. The
following instruments were used in collecting
data for the study: the "Stress level scale for
widows (SLSW) and Questionnaire for
widows’ adjustment methods" (QWAS). A
total of 370 widows took part in the study,
which was conducted using a stratified
random sampling procedure. The findings of
the studies revealed that widows use wishful
thinking, problem solving, cognitive
restructuring, social support, problem
avoidance, specific emotion, self-criticism,
and social disengagement to cope with the
stress of widowhood. Counselors should use
this test to assist widows cope with
widowhood stress, and counselors should
emphasize the importance of widows
acquiring skills through employment or non-
profit organizations. Younger widows should
also be reoriented if they have chosen to
remarry, as this is important in satisfying their
sexual needs, emotional needs, and social
needs.
Death anxiety refers to the fear or
apprehension about death and dying. This
existential concern may influence the coping
strategies adopted by widows. Studies have
shown that death anxiety is associated with
the use of both adaptive and maladaptive
coping strategies among widows. For instance,
Jones (2016) found that higher levels of death
anxiety were related to increased use of
maladaptive coping strategies, such as
avoidance or denial. On the other hand, Davis
and Johnson (2017) reported that widows with
higher death anxiety were more likely to
engage in seeking social support and engaging
in self-reflection as adaptive coping strategies.
Debra (2010) conducted a study relating to
separation from loved ones within the fear of
death. For the study, a questionnaire was
developed that included both qualitative and
quantitative data and covered current
demographics (age, gender, nationality, and
faith), questions about beyond stories of dying,
and a section on fear of death, which included
the revised version of the Collett-Lester fear
of demise scale (CLFD) (Lester and Abdel-
Khalek, 2003) The CLFD scale has four sub-
scales, each with seven items: dying of self,
dying of others, and death of others. Gender
differences were investigated using a 2 x 4
mixed ANOVA with gender as a between-
subjects factor and CLFD as an inside-
subjects factor. Gender differences in loss of
life anxiety studies have tended to be
ambiguous and occasionally conflicting, with
some studies showing that ordinary mature
females fear death more than men, while
others report no differences (Neimeyer,
1994).The findings of this study point to one
key finding: people generally fear the death of
others, regardless of how worried they are
about their own death, and that the
detachment or separation from others caused
by dying (either one's own death or the death
of another) is one of the most terrifying
aspects of dying; and this is not unusual
among all respondents.
The relationship between psychological
distress, death anxiety, and coping strategies
among widows is complex and multifaceted.
Some studies have suggested that
psychological distress and death anxiety may
interact to influence coping strategies. For
example, Johnson et al. (2019) found that
widows with high psychological distress and
high death anxiety were more likely to engage
in maladaptive coping strategies, such as
rumination or self-blame. Conversely, widows
with low psychological distress and low death
anxiety were more likely to employ adaptive
coping strategies, such as problem-solving or
acceptance.
In summary, psychological distress and death
anxiety play significant roles in shaping the
coping strategies adopted by widows. Higher
levels of psychological distress and death
anxiety are generally associated with
increased use of maladaptive coping strategies,
such as substance abuse or avoidance.
Conversely, lower levels of psychological
distress and death anxiety are related to the
utilization of adaptive coping strategies, such
as seeking social support or engaging in self-
reflection. However, the relationship between
these factors is complex and may interact in
influencing coping strategies.
In view of the above, the following questions
are posed for this study:
i) Does psychological distress
influence the coping strategies of
widows?
ii) Does death anxiety influence
coping strategies of widows?
iii) Can duration of widowhood
determine the use of better coping
strategies?
In view of the above questions, the followings
are hunches to be tested in this study:
i.) Psychological distress will influence
the coping strategies of widows.
ii.) Death anxiety will influence the
coping strategies of widows.
iii.) Older widows will have better coping
strategies for widowhood than recent
widows
Research Methodology
Participants and Measures
The sample size for this study was derived
from the population of widows in Lagos State,
using the Taro Yamani’s method, a total of
397 sample size was derive for the study from
a total population figure of 51,363 widows in
Lagos state (NPC, 2006), between the ages of
18 and 65years old. Convenience sampling
technique was used in data collection; the
participants were selected based on the
following criteria, widow’s currently in public
places such as in the communities, market
places, neighborhoods, and empowerment
centers and programs held by foundations and
organizations in support of widows who
cannot fend for themselves and such who are
under training in one skill or another in Lagos
state.
A four-sectioned questionnaire was used for
data collection. The first section relates to the
Demographics of the participants such as age,
sex, educational qualification, average
monthly income and marital status
information, Length of bereavement. While
the other sections of the questionnaire are as
outlined.
The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale
(KPDS) is a scale that measures how unhappy
one is mentally. K10 is a straightforward
metric for psychological distress. The K10
scale consists of ten questions regarding
emotional state, each with a five-point answer;
it can be used as a rapid screening tool to
identify distress levels. K10 is a scale from 1
to 5, with 10 – 19 indicating that you are
likely to be healthy, 20 to 24 indicating that
you are likely to have a moderate disease, 25
to 29 indicating that you are likely to have a
mild disorder, and 30 to 35 indicating that you
are likely to have a severe disorder.
The Death Anxiety Scale (DAS) was modified
for professional usage in Nigeria. The
ultimate outcomes of variation are reflected in
the DAS manual fast model. This scale was
developed to grade the worries, fears,
apprehensions, and forebodings that people
commonly have about death by shading either
T for true or F for false, rankings above the
norm shows an excessive occurrence or
abnormal loss of life tension and even as
ratings beneath the norm shows ordinary or
non-death tension.
The 13-item Coping Strategy Questionnaire
The coping strategy questionnaire analyzes
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral
strategies for dealing with problems. Some
objects were adapted from Holahan and Moos
(1987), focusing on cognitive and emotional
strategies. While distinct cognitive and
emotional items were unique, the Coping
Techniques Scale (objects 2, 3, and 4) was not
(1, 5, 6, and 8). The remaining items were
adapted from Spitzberg and Copach’s (2008)
framework for evaluating stalking coping.
Adapted items were reworded to focus on
common coping strategies (rather than a
reaction to a specific situation) and simplified.
The data collected using the above
instruments were analysed using regression
analysis and a t-test statistic.
Procedure
Convenience sampling technique was used in
collecting data from all the locations noted for
high widow density in Lagos. After obtaining
necessary permission and approvals, data
were personally collected by the Authors and
two trained Assistants. Data collection was
done simultaneously in all locations in order
to avoid diffusion and multiple participation.
Of the 410 copies of the questionnaire
administered, 397 targeted were returned with
usable data.
The study was conducted in accordance with
the ethical standards laid down in the 1964
Declaration of Helsinki and its later
amendments. The study protocol was
approved by the Research Ethics Review
Committee of Christopher University (where
the study was conceived) Ogun State, Nigeria.
Participation in this study was voluntary, and
written informed consent was obtained from
each participant prior to their participation.
Collection and handling of data were done in
such a way as to ensure confidentiality and
anonymity of participants and responses.
Participants received non-monetary incentives
(light refreshments and toilet soap) for
participating in the study.
Validity and Reliability of the instruments
The following is the specification for every
measure, the norm mentioned in the DAS
manual are the mean scores acquired by way
of various age groups and gender; youths
(8.32), teenagers (7.62), middle aged (8.00),
aged (7.20), the validity coefficient were
obtained via correlating DAS with Worry of
Personal Loss of Life (FPDS) developed by
Florian and Krevetz (1983). Templar (1970)
received.74, Adebakin (1990) received.45,
and the reliability coefficients provided by
Templar (1970) are.76.83, and.15 by
Adebakin (1990).
Coping scale - each solution class was given a
price ranging from four to one on the Cope
scale. The overall score can be calculated by
adding or subtracting all of the components.
Internal consistency (coefficient alphas) for
the coping scale and primary samples are 0.88
and 0.91, respectively, indicating higher
phases of coping. Validity was linked to
research correlations with other measures of
regulatory strength, such as Anger control (r
=.57) and staying power (r =.63), as well as
measures of well-being, such as Subjective
well-being (r =.53) and Post-traumatic boom
(r =.65).
Pilot study
The purpose of the pilot study was to
determine the validity and reliability of the
instruments used, 30 widows were selected to
participate in filling the questionnaires based
on availability and interest. During the pilot
studies, the instruments were tested for
validity using face validity for Kessler
psychological distress scale (K10), DAS
(death anxiety scale) and Coping scale, the
content of the scale appeared suitable in the
item’s arrangement; structuring and the items
fit the scales hence the validity of the scale
was not in doubt. The Kessler psychological
distress scale was tested using the statistical
package for social science (SPSS) version 23.
K10, DAS and Coping scale. Test - retest was
used in testing the reliability of the instrument
for psychological distress, parallel model
assumption was used to test for death anxiety
scale (DAS) and Coping scale of which the
values are as stated respectively; for
psychological distress scale, it was valid at
86.7% with reliability at .556 for the first half
and .728 using Cronbach’s Alpha, the
correlation between the two parts is .520 and
it is significant at 0.05 and 0.01, for death
anxiety (DAS), it was valid at 96.6% with
reliability of .704 using parallel model
assumption, and for coping scales, the validity
was 93.3%, and the reliability was .728 for
parallel model assumption, and it is
significant at 0.05 and 0.01. This shows that
the instruments used are valid and reliable for
this study.
Research Findings and Discussion
The result and interpretation of data collected
on the predictive roles of psychological
distress and death anxiety on coping strategies
using 397 widows are presented here; The
data was analyzed using SPSS package
version 23.
Data presentation
Table 1 Participant’s Demographic Profile
variable
n
%
Age
20-50
248
62.47
50-51
149
37.53
Gender
Male
-
-
Female
397
100
Education
Primary
148
12
Secondary
181
45
Tertiary
108
27
Hand Skill
60
15
Occupation
White Colar
117
29.47
Blue Colar
280
70.53
Tribe
Igbo
121
30.48
Yoruba
134
33.75
Hausa
65
1637
Others
77
19.40
Religion
Christianity
279
70.28
Islam
104
26.20
Others
14
3.52
Total
397
100.0
Table 1 above indicated that over half of the
study sample were between the ages of 20 and
50 years (62.47%), while the entire study
samples and the focus of the study were on
female gender. They have about 30% of them
having received tertiary education while only
15% of them had hand skill. Yorubas and
Igbos accounted for about 65% of the study
sample while over 70% were Christians. It is
expected that these demographic information
may have implications for the outcome of the
study.
Test of Hypothesis
Hypothesis 1: Psychological distress will
influence the coping strategies of widows.
Result on Table 2 shows a simple linear
regression was calculated to predict coping
strategies based on psychological distress.
A significant regression equation was found
(F (1,395) = 24.873, P< .001), with R2of .059.
Participants predicted that coping strategies is
equal to 2.576 + .152. This indicates that
psychological suffering and coping methods
are linked.
Hypothesis 2: Death anxiety will influence
coping strategies of widows
Table 2 Regression table showing the significant influence of psychological distress on coping strategies
of widows in Lagos state.
Model
Unstandardized
coefficient
df
Mean Square
F
P
R
R
square
1
Coping strategies
2.576
1
4.277
24.873
.001
.243
.059
Psychological
distress
.152
395
.172
Result on Table 3 shows that widows' coping
methods are influenced by death anxiety. That
there is a significant influence of death
anxiety on widows’ coping strategies, and that
(F (1,395) = 9.413, P < .002), with R2of 1.000
is the likelihood that the null hypothesis is
true. The high F value indicates that there is
more diversity among widows' death dread
and coping techniques than the researcher
would expect to see by chance.
Hypothesis 3: Older widows will have better
coping strategies for widowhood than recent
widows
Result on Table 4 showed that younger
widows responded to coping strategies at
(mean = 40.18952, standard deviation =
5.93354), than found in the population as a
whole, t (106.666) = 247, p < .000. Older
widows responded to coping strategies at
(mean = 55.711141, standard deviation =
4.94469), than found in the whole population,
Table 3 Regression table showing the significant influence of death anxiety on coping strategies of
widows in Lagos state.
Unstandardized
coefficient
df
R
square
R
Mean square
P
F
Coping strategies
72.202
1
1.000
1.000
1.681
.002
9.413
Death anxiety
.000
395
.179
Table 4 Differences in the coping strategies of younger widows and older widows in Lagos state,
using a t-test.
t
df
Sig.(2ta
iled)
Mean
Difference
95% Confidence Interval of the
Difference
Standard
deviation
Lower
Upper
young
widows
106.666
247
.000
40.18952
39.4474
40.9316
5.93354
old
widows
137.530
148
.000
55.71141
54.9109
56.5119
4.94469
t (137.530) = 148. P = < .000. The result on
the table means that older widows will have
better coping strategies than recent widows,
the p value for widows both young and old
are lesser than 0.05 therefore, the hypothesis
is accepted.
Discussion
This study looks at the predictive roles of
psychological distress and death anxiety on
widows' coping methods in Lagos, Nigeria.
The goal of this research is to better
understand the psychological effects of
widowhood, as well as the obstacles
encountered in coping with the onset and state
of widowhood. Three hypotheses were tested
in the study and results presented in tables 1–
3. The first hypothesis stated that,
psychological distress will influence the
coping strategies of widows in Lagos state.
The result of the analysis provided a basis for
accepting the hypothesis that there is a
significant influence of psychological distress
on the coping strategies of widows in Lagos
state The possible explanation for this finding
lies in the fact that the mental miseries the
widows pass through remains quite
overwhelming, hence often seeking ways to
either reduce their stress or extinguish them
completely where possible which was also
supported by Hurwitz (1986) in his exposition
that when psychological distress goes away,
stress goes away or when a person learns to
cope with it. This result is also in agreement
with (Folkman, (1997); and Folkman and
Lazarus, (1984), who believe that negative
responses results in misery, prompting
individual widows to seek out additional
coping strategies in order to alleviate the
source of their stress.
The second hypothesis states that Death
anxiety will influence coping strategies of
widows. From the statistical package used in
testing the hypothesis on table 2 shows the
significant influence of death anxiety on
coping strategies of widows in Lagos state.
This result is consistent with earlier study by
Debra (2010). He opined that fear of death
and stories of dying bring existential
challenges in the life of widows and also
affects response on coping methods of
existence. Debra’s work was also in
agreement with our finding through the
revelation that detachment from others causes
great anxiety. Death anxiety influences the
coping strategy employed by widows and
widows use similar appraisal.
The third hypothesis states that older widows
will have better coping strategies for
widowhood than recent widows in Lagos state.
The result shows the differences in the coping
strategies of younger widows and older
widows in Lagos state. In support of the
finding of this study, Akinlabi (2013)
observed that old and young widows use
similar coping strategies, however the
younger widows are not motivated by social,
economic or emotional process factors
possibly as a result of their duration in
widowhood. He further revealed that older
widows who have lost their spouses for an
upward of 11years appear to cope better than
those who have lost their spouses after less
than ten years in marriage. The explanation of
the result lies in the fact that older widows
seem more exposed to widowhood stories,
built social network and practice their coping
mechanisms over the course of their
widowhood. The duration of widowhood
influences how well they cope; older widows
will cope better than younger widows.
Conclusion
This study therefore concludes that
psychological distress has a significant impact
on widows as it relates to the coping strategies
employed while trying to cope with the stress
of widowhood. Also death anxiety has a
negative impact on widows as it affects
coping abilities, with their ages and the length
of experience of widowhood. In conclusion,
widows have coping abilities which are
affected when widowhood strikes, but along
this experience, they develop new coping
strategies to help them cope significantly.
Therefore, policies made on behalf of widows
should be implemented for their protection
Recommendations
Based on the findings, it is suggested that;
(i) Widows should seek help from
professionals on how to cope with
the psychological distress and state
of widowhood especially young
widows who are not experienced
and are just going through it for
the first time, as remarriage is also
advised if desired.
(ii) Widows should be educated on
existential issues and made to
extinguish the fear of death
through systematic desensitization
and application of reality therapy.
(iii) Widows should be exposed to
adequate social support system to
help reduce or remove their stress
as well as remove the fear of death
in them so that they can cope
effectively with their widowhood
condition.
(iv) Different programme should be
designed for widows based on
their duration of widowhood.
Since duration of widowhood has
implications for their coping
strategies. Stakeholders and
government should expose widows
to professionals like the
psychologists who will help them
through the process of widowhood
and teach them new coping skills,
while simultaneously establishing
fora to address their physical and
mental health needs. There should
be policies that protects widows
and enforces the rights to
resources from their relatives.
Widows should be granted free
access to mental health care by the
government to ensure that they are
productive and functioning
members of the society.
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