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Abstract

Illicit trafficking of fissionable material in container cargoes is recognized as a potential weakness in Nuclear Security. Triggered by the attacks of 11 September 2001, measures were undertaken to enhance maritime security in extension to the Safety Of Life At Sea Convention and in line with the US Container Security Initiatives. Effective detection techniques are needed that allow the inspector to intercept illicit trafficking of nuclear weapons components or components of other nuclear explosive devices. Many security measures focus on active interrogation of the container content by X-ray scan, which might be extended with the newly developed tagged neutron inspection system. Both active interrogation techniques can, with the current huge volume of container traffic, only be applied to a limited number of selected containers. The question arises whether a passive detection technique can offer an alternative solution. This study investigates if containers equipped with a small passive detector will register during transport the neutron irradiation by fissionable material such as plutonium in a measurable way. In practice, 4/5 of the containers are about 1/8 filled with hydrogenous material and undergo a typical 2 months route. For this reference case, it was found that the most compatible passive detector would be an activation foil of iridium. Monte-Carlo simulations showed that for the reference case the activity of a 250 microm thin foil with 6 cm(2) cross-section would register 1.2 Bq when it is irradiated by a significant quantity of Reactor-Grade PuO(2). However this activity drops with almost two orders of magnitude for other fillings and other isotopic compositions and forms of the Pu-source. The procedure of selecting the target material for Pu detection is detailed with the theoretical methods, in order to be useful for other applications. Moreover the value of such additional passive sensors for securing maritime container transport is situated within the global framework of the First, Second and Third Line of Defense against illicit trafficking.

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... This review also demonstrated that most scholars focused on the development of risk assessment methods that were claimed as effective approaches enabling port operators to identify vulnerabilities in ports and to select suitable measures to reduce natural and man-made hazards, such as the studies of Orosz et al. (2009), Mansouri, Nilchiani, andMostashari (2010), McLay and Dreiding (2012), Chang, Xu, and Song (2014), John et al. (2014), Loh and Thai (2014), Yang, Ng, and Wang (2014), Johnstone (2015), and Pallis (2017). Adopting advanced technologies to improve physical port security is another attractive area for most academics (Tsai, 2006;Mansouri et al., 2010;Janssens-Maenhout et al., 2010;Scholliers, Permala, Toivonen, & Salmela, 2016), while some studies have attempted to explore other approaches to improve physical port security, such as the international collaboration among governments (Papa, 2013), national laws and regulation to support the implementation of port security measure (Roach, 2004), and national policy to support investment in critical cybersecurity infrastructure (King, 2005). Some studies have analyzed cybersecurity in general, but most of the issues were not related to container ports. ...
... Research papers regarding port security and threat have been published since the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in the United States (McNicholas, 2016). Many scholars revealed that the important infrastructure, especially transportation sector, was the target of the terrorist, such as hijacking and migrant smuggling (Roach, 2004), information risk of transit containers in Taiwanese ports (Tsai, 2006), maritime terrorist attacks (Orosz et al., 2009;Papa, 2013), illicit trafficking of fissionable material in container cargoes (Janssens-Maenhout et al., 2010), smuggling nuclear material into the USA for nuclear terrorism (McLay & Dreiding, 2012), transportation of dangerous weapons of terrorist organizations (Michel et al., 2014), cargo thieves, stowaways, pirates, and drug smugglers (McNicholas, 2016), and vandalism, illegal immigration, and blockade (Pallis, 2017). Due to the increasing number of terrorist attacks in maritime transport chain, the safety of container cargo and security measure of seaport became the attractive issue in the global arena. ...
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... Such a need for nations to implement monitoring capabilities, typically at their borders, has long been identified as a crucial part of security infrastructure by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) [3]. Special nuclear materials (SNMs) are any substance that could be used to produce a nuclear weapon, such as 239 Pu, 233 U, highly enriched uranium (HEU), depleted uranium (DU), thorium, as well as other fissile or fissionable isotopes [3][4][5]. In contrast to complex and highly engineered atomic or thermonuclear bombs, RDDs or "dirty bombs" are very simplistic, comprising an explosive device that disperses radioactive material upon detonation. ...
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... The authors of [14] have investigated efficiency of detectors for intercepting illicit trafficking of fissionable material in container cargo in maritime transportation. They have suggested tagged neutron inspection system in addition to container content Xray scan, etc. ...
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... CdZnTe with neutron converting layer such as Gd are proposed for portable thermal neutron detection systems [119,121]. Activation foils were suggested for safeguard applications such as practical neutron flux measurement tools [122]. ...
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Global concern for the illicit transportation and trafficking of nuclear materials and other radioactive sources is on the rise, with efficient and rapid security and non-proliferation technologies in more demand than ever. Many factors contribute to this issue, including the increasing number of terrorist cells, gaps in security networks, politically unstable states across the globe and the black-market trading of radioactive sources to unknown parties. The use of passive gamma-ray and neutron detection and imaging technologies in security-sensitive areas and ports has had more impact than most other techniques in detecting and deterring illicit transportation and trafficking of illegal radioactive materials. This work reviews and critically evaluates these techniques as currently utilised within national security and non-proliferation applications and proposes likely avenues of development.
... En effet, la facilité de contrefaire les scellés menace l'intégrité du conteneur, en surcroît de l'occurrence de fausses déclarations du contenu. Janssens et al [19] s'est basé sur la mesure du niveau de radioactivité dans le conteneur pour prévenir la contrebande des armes chimiques. Ramirez-Marquez [20] propose une stratégie d'identification de conteneurs suspects en se basant sur les inspections non invasives en utilisant des capteurs qui scannent le conteneur. ...
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... Hargather et al. [29] proposed a non-intrusive technique to detect explosive particles within containers using air suction sensors. Janssens et al. [30] was based on measuring the level of radioactivity in the container to prevent the smuggling of chemical weapons. Ramirez-Marquez [31] proposes a suspicious container identification strategy based on non-invasive inspection using sensors that scan the container. ...
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...  Teknoloji iki konteyner arasında bilgi akışına olanak tanımaktadır [22].  Emniyetli taşıma, gıda güvenliği ve kalitesinin korunması, patlayıcı ve kimyasal maddenin taşıma sırasında kriterlerinin korunması ve güvenli taşınmalarının sağlanması, sağlık malzemesi ve ilaçların gereken hassasiyetle taşınması için konteyner içerine yerleştirilen birçok sensörden yararlanılmaktadır [16][18][23][24].  Ayrıca bahsi geçen sensörlerden gelen alarmlar tanımlı e-postalara, akıllı telefonlara ve tabletlere iletilebilmekte, konteynerle ilgili istenen raporlar da önceden tanımlı e-postalara, akıllı telefonlara ve tabletlere istenilen zamanda iletilebilmektedir[10]. ...
... For instance, with good distribution and collection strategies then abundant small simple thermo-luminescent sensors can achieve widespread distribution and effective penetration into the environment. Alternatively, simple thermo-luminescent materials placed in a cargo container may accompany a potential nuclear material in close proximity for a long time [38] and hence the accumulated signature may become strong enough to generate an alert. The detection opportunity of traditional sensors only at ports may be too brief to do this. ...
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... Conventionally available security systems does offer a wide range of wired and wireless electronic sensors that are highly capable of detecting even a minute level of disturbance, pressure change or activity in their area of interest (AOI). Such sensors generally contain underground pressure-sensitive tubes, fence-based vibration detectors, pressure-driven "taut wires", fiber optics, infrared beam dispensers and microwave barriers [5][6][7]. These sensors do offer a reasonable level of accuracy however this generally results in very high FARs due to high winds, severe weather conditions, foliage and animal movement. ...
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Thesis
La conteneurisation a révolutionné le commerce international au 20éme siècle. L’introduction du conteneur, comme moyen standard de transport de marchandise, a profondément impacté le commerce maritime et a radicalement changé le fonctionnement des ports. En effet, les ports n’ont cessé de se développer par la construction de nouveaux terminaux à conteneurs (TC) et également par l’amélioration de leurs services par la réduction des délais et des coûts de livraison. En parallèle, la gestion des risques dans les TC a reçu beaucoup d'attention ces dernières années en raison de l'augmentation des activités frauduleuses liées aux conteneurs. La communauté internationale a proposé plusieurs initiatives pour améliorer la sécurité du transport maritime. Cependant, l'évaluation des risques des conteneurs reste une tâche difficile, souvent due à des informations incomplètes ou ambiguës sur les conteneurs. D’autre part, la réduction de l’empreinte écologique sur l’environnement est devenue une préoccupation majeure en matière de transport conteneurisé. Face à cet enjeu écologique, les acteurs du dernier kilomètre de la chaîne logistique du conteneur doivent améliorer et optimiser leur infrastructure et penser des modes de transport terrestre de conteneurs ayant une empreinte environnementale moindre que les modes de transports classiques à gasoil, sans toutefois impacter les performances. Dans cette optique, le premier objectif de cette thèse se focalise autour l’amélioration de la performance du processus d’inspection des conteneurs. Ainsi, nous proposons une nouvelle approche adaptative de la priorisation d’inspection des conteneurs. Nous avons nommé cette approche APRICOIN (Adaptive PRIoritizing Container INspection). Cette approche exploite le concept du produit intelligent ainsi que de la logique floue et les techniques de fouille de données. Cette approche est basée sur trois étapes. La première étape vise l’amélioration du flux informationnel et en assurant sa véracité et ce moyennant les capacités du conteneur intelligent. Ainsi on propose un descriptif enrichi du conteneur (DEC). La deuxième étape consiste à prioriser l’inspection des conteneurs en lui attribuant un score de risque à l’aide de la logique floue. La dernière étape consiste à prioriser l’inspection des conteneurs et exploiter les résultats d’inspection afin d’ajuster la précision de l’algorithme APROCOIN et s’adapter aux nouveaux facteurs de risque moyennant les techniques de fouille de données. Afin de valider l’approche proposée, une étude de cas illustratif a été réalisée ainsi qu’une étude comparative avec d’autres approches alternatives. Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse se focalise sur le projet green Truck qui vise particulièrement les transporteurs routiers de conteneurs à courtes distances dans la zone portuaire en assurant une transition énergétique de la flotte de tracteurs gasoil vers des tracteurs électriques à batteries rechargeables. Le projet s’intéresse à une technique récente de rechargement des batteries, à savoir le « Biberonnage ». Cette technologie est inspirée du fonctionnement de certains bus électriques. Elle consiste à exploiter les courts temps d’attentes du véhicule, comme par exemple la monté et la descente des passagers pour le cas des bus, afin de recharger automatiquement la batterie du véhicule. Ainsi dans cette thèse, nous avons exploré différentes techniques et modes de rechargement rapide des batteries de tracteurs routiers électriques compte tenu des contraintes d’exploitation, et d’évalué la faisabilité économique de la mise en œuvre d’un système comprenant le véhicule et l’infrastructure électrique. L’outil de simulation Anylogic a permis de dimensionner les batteries et les bornes de recharge des véhicules électriques, en plus de fournir aux décideurs des résultats technico-économiques avec des représentations animées et graphiques en 3D.
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Some characteristic advantages and disadvantages of TLD albedo and etched track dosemeters in individual neutron monitoring are briefly discussed with the main emphasis on the energy dependence of the dose equivalent response. Dosemeter configurations combining the responses to direct fast neutrons and to albedo neutrons are described, which show an improved energy dependence of the dose equivalent response in the energy range from thermal neutrons up to 15 MeV. Calibration procedures for the combined dosemeters are proposed.
Article
CR-39 obtained from American Acrylics and Plastics, Inc. (AA), N. E. Technology, Ltd. (NE), and Tech/Ops Landauer, Inc. (LT) were exposed to radioisotopic neutron sources at SLAC, and moderated ²⁵²Cf at ORNL. The AA and NE detectors (0.06 cm thick) were electrochemically etched (a pre-etch for 1 h and 45 min. in 6.5 N KOH at 60 oC for a 5 h etch at 3000 V and 60 Hz, a 23 min. blow-up step at 2 kHz and a post-etch for 15 min.). The LT detectors were chemically etched in 5.5 N NaOH at 70 oC for 15.5 h. and some AA, NE and LT detectors in 6.25 N NaOH at 70 oC for 6 h. A pre-etch step in 60% methanol and 40% NaOH at 70 oC for 1 h was added for some NE detectors. The results of the background track density and neutron dose equivalent response are reported.
Article
The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) due to the advent of nuclear weapons and their extraordinary destructive capacity is discussed. The international community has responded to the problems and challenges by the elaboration of multilateral international treaty regimes intended to prevent the proliferation of WMD. These include the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC). The release of a considerable number of weapons-grade nuclear materials resulting from the global process of nuclear arms reduction is one reason for illicit nuclear trafficking and nuclear terrorism.
Article
A study has been made of the gamma radiation following the decay of Ir192. The energies, intensities, internal conversion coefficients and multipolarities of the gamma transitions have been determined. Energy level schemes for the daughter nuclei, Pt192 and Os192, are proposed. The spins and parities of most of the levels are given.
Article
The Institute for Radiation Protection of ENEA has employed for many years a solid state nuclear track detector CR-39 as a fast neutron personal dosemeter with good results. The 1990 recommendations of ICRP 60 has introduced new parameters to neutron dosimetry that require harmonisation of the dosemeters' response within international recommendations. This paper reports the results of an experimental study performed at ENEA in order to investigate the dosimetric performance of two kinds of CR-39 produced in UK and Italy. Sensitivity, lowest detectable dose, background, linearity, energy and angular responses are compared between the two CR-39 materials. Irradiation tests have been performed with monoenergetic neutron beams in the range from 100 keV to 20 MeV, as well as with 252Cf and 241Am-Be sources. The Italian CR-39 material, used elsewhere for heavy ions detection in scientific applications, has here been comprehensively tested for neutron dosimetry purposes. Results were very satisfactory and it has therefore been introduced in the ENEA Personal Dosimetry Service.
Article
(cont.) Further MCNP simulations of the neutron source impinging on cargo containers suggest that this technique can respond, as expected, qualitatively differently to containers containing SNM from containers that do not. Containers that contain small amounts of fissile isotopes as in the case of a few grams of uranium-235 in a kilogram of depleted uranium will also respond to this method but much more weakly. The system as proposed is viable and further simulation and experimental work will elucidate the behavior of this system under a wide range of cargo environments.
Article
Plutonium recycling offers benefits in an energy perspective of sustainable development, and, moreover it contributes to non-proliferation. Prior to recycling, reactor-grade plutonium from light-water reactors does not lend itself easily to the assembly of explosive nuclear devices; thereafter, practically not at all. Control systems for material security and non-proliferation should identify and adopt several categories of plutonium covering various isotopic mixtures associated with different fuel types, in order to better reflect the risks and to better focus their controls. The author proposes the adoption of three categories of plutonium. To cite this article: B. Pellaud, C. R. Physique 3 (2002) 1067–1079.RésuméLe recyclage du plutonium ouvre des perspectives prometteuses compatibles avec un développement énergétique durable, et il peut de plus contribuer à la non-prolifération. Avant recyclage, le plutonium de la filière des réacteurs à eau légère se prête mal à la fabrication d'engins explosifs nucléaires ; après, quasiment plus. Les organismes de contrôles des matières nucléaires devraient identifier et adopter plusieurs catégories de plutonium tenant compte des différentes compositions isotopiques, afin de mieux refléter les vrais risques et mieux cibler leurs inspections. L'auteur propose l'adoption de trois catégories de plutonium. Pour citer cet article : B. Pellaud, C. R. Physique 3 (2002) 1067–1079.
Book
The book is a complete, clear and up-to-date text that provides a basic review of instruments and methods of ionizing radiation. The text covers detailed discussion of all detector types; introductory discussions of radiation sources, interactions, and counting statistics; functional analysis of the electronics and pulse processing aspects of radiation detectors in instrumentation systems; and consideration of shielding and background potentially vital in low-level counting. A total of 350 figures and approximately 900 references to current scientific literature is included. The book is largely intended as a textbook for a junior/senior or first-year graduate course in nuclear instrumentation and radiation measurements.
Article
This paper discusses a method of measuring low intensity gamma radiation from extensive sources using solid state detectors. In the first part the variation of the detector efficiency for a point source as a function of source position is measured. It is seen that the angular dependence is particularly important. With this response function known, a semi empirical model is developed for the computation of the efficiency in cases of extensive radiation fields. Measurements are carried out which show the adequacy of the model. The method is suitable for liquid samples such as drinkable water, industrial waste liquids and sewage liquids. It is therefore useful for water quality monitoring and pollution control.
Article
Thermal neutron measurements by thermoluminescence dosimeters have been studied in paired 6LiF and 7LiF or UD-136N and UD-137N. The results have a similar meaning to that of Au foils. The detectable minimum thermal neutrons fluence by the present method is about 104 n/cm2, which corresponds to a thermal neutron flux of several n/cm2 s with one hour exposure.
Article
The review covers the intricacies involved in fast-neutron thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD). The important rǒle of albedo dosimeters (6LiF + 7LiF pair and their limitations are analysed. The advantages of 2-hit TL system such as the 250°C peak in LiF: Mg, Ti and 240°C peak in CaF2: Tm over the conventional 1-hit TL system for high-LET radiation dosimetry are stressed. The development of irradiation-cross-linked polyethylene (IPE), a heat-resistant proton radiator, is outlined. A method is suggested to reduce the background TL from IPE. Finally, the advantages of TL activation detectors for high energy neutron dosimetry are pointed out.
Article
The cosmic-ray neutron energy spectrum in the equilibrium region of the atmosphere has been measured with several different calibrated detectors from thermal energies to about 1 Bev at 44° north magnetic latitude and up to 40 000 feet. By combination of the data from these measurements with those from other experiments, a complete differential energy spectrum is obtained which shows the characteristic maximum near thermal energies and a roughly 1E variation up to about 100 kev. The presence of a second maximum in the spectrum near 1 Mev is attributed to the evaporation neutrons from stars, and above this energy up to 800 Mev the spectrum falls off as E-1.4.
Article
A neutron coincidence counter intended for the verification of cans of PuO2 powder has been designed and optimised using the Monte Carlo radiation transport simulation code-pulse train analyser (MCNP-PTA) which simulates both the neutron transport and the coincidence electronics setup. Severe operational and physical constraints had to be taken into account in designing and optimising the counter as well as in adopting the most adequate strategy for its calibration, validation and application. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Article
The method of multiple foil activation was used to measure the neutron energy spectrum, experimentally, at a rabbit station of Pakistan Research Reactor-1 (PARR-1), which is a typical swimming pool type material test research reactor. The computer codes MSITER and SANDBP were used to adjust the spectrum. The pre-information required by the adjustment codes was obtained by modelling the core and its surroundings in three-dimensions by using the one dimensional transport theory code WIMS-D/4 and the multidimensional finite difference diffusion theory code CITATION. The input spectrum covariance information required by MSITER code was also calculated from the CITATION output. A comparison between calculated and adjusted spectra shows a good agreement.
Article
The term nondestructive assay (NDA) is applied to a series of measurement techniques for nuclear fuel materials. The techniques measure radiation induced or emitted spontaneously from the nuclear material; the measurements are nondestructive in that they do not alter the physical or chemical state of the nuclear material. NDA techniques are characterized as passive or active depending on whether they measure radiation from the spontaneous decay of the nuclear material or radiation induced by an external source. This book emphasizes passive NDA techniques, although certain active techniques like gamma-ray absorption densitometry and x-ray fluorescence are discussed here because of their intimate relation to passive assay techniques. The principal NDA techniques are classified as gamma-ray assay, neutron assay, and calorimetry. Gamma-ray assay techniques are treated in Chapters 1--10. Neutron assay techniques are the subject of Chapters 11--17. Chapters 11--13 cover the origin of neutrons, neutron interactions, and neutron detectors. Chapters 14--17 cover the theory and applications of total and coincidence neutron counting. Chapter 18 deals with the assay of irradiated nuclear fuel, which uses both gamma-ray and neutron assay techniques. Chapter 19 covers perimeter monitoring, which uses gamma-ray and neutron detectors of high sensitivity to check that no unauthorized nuclear material crosses a facility boundary. The subject of Chapter 20 is attribute and semiquantitative measurements. The goal of these measurements is a rapid verification of the contents of nuclear material containers to assist physical inventory verifications. Waste and holdup measurements are also treated in this chapter. Chapters 21 and 22 cover calorimetry theory and application, and Chapter 23 is a brief application guide to illustrate which techniques can be used to solve certain measurement problems.
Article
Critical masses and subcritical mass limits in oxide-water mixtures were calculated for actinide nuclides other than /sup 233/U, /sup 235/U, and /sup 239/Pu that have an odd number of neutrons in the nucleus: S/sub n/ transport theory was used together with cross sections, drawn from the GLASS multigroup library, developed to provide accurate forecasts of actinide production at Savannah River. The subcritical limits are 201 g for /sup 241/Pu, 13 g for /sup 242//sup m/Am, 90 g for /sup 243/Cm, 30 g for /sup 245/Cm, 900 g for /sup 247/Cm, 10 g for /sup 249/Cf, and 5 g for /sup 251/Cf. Association of /sup 241/Pu with an equal mass of /sup 240/Pu increases the /sup 241/Pu limit to a value greater than that for pure /sup 239/Pu. Association of /sup 242//sup m/Am with /sup 241/Am increases the limit for the mixture to that for dry, theoretical density AmO/sub 2/ at isotopic concentrations of /sup 242//sup m/Am less than approx. 6%. Association of /sup 245/Cm with /sup 244/Cm increases the limit according to the formula 30 + 0.3 /sup 244/Cm//sup 245/Cm up to the limit for dry CmO/sub 2/. A limiting mass of 8.15 kg for plutonium containing at least 67% /sup 238/Pu as oxide was calculated that applies (provided /sup 240/Pu exceeds /sup 241/Pu) with no limit on moderation. 1 figure, 5 tables.
Article
The EURopean Illicit TRAfficking Countermeasures Kit (EURITRACK) inspection system has been designed to complement X-ray scanners in the detection of explosives and other illicit materials hidden in cargo containers. The containers are interrogated by a 14-MeV tagged neutron beam at any suspect position in the X-ray image. Interrogation of a specific volume element with tagged neutrons yields information about the chemical composition of the material. Implementation and performance tests of the EURITRACK system in the Port of Rijeka in Croatia are described. Cargo container inspection results are reported and discussed.
Article
Member states of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) will meet in New York from May 2 to May 27, 2005, to review treaty implementation. These Review Conferences have taken place every 5 years since the treaty entered into force in 1970. In recent years, several developments have led many to believe that the nuclear nonproliferation regime needs to be strengthened: the discovery of the A.Q. Khan nuclear black market network; Iran's unreported nuclear activities, including secret uranium enrichment facilities; the withdrawal of North Korea from the NPT in April 2003; and the discovery of Libya's covert nuclear weapons program, renounced in December 2003. Brazilian Ambassador Sergio Duarte, who will chair the May Review Conference, suggested that the main difficulty facing the review conference will be how to balance a perceived need for greater controls with treaty provisions that ensure the right to peaceful applications of nuclear technology. While the conference is unlikely to make specific recommendations, it will likely discuss some proposals to strengthen the regime, including those from President Bush and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Director General Mohamed ElBaradei. Developments in the last 2 years in the nuclear programs of Iran, North Korea, and Libya have been keenly watched Congress, as well as by the rest of the world. Recent congressional actions -- whether resolutions, funding legislation, and nonproliferation sanctions -- have played a role in U.S. nonproliferation policy, and, ultimately, bear on the success of the NPT and the nonproliferation regime. Those actions affect the U.S. record in nuclear disarmament, progress in diminishing the threat of terrorist access to nuclear weapons, and responses to the noncompliance of countries like Iran, Libya, and North Korea. The May conference may be of relevance to some pending legislation in the 109th Congress. This report will not be updated.
Article
Since the development of the first bubble detector over 10 yr ago, there has been continuing expectation that it would solve the well-known problems of personal neutron dosimetry. Research in the intervening years has led to a much better understanding of this interesting technology and to the development of a variety of radiation detectors that have found diverse applications in radiation physics. In recent years, a bubble detector has been developed for personal neutron dosimetry that is increasingly being adopted by many groups world-wide. Although this dosimeter has improved significantly the status of neutron dosimetry, there is continuing research to improve the properties of bubble detectors, not only in this application, but for general radiation detection.
Article
The energy response of a 6LiF TLD to neutrons reported previously was revised by experiments. The kermas of 6LiF and 7LiF TLDs were also calculated more accurately, and compared with the experimental energy response.
Article
We investigated a method for making optimum adjustments to the electronic background subtraction circuit of a continuous air monitor (CAM) by using a californium source instead of a background air sample. We observed spectra of detected alpha particles emitted by radon-thoron daughters and a californium source on a multichannel analyser connected to a CAM to determine their effects on the behaviour of the background subtraction circuit. The californium source alpha energy spectrum simulates the spectra of 218Po and 212Bi, the radon-thoron daughters most likely to cause spurious CAM alarms. This simulation was the basis for deriving an empirical method using californium to adjust the background subtraction circuit.
Article
The emission from 6LiF and 7LiF thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLDs) exposed to the mixed field of thermal neutrons and gamma-rays of the thermal facility of a TRIGA MARK II nuclear reactor has been investigated for various thermal neutron fluences of the order of magnitude of those utilised in radiotherapy, with the purpose of investigating the reliability of TLD readouts in such radiation fields and of giving some information for better obtainment of the absorbed dose values. The emission after exposure in this mixed field is compared with the emission after gamma-rays only. The glow curves have been deconvoluted into gaussian peaks, and the differences in the characteristics of the peaks observed for the two radiation fields, having different linear energy transfers, and for different doses are shown. Irreversible radiation damage in dosimeters having high sensitivity to thermal neutrons is also reported, showing a memory effect of the previous thermal neutron irradiation history which is not restored by anneal treatment.
Article
The Joint Research Centre recently obtained a license to operate a new experimental device intended for research in the field of nuclear safeguards. The research projects currently being planned for the new device includes mass determination of fissile materials in matrices and detection of contraband non-nuclear materials. The device incorporates a commercial pulsed neutron generator and a large graphite mantle surrounding the sample cavity. In this configuration, a relatively high thermal neutron flux with a long lifetime is achieved inside the sample cavity. By pulsing the neutron generator, a sample may be interrogated by a pure thermal neutron flux during repeated time periods. The paper reports on the design of the new device and the pulsed fast and thermal neutron source. The thermal neutron flux caused by the neutron generator and the graphite structure has been characterised by foil activation, fission chamber and (3)He proportional counter measurements.
Nuclear Illicit Trafficking, Technical Note of the Joint Research Centre Cape point GAW Station Rn-222 detector: factors affecting sensitivity and accuracy
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Bonny, G., Declerck, R., Flachet, F., 2005. Nuclear Illicit Trafficking, Technical Note of the Joint Research Centre JRC-EC Brunke, E.-G., Labuschagne, C., Parker, B., van der Spuy, D., Whittlestone, S., 2002. Cape point GAW Station Rn-222 detector: factors affecting sensitivity and accuracy. Atmos. Environ. 36 (13), 2257–2262.
America the Vulnerable: How Our Government is Failing to Protect Us from Terrorism
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Flynn, S., 2004. America the Vulnerable: How Our Government is Failing to Protect Us from Terrorism. Harper Collins Publishers, New York.
Combating illicit nuclear trafficking: global perspective
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Nilsson, A., 2008. Combating illicit nuclear trafficking: global perspective. In: Proc. AAAS Annual Meeting (Boston, pp. 14–18 February 2008).
Detector for illicit Pu trafficking
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Nuclear Illicit Trafficking
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Container security: a proposal for a comprehensive code of conduct, Defense & Technology Papers of the
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The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Review Conference: issues for Congress, CRS Report for Congress, Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Division of the US Congressional Research Service
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Aspects of combining albedo and etched track techniques for use in individual neutron monitoring
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