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Incidentally Acquiring Pitch-label Associations With a Musical Contingency Learning Task

Collabra: Psychology

June 2024
10(1)

DOI:10.1525/collabra.118806

License
CC BY 4.0

Authors:

Claudia Iorio

LEAD-CNRS University Bourgogne

Emmanuel Bigand

Université Bourgogne Europe

James R Schmidt

Université Bourgogne Europe

Incidental learning occurs rather rapidly and effortlessly in a range of different domains, such as early language acquisition, motor learning, and a wide range of more arbitrary laboratory tasks. The present report explores the efficacy of an incidental learning task in the acquisition of pitch-label associations, that is, the ability to identify and name musical notes by ear. In experiment 1, 2 and 3 participants were asked to respond to the target (a note name) while ignoring the cues (either a tone or, in one experiment, a tone with a note position). In a pretest and posttest, we further analyzed their ability to guess the name of the tone in a tone naming task. We also explored the role of intentionality in acquiring and remembering pitch-label associations, but there were only small suggestive trends for slightly better performance for a group instructed to try to learn the contingencies compared to a purely incidental learning group (i.e., with no instructions about the contingencies), suggesting that learning is at least primarily incidental. Our research opens up new venues for the investigations of incidental learning related to the acquisition of musical features useful to performance (how to play).

Example of high and low trials Note. An example of high/congruent trial on the left in which the tone, the note position and the note name matched. On the right there is an example of low/incongruent trial where the tone and the note position matched between themselves, but not with the note name.

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Schematic description of the pre/posttest phases Note. Both groups were presented with the tone naming task, in which they had to guess the name of the tone. The note-position naming task was presented only in the multiple-cues group.

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Schematic description on the learning phase Note. On the top, an example of how the learning phase looked like for the multiple-cues group. On the bottom the learning phase for the tone-cue group.

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Interaction between contingency effect and Group in Experiment 1 Note. Interaction between Contingency (High and Low) and Group (multiple-cues vs. tone-cue), standard error bars are shown in the figure.

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Interaction between Error effect and Group in Experiment 1 Note. Interaction between Error (High and Low) and Group (multiple-cues vs. tone-cue), standard error bars are shown in the figure.

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Claudia Iorio1a, Emmanuel Bigand1, James R. Schmidt1

1 Department of Psychology, LEAD-CNRS UMR5022, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France

Keywords: pitch identi=cation, contingency learning, music learning, instruction, pitch

https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.118806

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Correspondence: claudia.iorio@cnrs.fr a

Iorio, C., Bigand, E., & Schmidt, J. R. (2024). Incidentally Acquiring Pitch-label

Associations With a Musical Contingency Learning Task. Collabra: Psychology,10(1).

https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.118806

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I>DCH 9:H8G>7:9 7:ADL  E6GI>8>E6CIH >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H

<GDJE 6C9  >C I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE 6C9 G:8:>K:9 BDC:

I6GN 8DBE:CH6I>DC  P ;DG I=:>G E6GI>8>E6I>DC (JG >C

8AJH>DC 8G>I:G>6 B:CI>DC:9 >C I=: G:8GJ>IB:CI 69K:GI>H:

B:CI L:G: 7:>C< 67A: ID JC9:GHI6C9 G:C8= 7:>C< 7:IL::C

 N:6GH DA9 CDI 7:>C< 6 BJH>8>6C 6C9 CDI 7:>C< 67A: ID

G:69 BJH>86A CDI6I>DC  E6GI>8>E6CIH G:EDGI:9 =6K>C< 67

HDAJI: E>I8= )G:8>H:AN  E6GI>8>E6CIH  D;  >C I=:

BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE 6C9  E6GI>8>E6CIH  D;  >C

I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE 6CHL:G:9 N:H ID I=: HJ7?:8I>K: 6L6G:

C:HH FJ:HI>DC G:<6G9>C< 67HDAJI: E>I8= (K:G6AA I=:>G E:G

;DGB6C8: DC I=: EG:I:HI >C L=>8= I=:N L:G: 6H@:9 ID <J:HH

I=: C6B: D; I=: IDC:H L:G: CDI H><C>b86CIAN =><=:G I=6C

I=: E:G;DGB6C8: D; I=: G:B6>C>C<  E6GI>8>E6CIH I=6I 9>9

CDI 8A6>B ID =6K: E:G;:8I E>I8= >   :   .

     !67HDAJI: E>I8= E6GI>8>E6CIH   ' 

 =><=:HI H8DG:   !G:B6>C>C< E6GI>8>E6CIH  

'   =><=:HI H8DG:   -=:G:;DG: L: 9>9 CDI

:M8AJ9: I=:H: E6GI>8>E6CIH ;GDB I=: 6C6ANH>H !DL:K:G 6A

I=DJ<= I=G:: E6GI>8>E6CIH >C I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE 9:8A6G:9

I=6I I=:N 9>9 CDI =6K: 67HDAJI: E>I8= I=:>G E:G;DGB6C8: >C

I=: EG:I:HI L:G: 7:IL::C  6C9  H>B>A6G ID ) EDH

H:HHDGH^ E:G;DGB6C8: G:EDGI:9 >C I=: A>I:G6IJG: %:K>I>C 

+D<:GH  &>N6O6@>  DG I=>H G:6HDC I=:H: E6G

I>8>E6CIH L:G: :M8AJ9:9 ;GDB I=: ;DAADL>C< 6C6ANH>H

I=>86A G:K>:L 6C9 6EEGDK6A L:G: CDI G:FJ>G:9 ;DG I=:

HIJ9N DC =JB6C E6GI>8>E6CIH >C 688DG96C8: L>I= I=: AD86A

A:<>HA6I>DC 6C9 >CHI>IJI>DC6A G:FJ>G:B:CIH AA E6GI>8>E6CIH

688:EI:9 6 LG>II:C 8DCH:CI 7:;DG: 7:<>CC>C< I=: HIJ9N AA

I=: EGD8:9JG:H L:G: 8DC9J8I:9 >C 688DG96C8: L>I= I=: :8

A6G6I>DC D; !:AH>C@> )6GI>8>E6CIH^ 6CDCNB>O6I>DC L6H <J6G

6CI::9

Apparatus,

Design,

and

Procedure

-=: :ME:G>B:CI L6H EGD<G6BB:9 6C9 GJC L>I= )HN

IDDA@>I 6 L:776H:9 HD;IL6G: I=6I 6AADLH G:A>67A: +-H 6H

H=DLC ;GDB EG:K>DJH G:H:6G8= ,ID:I   6AHD L>I=

BJH>86A HI>BJA> GB>I6<:  :GDA6  -=: 6J9>IDGN

HI>BJA> L:G: EJG: H>C:L6K:H I=6I L:G: 8G:6I:9 JH>C< J968

>IN HD;IL6G: L>I= I=: ADL:HI E>I8= 7:>C< I=: _;6` DG _`

CDI: 6I I=: ;G:FJ:C8N D;  !O 6C9 I=: =><=:HI E>I8=

7:>C< I=: _B>` DG _` CDI: 6I I=: ;G:FJ:C8N D;  !O

-=: _A6` DG _` E>I8= L6H I=JH IJC:9 ID I=: HI6C96G9 IJC

>C< 6I I=: ;G:FJ:C8N D;  !O -D :CHJG: I=6I =:69E=DC:H

DG HE:6@:GH L:G: 8DGG:8IAN LDG@>C< 9JG>C< I=: I6H@ E6GI>8

>E6CIH 8DBEA:I:9 6 HDJC9 8=:8@ 7:;DG: HI6GI>C< I=: :ME:G>

B:CI

"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 5

JG>C< I=: B6>C E6GIH D; I=: :ME:G>B:CI E6GI>8>E6CIH

G:HEDC9:9 L>I= I=: 3" @:NH DC 6 HI6C96G9 3+-2 @:N

7D6G9 !DL:K:G 7:86JH: I=: :ME:G>B:CI L6H DCA>C: 6C9 >I

>CKDAK:9 E6GI>8>E6CIH ;GDB 9>;;:G:CI 8DJCIG>:H I=DJ<= 3

+-2 >H HI6C96G9 >C G:C8=HE:6@>C< 8DJCIG>:H 6C >CHIGJ8

I>DC G:;:GG>C< ID I=: INE: D; @:N7D6G9 C::9:9 >C I=: HIJ9N

L6H 699:9 >C I=: G:8GJ>IB:CI 69K:GI>H:B:CI -=: @:NH 3 

+ - 2 . 6C9 " L:G: A67:AA:9 688DG9>C< ID I=: H:FJ:C8:

D; I=: BJH>86A H86A: ;GDB I=: ADL:G ID JEE:G EDH>I>DC >:

;6 HDA A6 H> 9D GU 6C9 B> G:HE:8I>K:AN G:;:GG>C< ID I=:

G:C8= CDI: C6B:H -=: _(` 6C9 _'` @:NH L:G: 699>I>DC

6AAN JH:9 ID 6CHL:G _(J>` 2:H DG _'DC` 'D ID I=: HJ7?:8

I>K: 6L6G:C:HH FJ:HI>DC 6C9 I=: HE68:76G L6H JH:9 ID 7:

<>C :68= E=6H: ;GDB I=: >CHIGJ8I>DC H8G::CH

:;DG: HI6GI>C< I=: :ME:G>B:CI L: 8DAA:8I:9 6 HJ7?:8I>K:

B:6HJG: ;DG ) >C L=>8= E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: 6H@:9 L=:I=:G

I=:N L:G: 67A: ID C6B: 6 IDC: L>I=DJI EG:K>DJHAN A>HI:C>C<

ID 6 G:;:G:C8: CDI: IG6CHA6I:9 ;GDB G:C8=

_D NDJ =6K: E:G;:8I E>I8= L=>8= B:6CH I=6I NDJ 86C

C6B: DC: DG BDG: IDC:H L=:C A>HI:C>C< L>I=DJI bGHI

=6K>C< ID =:6G 6C >9:CI>b:9 CDI: H:GK>C< 6H 6 G:;:G

:C8:`

-=>H FJ:HI>DC L6H EG>B6G>AN JH:9 ;DG H8G::C>C< EJGEDH:H

6ADC< L>I= I=: EG:I:HI H8DG:H 6H 9:H8G>7:9 67DK: >C I=: )6G

I>8>E6CIH H:8I>DC

-=: :ME:G>B:CI HI6GI:9 L>I= ILD EG68I>8: E=6H:H >C

L=>8= E6GI>8>E6CIH EG68I>8:9 6C9 6JIDB6I>O:9 I=: CDI:

C6B:ID@:N 6HH><CB:CIH JG>C< I=:H: E=6H:H E6GI>8>

E6CIH L:G: EG:H:CI:9 DCAN L>I= I=: CDI: C6B:H -=: IG>6A

HI6GI:9 L>I= 6 bM6I>DC 8GDHH _` >C I=: 8:CI:G D; I=: H8G::C

;DG  BH ;DAADL:9 7N 6 7A6C@ H8G::C ;DG  BH  G:C8=

CDI: C6B: 0+ =96 6+ =3 .9 <E DG 73 L6H I=:C EG:H:CI:9

>C I=: 8:CI:G D; I=: H8G::C JCI>A G:HEDCH: CD I>B: A>B>I

C DCH8G::C @:N G:B>C9:G 3  + - 2 . " L6H 699:9

I=GDJ<=DJI I=: bGHI EG68I>8: E=6H: ID =:AE E6GI>8>E6CIH ID

A:6GC I=: CDI: C6B:ID@:N 6HH><CB:CIH DAADL>C< 8DGG:8I

G:HEDCH:H I=: C:MI IG>6A 7:<6C >BB:9>6I:AN DAADL>C< >C

8DGG:8I G:HEDCH:H I=: CDI: C6B: 8=6C<:9 8DADG ID G:9 6C9

HI6N:9 DC I=: H8G::C JCI>A I=: E6GI>8>E6CI EG:HH:9 I=: 8DG

G:8I @:N -=: H:8DC9 EG68I>8: E=6H: L6H >9:CI>86A >C 6AA

G:HE:8IH :M8:EI I=6I I=: DCH8G::C @:N G:B>C9:G L6H G:

BDK:9 6C9 E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: :C8DJG6<:9 ID IGN ID G:HEDC9

;GDB B:BDGN -=:G: L:G:  IG>6AH >C :68= EG68I>8: E=6H:

 IG>6AH >C IDI6A

:;DG: 7:<>CC>C< 6 I:HI E=6H: E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: G6C

9DBAN 6HH><C:9 ID DC: D; I=: ILD <GDJEH BJAI>EA:8J:H 6C9

IDC:8J: <GDJEH 0=>A: >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE I=: I6G

<:I L6H EG:8:9:9 7N 7DI= 6 CDI: EDH>I>DC 6C9 6 IDC: EG:

9>8I>K: 8J:H >C I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE I=: CDI: C6B: L6H

DCAN EG:8:9:9 7N 6 IDC: -=: EGD8:9JG: L6H DI=:GL>H: >9:C

I>86A ;DG I=: ILD <GDJEH L>I= :M8:EI>DCH CDI:9 7:ADL 

EG:I:HI E=6H: L=>8= B:6HJG:H I=: 67>A>IN D; I=: E6GI>8

>E6CI ID 9>H8G>B>C6I: :< 7:II:GI=6C8=6C8: <J:HH>C<

7:IL::C :ME:G>:C8:9 6C9 JC:ME:G>:C8:9 :K:CIH =::HB6C

 &:G>@A:  ;DAADL:9 I=: EG68I>8: E=6H:H -=: EG:I:HI

 IG>6AH >C IDI6A 6AADL:9 JH ID 6HH:HH I=: 67>A>IN D; E6GI>8

>E6CIH ID >9:CI>;N IDC:H 6C9 CDI:EDH>I>DCH >C I=: BJAI>

EA:8J:H <GDJE EG>DG ID A:6GC>C< ,E:8>b86AAN L: L:G: >C

'%2/#  !&#*1'! "#0!/'-1',+ ,$ 1&# -/#-,011#01

-&0#0

'DI: DI= <GDJEH L:G: EG:H:CI:9 L>I= I=: IDC: C6B>C< I6H@ >C L=>8= I=:N =69 ID <J:HH

I=: C6B: D; I=: IDC: -=: CDI:EDH>I>DC C6B>C< I6H@ L6H EG:H:CI:9 DCAN >C I=: BJAI>

EA:8J:H <GDJE

I:G:HI:9 >C @CDL>C< L=:I=:G DJG E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: 67A: ID

G:8D<C>O: 6C9 C6B: I=: IDC:H 6C9 CDI:EDH>I>DCH JH:9 6H

DJG EG:9>8I>K: 8J:H 7:;DG: HI6GI>C< I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: H

EG:K>DJHAN B:CI>DC:9 ME:G>B:CI  L6H 8DC9J8I:9 L>I=

CDCBJH>8>6CH 6H 6 HDGI D; EJG: 8DCIGDA <GDJE L=D H=DJA9

CDGB6AAN =6K: CD E>I8= >9:CI>b86I>DC DG H><=IG:69>C<

H@>AAH >C I=: 67H:C8: D; BJH>8 IG6>C>C< 7JI I=: EG:I:HIH 6A

ADL:9 JH ID 7DI= 6 H8G::C ;DG JC9>H8ADH:9 EG::M>HI>C<

@CDLA:9<: 6C9 7 ID :HI67A>H= 6 8DCIGDA ;DG EG:EDHI >B

EGDK:B:CI H8DG:H 0=>A: L: JH:9 7DI= CDI: EDH>I>DCH 6C9

IDC:H 6H EG:9>8I>K: 8J:H ;DG I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE DCAN

I=: IDC:H EG:8:9:9 I=: CDI: C6B: >C I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE

-=:G:;DG: 7DI= <GDJEH L:G: EG:H:CI:9 L>I= I=: IDC: C6B

>C< I6H@ ><JG:  >C L=>8= I=:N =69 ID <J:HH I=: C6B: D;

I=: IDC: CD A>B>I I>B:  IG>6AH -=: CDI:EDH>I>DC C6B

>C< I6H@ ><JG:  >C L=>8= 6 BJH>8 HI6;; 6EE:6G:9 >C I=:

8:CI:G D; I=: H8G::C ;DG  BH I=:C 6 CDI: EDH>I>DC 6E

E:6G:9 DC I=: HI6;; JCI>A E6GI>8>E6CIH G:HEDC9:9 CD A>B>I

I>B:  IG>6AH L6H EG:H:CI:9 DCAN >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H

<GDJE

"BB:9>6I:AN 6;I:G I=: EG:I:HI E=6H: E6GI>8>E6CIH HI6GI:9

I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: I=6I 9>;;:G:9 7:IL::C I=: <GDJEH 6H

H=DLC >C ><JG:  -=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE L6H EG:H:CI:9

DC :68= IG>6A L>I= 6 BJH>86A HI6;; I=6I 6EE:6G:9 DC I=:

H8G::C ;DG  BH -=: CDI: L6H I=:C 699:9 ID I=: HI6;;

6C9 I=: IDC: HI6GI:9 EA6N>C< ;DG  BH -=: CDI: C6B: L6H

I=:C LG>II:C >CH>9: I=: CDI: 6C9 E6GI>8>E6CIH =69  BH

ID G:HEDC9 ;I:G I=: CDI: C6B: L6H EG:H:CI:9 I=: IDC:

8DCI>CJ:9 EA6N>C< ;DG 6CDI=:G  BH  BH IDI6A DG JCI>A

6 G:HEDCH: L6H B69: DAADL>C< 8DGG:8I G:HEDCH:H I=: C:MI

IG>6A 7:<6C >BB:9>6I:AN "; E6GI>8>E6CIH G:HEDC9:9 >C8DG

"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 6

'%2/#  !&#*1'! "#0!/'-1',+ ,+ 1&# )#/+'+% -&0#

'DI: (C I=: IDE 6C :M6BEA: D; =DL I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: ADD@:9 A>@: ;DG I=: BJAI>EA:

8J:H <GDJE (C I=: 7DIIDB I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: ;DG I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE

G:8IAN DG ;6>A:9 ID G:HEDC9 >C  BH I=: CDI: C6B: L6H

G:EA68:9 L>I= _111` >C G:9 ;DG  BH 7:;DG: I=: 7:<>C

C>C< D; I=: C:MI IG>6A AD76AAN I=: H6B: HIGJ8IJG: L6H 6AHD

JH:9 ;DG I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE L>I= 6 ;:L :M8:EI>DCH DCAN I=:

IDC: L6H EG:H:CI:9 6H EG:9>8I>K: 8J: >CHI:69 D; 7DI= IDC:

6C9 CDI: EDH>I>DC CD BJH>86A HI6;; L6H EG:H:CI:9 DC I=:

H8G::C 6C9 6 bM6I>DC 8GDHH L6H EG:H:CI:9 >C I=: 8:CI:G D;

I=: H8G::C ;GDB I=: IDC: DCH:I JCI>A >I L6H G:EA68:9 7N I=:

CDI: C6B: "C IDI6A I=:G: L:G:  IG>6AH >C I=: A:6GC>C<

E=6H: G6C9DBAN DG9:G:9 L>I=DJI G:EA68:B:CI 6C9 6 8DC

I>C<:C8N B6C>EJA6I>DC D;  ,8=B>9I :I 6A  8DC

<GJ:CI E6>G>C<H :< I=: IDC: _;6` ;DG I=: CDI: C6B: _;6`

=><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH 6C9  >C8DC<GJ:CI IG6>AH :<

I=: IDC: _;6` ;DG I=: CDI: C6B: _9D` ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>

6AH 6H >AAJHIG6I:9 >C -67A:  -=: 8DC<GJ:C8N DG 8DCI>C

<:C8N A:6GC>C< :;;:8I L6H B:6HJG:9 6H I=: 9>;;:G:C8: >C

G:HEDCH: I>B:H DG :GGDG G6I:H 7:IL::C ADL 6C9 =><= 8DC

I>C<:C8N IG>6AH

DAADL>C< I=: B6>C A:6GC>C< E=6H: 8DCI>C<:C8N 6L6G:

C:HH L6H 8DAA:8I:9 ID 6HH:HH L=:I=:G E6GI>8>E6CIH CDI>8:9

I=: G:<JA6G>I>:H 9JG>C< I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: "C E6GI>8JA6G

E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: 6HH:HH:9 ;DG =?,4/->3@/

+A+</8/==

=::HB6C  &:G>@A:  DG I=>H I=:N G:HEDC9:9 ID

 )#  ,+1'+%#+!6 *+'-2)1',+

Note Name Tones

fa sol la si do ré mi

fa 54 1 1 1 1 1 1

sol 1 54 1 1 1 1 1

la 1 1 54 1 1 1 1

si 1 1 1 54 1 1 1

do 1 1 1 1 54 1 1

ré 1 1 1 1 1 54 1

mi 1 1 1 1 1 1 54

'DI: "C I=: I67A: >H G:EG:H:CI:9 I=: 8DCI>C<:C8N EGDEDGI>DC 7:IL::C =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH EG:H:CI:9  DG  I>B:H 6C9 ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH EG:H:CI:9  DG  I>B: :68=

DG >CHI6C8: I=: IDC: _;6` >H EG:H:CI:9 BJ8= BDG: D;I:C L>I= I=: CDI: C6B: _;6` =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH I=6C L>I= I=: DI=:G CDI: C6B:H ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH

6C DCH8G::C >CHIGJ8I>DC L=:G: >I L6H 6H@:9 >; I=:N CDI>8:9

I=6I HDB: E6>G>C<H =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH L:G: EG:

H:CI:9 BDG: D;I:C I=6C DI=:GH ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH

)6GI>8>E6CIH 8DJA9 G:HEDC9 _N:H` DG _CD` L>I= 6 @:N

EG:HH -=>H H8G::C G:69 IG6CHA6I:9 ;GDB G:C8=

F?<381

>2/

>23<.

:+<>

>23=

/B:/<37/8>

89>/

8+7/=

A/</

:</=/8>/.

A3>2

>98/

9<

A3>2

>98/

+8.

89>/

:9=3>398

09<

>2/

7?6>3:6/-?/=

1<9?:

+-2

>98/

A+=

:</

=/8>/.

79</

0</;?/8>6C

A3>2

98/

89>/

8+7/

>2+8

>2/

9>2

/<=

(2+>

=+C

98/

>98/

A+=

0</;?/8>6C

:</=/8>/.

A3>2

F.9G

+89>2/<

0</;?/8>6C

A3>2

F</G

/>-

3.

C9?

89>3-/

>2/=/

</1?6+<3>3/=G

>G:8IAN 6;I:G I=: EDHII:HI E=6H: HI6GI:9 6C9 >I L6H :M

68IAN I=: H6B: 6H I=: EG:I:HI E=6H: -=>H 6AADL:9 JH ID 8DB

E6G: E6GI>8>E6CIH^ E:G;DGB6C8: 7:;DG: 6C9 6;I:G I=: A:6GC

>C< EGD8:HH -=: >CHIGJ8I>DCH ;DG I=:H: E=6H:H L:G:

IG6CHA6I:9 ;GDB G:C8=

_'DL I=: I6H@ >H H>B>A6G :M8:EI I=6I NDJ L>AA DCAN =:6G

6 IDC: -GN ID <J:HH I=: C6B: D; I=: IDC: 7N EG:HH>C<

I=: 6EEGDEG>6I: @:N DC I=: @:N7D6G9`

 HA><=IAN 9>;;:G:CI >CHIGJ8I>DC L6H EG:H:CI:9 ID I=:

BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE IG6CHA6I:9 ;GDB G:C8=

F"9A

>2/

>+=5

=3736+<

/B-/:>

>2+>

C9?

A366

986C

=//

89>/

+8.

2/+<

>98/

(<C

1?/==

>2/

8+7/

>2/

89>/

+8.

>2/

>98/

:</==381

>2/

+::<9:<3+>/

5/C

>2/

5/C

,9+<.G

Data

Analysis

0: 8DC9J8I:9 6C6ANH:H DC I=: A:6GC>C< 6C9 I=: I:HI

E=6H:H DG I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H:H L: 8DC9J8I:9 6 G:E:6I:9

B:6HJG:H '(/ DC 8DGG:8I +-H 6C9 :GGDG G6I:H ID 6HH:HH

I=: DK:G6AA B6>C :;;:8IH D; 8DCI>C<:C8N <GDJE 6C9 I=: >C

I:G68I>DC 7:IL::C I=:B -G>6AH >C L=>8= E6GI>8>E6CIH ;6>A:9

ID G:HEDC9 >C  BH >: 7:;DG: I=: 9:69A>C: L:G: :A>B

>C6I:9 DC 6K:G6<: DC 6AA I=:  E6GI>8>E6CIH  D;

I=: IG>6AH L:G: :A>B>C6I:9 DG I=: I:HI E=6H:H L: 6C6ANO:9

688JG68N G6I:H ID 6HH:HH L=:I=:G E6GI>8>E6CIH G:HEDC9:9

67DK: 8=6C8: I=: 8=6C8: <J:HH>C< G6I: L6H  DG 6E

EGDM>B6I:AN  6C9 G:HEDCH: I>B:H AA 6C6ANH:H L:G:

:K6AJ6I:9 6I I=: α   A:K:A D; H><C>b86C8: 99>I>DC6AAN

"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 7

'%2/#  +1#/!1',+ #14##+ !,+1'+%#+!6 #$$#!1 +" /,2- '+ 5-#/'*#+1 

'DI: "CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N !><= 6C9 %DL 6C9 GDJE BJAI>EA:8J:H KH IDC:8J: HI6C96G9 :GGDG 76GH 6G: H=DLC >C I=: b<JG:

L: 8DCH>HI:CIAN G:EDGI:9 I=: 6N:H ;68IDG 8DBEJI:9 JH>C<

#,) HD;IL6G: #,) -:6B  0: JH:9 I=: HI6C96G9

CDC>C;DGB6I>K: 6J8=N EG>DG L>I= 6 9:;6JAI L>9I= D; 

0: G:EDGI I=: 6N:H ;68IDG  L>I= K6AJ:H 7:IL::C  6C9

 HJEEDGI>C< BD9:G6I:AN HIGDC< :K>9:C8: ;DG I=: 6AI:GC6

I>K: =NEDI=:H>H ! DDGC :I 6A  -=: 96I6 H:I >H

6K6>A67A: K>6 I=: ;DAADL>C< A>C@ =IIEHDH;>DM?9I

#02)10

Response

Times

+:HEDCH: I>B: G:HJAIH 6G: EG:H:CI:9 >C ><JG:   G:

E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG +-H L>I= I=: ;68IDGH DCI>C

<:C8N =><= KH ADL 6C9 GDJE BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE KH

IDC:8J: <GDJE >C9>86I:9 6 H><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I D; DC

I>C<:C8N    :  

     

H=DL>C< ;6HI:G G:HEDCH:H ;DG =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH !

 BH '   I=6C ;DG ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH ! 

BH '   -=: B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE L6H CDI H><

C>b86CI    :  

     

-=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 GDJE L6H H><

C>b86CI    :  

      >C

9>86I>C< 6 <G:6I:G 9>;;:G:C8: 7:IL::C =><= 6C9 ADL 8DCI>C

<:C8N IG>6AH >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE !2312*><3+6=  BH

'   !69A*><3+6=  BH '   8DBE6G:9 ID I=:

IDC:8J: <GDJE !2312*><3+6=  BH '   !69A*><3+6=

 BH '   -=: 8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8I L6H H><C>b86CI

;DG 7DI= I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE !ADL=><=   '  

>  :   .      6C9 I=: IDC:8J:

<GDJE !ADL=><=   '   >   :   . 

   

Error

Rates

-=: G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG :GGDGH L>I= I=: ;68

IDGH DCI>C<:C8N =><= KH ADL 6C9 GDJE BJAI>EA:8J:H

<GDJE KH IDC:8J: <GDJE G:K:6A:9 6 H><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I

D; DCI>C<:C8N    :  

    

 6C9 6 CDCH><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE 

  :  

      -=: >CI:G68I>DC

7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 GDJE L6H 6AHD H><C>b86CI 6H

H=DLC >C ><JG:     : 

    

 BJAI>EA:8J: <GDJE !2312   '  !69A

  '   IDC:8J: <GDJE !2312   '

 !69A   '   -=: 8DCI>C<:C8N :;

;:8I L6H H><C>b86CI >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE !ADL=><= 

 '   >   :   .    

 6C9 CDI H><C>b86CI >C I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE !ADL=><= 

 '   >   :   .    



Pre/Posttest

Phases

!:G: L: G:EDGI HJ7?:8I>K: 6L6G:C:HH ;DG I=: IDC: C6B>C<

I6H@ "C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE   D;  D; I=:

E6GI>8>E6CIH CDI>8:9 I=: 8DCI>C<:C8>:H 7:IL::C CDI: C6B:H

6C9 IDC:H "C I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE I=>H E:G8:CI6<: L6H

  D;  -=: HJ7?:8I>K: 6L6G:C:HH FJ:HI>DC 8DC

8:GC>C< CDI: EDH>I>DCH L6H DCAN EDH:9 ID I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H

<GDJE >: 6H I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE 9>9 CDI H:: CDI: EDH>

I>DCH "C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE   D;  E6G

I>8>E6CIH 7:86B: 6L6G: D; I=: 8DCI>C<:C8>:H 7:IL::C CDI:

C6B:H 6C9 CDI: EDH>I>DCH

-=: >I:HIH ;DG EG:I:HI 6C9 EDHII:HI 688JG68N 6H H=DLC

>C ><JG:  H=DL:9 I=6I >C I=: CDI: EDH>I>DC C6B>C< I6H@

"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 8

'%2/#  +1#/!1',+ #14##+ //,/ #$$#!1 +" /,2- '+ 5-#/'*#+1 

'DI: "CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C GGDG !><= 6C9 %DL 6C9 GDJE BJAI>EA:8J:H KH IDC:8J: HI6C96G9 :GGDG 76GH 6G: H=DLC >C I=: b<JG:

I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE E:G;DGB:9 L:AA 67DK: 8=6C8: >:

 >C 7DI= I=: EG:I:HI >   :   .

 

   !   '   6C9 EDHII:HI >

  :   .

     !   ' 

 JGI=:G E:G;DGB6C8: L6H H><C>b86CIAN >BEGDK:9 >C

I=: EDHII:HI 8DBE6G:9 ID EG:I:HI >   :   .



   

0: I=:C G6C 6C '(/ L>I= I=: ;68IDGH -:HI EG: KH

EDHI 6C9 GDJE BJAI>EA:8J:H KH IDC:8J: DC I=: IDC:

C6B>C< 688JG68N G6I:H -=: G:HJAIH H=DL:9 6 H><C>b86CI

B6>C :;;:8I D; -:HI    :  

  

   >C9>86I>C< =><=:G 688JG68N >C C6B>C< IDC:H >C

EDHII:HI !   '   G:A6I>K: ID EG:I:HI ! 

 '   -=:G: L6H 6AHD 6 L:6@ H><C>b86CI B6>C

:;;:8I ;DG GDJE    :  

   

  >C9>86I>C< =><=:G DK:G6AA 688JG68N >C I=: IDC:8J:

<GDJE I=6C >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE &DG: >BEDGI6CIAN

I=:G: L6H 6 H><C>b86CI >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C -:HI 6C9 GDJE

   :  

      >C9>86I>C<

A6G<:G >BEGDK:B:CIH >C 688JG68N DC EDHII:HI >C I=: IDC:

8J: <GDJE !  '  G:A6I>K: ID I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H

<GDJE !   '   6H H=DLC >C ><JG:  -=:

BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE 9>9 CDI E:G;DGB H><C>b86CIAN 67DK:

8=6C8: >C I=: EG:I:HI >   :   .

  

  !   '   6C9 >C I=: EDHII:HI > 

 :   .

     !   '  

-=: IDC:8J: <GDJE L6H 6AHD CDI H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8:

>C I=: EG:I:HI >   :   .

     !

  '   7JI L6H H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8: >C

I=: EDHII:HI >   :   .

     !

  '   &DG: >BEDGI6CIAN I=: 96I6 H=DL:9 6

H><C>b86CI >BEGDK:B:CI 7:IL::C I=: EG:I:HI 6C9 EDHII:HI

>   :   .

     ;DG I=: A6II:G

<GDJE

JGI=:GBDG: I=: '(/ L>I= I=: ;68IDGH -:HI EG: KH

EDHI 6C9 GDJE BJAI>EA:8J:H KH IDC:8J: DC I=: +-H

>C I=: IDC: C6B>C< I6H@ H=DL:9 6 B6>C H><C>b86CI :;;:8I

D; -:HI    :  

     

>C9>86I>C< I=6I E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: DK:G6AA HADL:G >C C6B>C<

IDC:H >C I=: EG:I:HI !   BH '   8DBE6G:9 ID

I=: EDHII:HI !   BH '   DI= I=: B6>C :;

;:8I ;DG GDJE    :  

    

 6C9 I=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C -:HI 6C9 GDJE 

  :  

      L:G: CDI H><C>b86CI

(K:G6AA L=>A: 6 H><C>b86CI >BEGDK:B:CI L6H ;DJC9 7:

IL::C I=: EG:I:HI 6C9 I=: EDHII:HI G6I:H >C I=: IDC:8J:

<GDJE I=: H6B: :;;:8I L6H CDI D7H:GK:9 >C I=: BJAI>EA:

8J:H <GDJE EDI:CI>6AAN >C9>86I>C< 6C DK:GH=69DL>C< :;;:8I

>K:C HDB: K>DA6I>DCH D; I=: CDGB6A>IN 6HHJBEI>DCH D; I=: '(/H L: 6AHD G6C 6 CDCE6G6B:IG>8 G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ G>:9B6C

I:HI DC I=: IDC: C6B>C< 688JG68N 6H HJ<<:HI:9 7N 6C 6CDCNBDJH G:K>:L:G DCH>HI:CI L>I= I=: 67DK: '(/ G:HJAIH CD >BEGDK:

B:CIH 7:IL::C I=: EG:I:HI 6C9 EDHII:HI L:G: D7H:GK:9 ;DG I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE χ7   :

  "C 8DCIG6HI 6 H><C>b86CI >BEGDK:

B:CI 7:IL::C EG:I:HI 6C9 EDHII:HI L6H D7H:GK:9 ;DG I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE χ7   :

 



"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 9

'%2/#  '$$#/#+!# '+ !!2/!6 /1#0 #14##+ /,2- '+ 5-#/'*#+1 

'DI: >;;:G:C8:H >C 88JG68N G6I:H EG:I:HI 6C9 EDHII:HI 7:IL::C I=: <GDJEH BJAI>EA:8J:H KH IDC:8J: ,I6C96G9 :GGDG 76GH 6C9 688JG68N 8=6C8: <J:HH>C< 6I  >C G:9 6G:

H=DLC >C I=: b<JG:

'0!200',+

"C ME:G>B:CI  L: L6CI:9 ID HIJ9N L=:I=:G CDCBJH

8>6CH L:G: 67A: ID :6H>AN 6C9 G6E>9AN A:6GC E>I8=A67:A 6HHD

8>6I>DCH (JG G:HJAIH H=DL:9 I=6I 6H :ME:8I:9 7DI= <GDJEH

D; E6GI>8>E6CIH H=DL:9 6 8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8I >C I=: A:6GC>C<

E=6H: 0: CDI: I=6I L=>A: 8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8IH L:G: A6G<:G

>C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE >C 7DI= G:HEDCH: I>B:H 6C9 :G

GDGH I=>H bC9>C< H=DJA9 7: >CI:GEG:I:9 L>I= 86JI>DC 6H

I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE 8DJA9 7: 7>6H:9 CDI DCAN 7N I=:

IDC:H 7JI 6AHD 7N I=: EG:9>8I>K: CDI: EDH>I>DCH AHD >CI:G

:HI>C< 7DI= <GDJEH L:G: 67A: ID G:HEDC9 67DK: 8=6C8: >C

I=: I:HIH E=6H:H >C A>C: L>I= EG:K>DJH bC9>C<H >C I=: 8DCI>C

<:C8N A:6GC>C< A>I:G6IJG: "DG>D :I 6A  ,8=B>9I  :

!DJL:G  6C9 DK:G6AA I=:N H><C>b86CIAN 9:8G:6H:9 I=:>G

+-H >C I=: EDHII:HI 8DBE6G:9 ID I=: EG:I:HI !DL:K:G E6G

I>8>E6CIH >C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H <GDJE H::B:9 ID H=DL LDGH:

E:G;DGB6C8: 8DBE6G:9 ID I=: IDC:8J: <GDJE -=:G:;DG:

6AI=DJ<= EG:K>DJH G:H:6G8= H::BH ID HJ<<:HI I=6I EG:H:CI

>C< 7DI= CDI: EDH>I>DC 6C9 IDC:H 86C 7:C:bI I=: A:6GC>C<

D; HJ7H@>AAH &>H=G6  DJG G:HJAIH HJ<<:HI I=6I L=:C

>I 8DB:H ID E>I8= >9:CI>b86I>DC EG:H:CI>C< BDG: I=6C DC:

EG:9>8I>K: 8J: B6N >CI:G;:G: L>I= I=: 68FJ>H>I>DC 7:IL::C

I=: CDI: C6B: 6C9 I=: IDC: >: 6C DK:GH=69DL>C< :;;:8I

5-#/'*#+1 

"C ME:G>B:CI  L: HIJ9>:9 I=: BDG: :ME:G>B:CI6AAN

_EJG:` 86H: D; CDCBJH>8>6CH A:6GC>C< ID >9:CI>;N CDI:

E>I8=:H L=D >C8>9:CI6AAN =6K: 6AHD 8A:6GAN _B>HH:9` 6CN

EDI:CI>6A 8G>I>86A E:G>D9 ;DG 68FJ>G>C< E>I8= >9:CI>b86I>DC

H@>AAH H:: "CIGD9J8I>DC -=>H HDGI D; H6BEA: LDJA9 6AHD 8DG

G:HEDC9 ID CDK>8: BJH>8>6CH ?JHI 7:<>CC>C< ID A:6GC BJ

H>8 %:6GC>C< ID >BEGDK: E>I8= >9:CI>b86I>DC H@>AAH 8DJA9

6AHD 7: JH:;JA ;DG :ME:G>:C8:9 BJH>8>6CH "C I=6I K:>C M

E:G>B:CI  HIJ9>:H L=:I=:G DJG >C8>9:CI6A A:6GC>C< EGD8:

9JG: 86C =:AE BJH>8>6CH ID >BEGDK: I=:>G 67>A>IN ID >9:CI>;N

6C9 A67:A IDC:H "C8>9:CI6AAN BJH>8>6CH 6G: 6AHD 6C >CI:G

:HI>C< <GDJE ID HIJ9N ;DG 6CDI=:G G:6HDC (JG E6GI>8>E6CIH

L:G: BJH>8>6CH 7JI ) CDCEDHH:HHDGH "; E>I8= >9:CI>b86

I>DC H@>AAH 6G: HIG>8IAN 9:E:C9:CI DC _<DD9 <:C:H` H:: "C

IGD9J8I>DC I=:C I=>H <GDJE H::BH ID 7: I=: BDHI JCA>@:AN

ID =6K: H6>9 <:C:H I=:N =6K: =69 BDG: I=6C :CDJ<= :M

E:G>:C8: H::>C< BJH>8 CDI6I>DC EA6N>C< CDI:H 6C9 =:6G>C<

I=: 8DGG:HEDC9>C< E>I8=:H ID =6K: 68FJ>G:9 ) 6AG:69N >;

I=:N =69 I=: G><=I 9>HEDH>I>DC ;DG >I ,>C8: EG:K>DJH G:H:6G8=

=6H HJ<<:HI:9 I=6I ) 9:K:ADEB:CI >H G:A6I:9 ID :6GAN BJ

H>86A IG6>C>C< GDO>:G  :JIH8= :I 6A  &>N6O6@>

 (<6L6  L: 6AHD 9:8>9:9 ID I6@: I=>H B:6HJG: >CID

688DJCI 6H 6 8DK6G>6I: >C DJG 6C6ANH>H

H 6 ;JGI=:G B6C>EJA6I>DC >C ME:G>B:CI  L: >CIGD

9J8:9 6 H:8DC9 C6B:ID@:N B6EE>C< ID 7: 67A: ID I:HI

;DG HE6I>6A 8DBE6I>7>A>IN :;;:8IH ,E:8>b86AAN +JH8DC> :I 6A

 HJ<<:HI:9 I=6I I=: =JB6C 8D<C>I>K: HNHI:B 6JID

B6I>86AAN 8D9:H E>I8=:H HE6I>6AAN L>I= I=: =><=:HI E>I8=:H

G:EG:H:CI:9 DC I=: G><=I 6C9 I=: ADL:HI E>I8=:H DC I=: A:;I

6@>C I=: ,E6I>6A &JH>86A HHD8>6I>DC D; +:HEDCH: D9:H

,&+ :;;:8I 6C9 G:8:CI G:H:6G8= >C9>86I:H I=6I HE68:

E>I8= 6HHD8>6I>DCH :M=>7>I <G:6I:G HI67>A>IN L=:C HJEEA:

B:CI:9 L>I= B:I6E=DGH :B7:99:9 >C A6C<J6<: DAH8=:>9

:I 6A  -=: G:C8= A6C<J6<: ;DG >CHI6C8: :MEG:HH:H

E>I8= EG:9DB>C6CIAN >C I:GBH D; HE6I>6A =:><=I "C ME:G>

B:CI  I=: ADL:HI CDI: C6B: ;DG I=: ADL:HI E>I8= >C DJG

I6H@ _;6` 8DGG:HEDC9:9 ID I=: A:;IBDHI @:N DC I=: @:N

"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

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7D6G9 _3` )DHH>7AN I=>H 8DJA9 =:AE L>I= I=: 68FJ>H>I>DC D;

@:NA67:A G:HEDCH:H 76H:9 DC I=: G:H:6G8= DC I=: ,&+

:;;:8I H 6 HB6AA CDI: L: 9>9 CDI bC9 :K>9:C8: ;DG 6

,&+ :;;:8I DC I=: 68FJ>H>I>DC D; I=: CDI: C6B:CDI: ED

H>I>DC 6HHD8>6I>DCH >C DJG EG:K>DJH LDG@ "DG>D :I 6A 

!DL:K:G ID 8DCIGDA ;DG EDHH>7A: >CcJ:C8: D; I=: ,&+

:;;:8I >C DJG E6G69><B L: 8DBE6G:9 E:G;DGB6C8: >C ILD

<GDJEH 8DBE6I>7A: KH >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJEH H:: I=: !/>29.

H:8I>DC ;DG BDG: 9:I6>AH

(JG EG>B6GN =NEDI=:H>H ;DG I=: EG:H:CI :ME:G>B:CI L6H

I=6I BJH>8>6CH LDJA9 7: 67A: ID >BEGDK: I=:>G E>I8= >9:C

I>b86I>DC H>B>A6G ID I=: CDCBJH>8>6CH >C ME:G>B:CI 

>K:C I=6I I=: IDC:8J: B6C>EJA6I>DC >BEGDK:9 EDHII:HI

CDI: 9:I:8I>DC CDI67AN BDG: I=6C I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H B6C>E

JA6I>DC >C ME:G>B:CI  L: 9GDEE:9 I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H 8DC

9>I>DC ;GDB ME:G>B:CI  99>I>DC6AAN L: =NEDI=:H>O:9

I=6I E>I8= >9:CI>b86I>DC 67>A>I>:H LDJA9 7: =><=:G ;DG E6G

I>8>E6CIH I=6I HI6GI:9 A:6GC>C< BJH>8 :6GA>:G DC >C A>;: -D

L=6I :MI:CI :6GAN BJH>8 A:6GC>C< B><=I >CI:G68I L>I= EG:

EDHI >BEGDK:B:CI H8DG:H L6H JC8:GI6>C

#1&,"

Participants

-=: G:8GJ>IB:CI EGD8:HH L6H H>B>A6G ID I=: DC: JH:9 >C

ME:G>B:CI  :M8:EI I=6I L: H:6G8=:9 ;DG BJH>8>6CH G6I=:G

I=6C CDCBJH>8>6CH -=:G:;DG: 6H HE:8>b:9 >C I=: G:8GJ>I

B:CI 69K:GI>H:B:CI L: ADD@:9 ;DG G:C8= HE:6@>C< E6GI>8

>E6CIH L>I= :ME:G>:C8: >C EA6N>C< BJH>8  E6GI>8>E6CIH

IDD@ E6GI >C I=: :ME:G>B:CI 6C9 G:8:>K:9 BDC:I6GN 8DB

E:CH6I>DC  P ;DG I=:>G E6GI>8>E6I>DC !DL:K:G  E6GI>8

>E6CIH L:G: :M8AJ9:9 ;GDB I=: 6C6ANH>H 7:86JH: I=:N ;6>A:9

ID G:EDGI >C;DGB6I>DC 67DJI I=: 6<: I=:N HI6GI:9 BJH>86A

IG6>C>C< >C;DGB6I>DC I=6I L: JH:9 6H 6 8DK6G>6I: >C I=: ;DA

ADL>C< 6C6ANH:H (; I=: G:B6>C>C<  E6GI>8>E6CIH  9:

8A6G:9 ID =6K: 67HDAJI: E>I8= !DL:K:G DCAN H:K:C E6GI>8

>E6CIH G:EDGI:9 688JG68N G6I:H 7:IL::C  6C9  >C

I=: EG:I:HI 6C9 L:G: 9>H86G9:9 ;GDB I=: ;DAADL>C< 6C6ANH>H

6H >C ME:G>B:CI  AA E6GI>8>E6CIH 688:EI:9 6 LG>II:C 8DC

H:CI 7:;DG: 7:<>CC>C< I=: HIJ9N AA I=: EGD8:9JG:H L:G:

8DC9J8I:9 >C 688DG96C8: L>I= I=: :8A6G6I>DC D; !:AH>C@>

)6GI>8>E6CIH^ 6CDCNB>O6I>DC L6H <J6G6CI::9

Apparatus,

Design,

and

Procedure

-=: <:C:G6A HIGJ8IJG: D; I=: :ME:G>B:CI L6H H>B>A6G ID

I=: DC: JH:9 >C ME:G>B:CI  L>I= HDB: :M8:EI>DCH >GHIAN

L: 8=6C<:9 I=: C6B:ID@:N 6HH><CB:CI I=: @:NH  

 ! # $ % >CHI:69 D; I=: @:NH 3+-2." ID 8DCIGDA

;DG EDHH>7A: 9>;;:G:C8:H >C I=: @:N7D6G9H JH:9 7N I=: E6G

I>8>E6CIH G:8GJ>I:9 DCA>C: H B:CI>DC:9 67DK: L: >CIGD

9J8:9 6 H:8DC9 C6B:ID@:N B6EE>C< ID 7: 67A: ID I:HI ;DG

HE6I>6A 8DBE6I>7>A>IN :;;:8IH DG I=: bGHI <GDJE 8DBE6I>

7A: <GDJE L: JH:9 I=: H6B: C6B:ID@:N 6HH><CB:CI 6H

;DG ME:G>B:CI  >: I=: IDC:H JH:9 L:CI ;GDB _;6` ID

_B>` 8DGG:HEDC9>C< ID I=:  ID % @:NH DC I=: @:N7D6G9 "C

I=>H <GDJE I=: HE6I>6A EDH>I>DC D; I=: IDC:H L6H _8DBE6I>

7A:` DG >C DI=:G LDG9H B6I8=:9 I=: G:HEDCH:H DG I=: H:8

DC9 <GDJE >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE L: JH:9 I=:  ID % @:NH

ID G:;:GH ID _9D` ID _H>` CDI: C6B:H "C I=>H <GDJE I=:G:

L6H CD HE6I>6A 8DBE6I>7>A>IN 7:IL::C I=: IDC:H 6C9 I=: G:

HEDCH:H :< I=: A:;IBDHI _` @:N 8DGG:HEDC9:9 ID DC: D;

I=: =><=:HI IDC:H K>O _9D` H DC: ;JGI=:G 8=6C<: L: :M

8AJ9:9 I=: BJAI>EA:8J:H 8DC9>I>DC AA E6GI>8>E6CIH 8DB

EA:I:9 I=: IDC:8J: 8DC9>I>DC ;GDB ME:G>B:CI 

Data

Analysis

H >C ME:G>B:CI  L: G6C 6C '(/ DC +-H 6C9 :GGDG

G6I:H ;DG I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: 6C9 II:HIH DC 688JG68N 6C9 +-H

;DG I=: I:HI E=6H:H !DL:K:G =:G: L: 699>I>DC6AAN 699:9 >C

;DGB6I>DC 67DJI I=: HI6GI D; BJH>86A IG6>C>C< 6H 6 8DK6G>

6I: >C DJG 6C6ANH>H  D; I=: IG>6AH DC I=: IDI6A CJB7:G

D; E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: :A>B>C6I:9 76H:9 DC I=: H6B: 8G>I:

G>6 JH:9 >C ME:G>B:CI >: IG>6AH >C L=>8= E6GI>8>E6CIH

;6>A:9 ID G:HEDC9 >C  BH AA 6C6ANH:H L:G: :K6AJ6I:9

6I I=:

  A:K:A D; H><C>b86C8: 6C9 L: G:EDGI:9 I=:

6N:H ;68IDG -=: 96I6 H:I >H 6K6>A67A: K>6 I=: ;DAADL>C< A>C@

=IIEHDH;>DM?9I

#02)10

Response

Times

-=: G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG +-H L>I= I=: ;68IDGH

DCI>C<:C8N =><= KH ADL 6C9 GDJE 8DBE6I>7A: KH >C

8DBE6I>7A: 6C9 I=: 6<: D; I=: HI6GI D; BJH>86A IG6>C>C< 6H

8DK6G>6I: H=DL:9 6 H><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I D; DCI>C<:C8N

   :  

      >C9>86I>C<

;6HI:G G:HEDCH:H ;DG =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH !  BH '

  I=6C ;DG ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH !  BH ' 

 -=: B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE L6H CDI H><C>b86CI 

  :  

     -=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:

IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 GDJE L6H H><C>b86CI ><JG: 

   :  

      9J: ID 6

<G:6I:G 9>;;:G:C8: 7:IL::C =><= 6C9 ADL 8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH

;DG I=: 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE &=><=8DCI>C<:C8N BH '



 &ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH  BH '   8DBE6G:9

ID I=: >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE &=><=8DCI>C<:C8N BH

'

  &ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH  BH '  

"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 11

'%2/#  +1#/!1',+ #14##+ !,+1'+%#+!6 #$$#!1 +" /,2- '+ 5-#/'*#+1 

'DI: "CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N !><= 6C9 %DL 6C9 GDJE 8DBE6I>7A: KH >C8DBE6I>7A: HI6C96G9 :GGDG 76GH 6G: H=DLC >C I=: b<JG:

-=: 8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8I L6H H><C>b86CI ;DG 7DI= I=: 8DB

E6I>7A: <GDJE !ADL=><=   '   >   :

  .      6C9 I=: >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE

!ADL=><=   '   >   :   .  

   -=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 7:

<>CC>C< D; I=: BJH>86A IG6>C>C< L6H CDI H><C>b86CI 

  :  

    

Error

Rates

-=: G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG :GGDGH L>I= I=: ;68

IDGH DCI>C<:C8N =><= KH ADL 6C9 GDJE 8DBE6I>7A: KH

>C8DBE6I>7A: G:K:6A:9 6 B6>C :;;:8I D; DCI>C<:C8N

   :  

      BDG: :GGDGH

;DG ADL IG>6AH !   '   8DBE6G:9 ID =><= IG>6AH

!   '   6C9 6 CDCH><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I ;DG

GDJE    :  

      -=:

>CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 GDJE L6H 6AHD CDI

H><C>b86CI    :  

     

Test

Phases

 D; E6GI>8>E6CIH  D;  CDI>8:9 I=: 8DCI>C<:C

8>:H 7:IL::C I=: IDC:H 6C9 I=: CDI: C6B:H 0: I=: E:G

;DGB:9 6C '(/ DC I=: 688JG68N G6I:H L>I= -:HI EG: KH

EDHI 6C9 GDJE 8DBE6I>7A: KH >C8DBE6I>7A: 6H ;68IDGH

-=: B6>C :;;:8I D; -:HI L6H H><C>b86CI    :

 

      6H L:AA 6H I=: B6>C :;;:8I D;

GDJE    :  

      AHD

I=: >CI:G68I>DC -:HI M GDJE L6H H><C>b86CI   

:  

      EG:I:HI !-97:+>3,6/  

'  !38-97:+>3,6/   ' EDHII:HI !-97:+>

3,6/   '  !38-97:+>3,6/   '

(I:HIH ;DG EG:I:HI 6C9 EDHII:HI 688JG68N G6I:H H=DLC >C

><JG:  G:K:6A:9 I=6I I=: 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE 9>9 CDI E:G

;DGB H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8: >:  >C I=: EG:I:HI

>   :   .

     !   '

  7JI L:G: H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8: >C I=: EDHII:HI

>   :   .

     !   '

  -=: >BEGDK:B:CI 7:IL::C EG:EDHII:HI L6H H><C>;

C 6CDCNBDJH G:K>:L:G HJ<<:HI:9 I=6I I=: 8DBE6I>7>A>IN :;;:8I B><=I 7: E6GI>8JA6GAN EG:H:CI ;DG E>6C>HIH L=:G: I=: A:;IIDG><=I 6HH><C

B:CI D; E>I8=:H ID @:NH >H E6GI>8JA6GAN H6A>:CI -D :MEADG: I=>H EDHH>7>A>IN L: H:E6G6I:9 E6GI>8>E6CIH >CID ILD <GDJEH I=DH: L=D G:EDGI:9

HIJ9N>C< E>6CD 8   6C9 I=DH: L=D G:EDGI:9 HIJ9N>C< 6C >CHIGJB:CI DI=:G I=6C E>6CD DG H>C<>C< 8   "C 6C '(/ >C8AJ9>C< I=>H

:MIG6 ;68IDG I=: B6>C :;;:8I D; DCI>C<:C8N G:B6>C:9 H><C>b86CI    :  

   -=: B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE  

 :  

   6C9 "CHIGJB:CI EA6N:9    :  

   L:G: CDI H><C>b86CI &DHI 8G>I>86AAN I=: >CI:G68I>DC

7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N M GDJE M "CHIGJB:CI EA6N:9 L6H CDI H><C>b86CI    :  

   I=DJ<= L: 9D CDI: I=6I I=:G:

L6H 6I A:6HI 6 CJB:G>86A IG:C9 ;DG 6 A6G<:G DCI>C<:C8N 7N GDJE >CI:G68I>DC ;DG E>6CD EA6N:GH  BH >CI:G68I>DC 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE

!2312-98>381/8-C  BH '

  !69A-98>381/8-C  BH '   >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE !2312-98>381/8-C  BH '

  !69A-98

>381/8-C  BH '   G:A6I>K: ID DI=:G >CHIGJB:CI EA6N:GH  BH >CI:G68I>DC 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE !2312-98>381/8-C  BH '

 

!69A-98>381/8-C  BH '   >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE !2312-98>381/8-C  BH '

  !69A-98>381/8-C  BH '  



"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 12

'%2/#  '$$#/#+!# '+ !!2/!6 /1#0 #14##+ /,2- '+ 5-#/'*#+1 

'DI: >;;:G:C8:H >C 88JG68N G6I:H )G:I:HI 6C9 )DHII:HI 7:IL::C I=: <GDJEH 8DBE6I>7A: KH >C8DBE6I>7A: HI6C96G9 :GGDG 76GH 6C9 688JG68N 8=6C8: <J:HH>C< 6I  6G: H=DLC >C

I=: b<JG:

>86CI ;DG I=>H <GDJE >   :   .

   



-=: >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE 9>9 CDI E:G;DGB 67DK: 8=6C8: >C

I=: EG:I:HI >   :   .

    

!   '   6C9 >C I=: EDHII:HI >   : 

 .

     !   '   AI=DJ<=

I=: >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE G:EDGI:9 E:G;DGB6C8: HA><=IAN 7:

ADL 8=6C8: <J:HH>C< >C I=: EG:I:HI I=:>G E:G;DGB6C8: H><

C>b86CIAN >BEGDK:9 7:IL::C EG:EDHII:HI >   : 

 .

    

0: G6C 6C '(/ L>I= I=: ;68IDGH -:HI EG: KH EDHI 6C9

GDJE 8DBE6I>7A: KH >C8DBE6I>7A: DC I=: +-H ;DG I=: IDC:

C6B>C< I6H@ -=>H 6C6ANH>H H=DL:9 6 CDCH><C>b86CI B6>C

:;;:8I ;DG -:HI    :  

    

 6 CDCH><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE   

:  

      6C9 6 CDCH><C>b86CI >CI:G

68I>DC 7:IL::C -:HI 6C9 GDJE    :  



    

'0!200',+

"C ME:G>B:CI  L: L6CI:9 ID 9:I:GB>C: L=:I=:G DJG

>C8>9:CI6A A:6GC>C< EGD8:9JG: 8DJA9 =:AE BJH>8>6CH ID >B

EGDK: I=:>G 67>A>IN ID >9:CI>;N 6C9 A67:A IDC:H -=: G:HJAIH

H=DL:9 6 H><C>b86CI 8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8I ;DG 7DI= <GDJEH

>C G:HEDCH: I>B:H 6C9 :GGDGH !DL:K:G DJG bC9>C<H DC

I=: +-H >C I=: I:HI E=6H:H 9>9 CDI G:K:6A 6CN <:C:G6A H><

C>b86CI >BEGDK:B:CI >C G:HEDCH: I>B:H 7:IL::C I=: EG:

6C9 EDHII:HI JGI=:GBDG: DCAN I=: 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE E:G

;DGB:9 H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8: >C I=: EDHII:HI I=DJ<=

7DI= <GDJEH H=DL:9 6C >C8G:6H: >C E:G;DGB6C8: 7:IL::C

I=: EG: 6C9 EDHII:HI ,>B>A6GAN I=: +- 8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8I

L6H A6G<:G >C I=: 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE -=:H: DJI8DB:H HJ<

<:HI I=6I L=:C 6H@:9 ID :MEA>8>IAN C6B: 6 IDC: E6GI>8>E6CIH

B6N G:AN DC HDB: HDGI D; >CI:GC6A HE6I>6AAN G:A6I:9 8D9: ;DG

IDC:H 6H H=DLC >C EG:K>DJH G:H:6G8= G><6  ,6>ID 

+JH8DC> :I 6A  )6GI>8>E6CIH 86C A:6GC I=: 8DCI>C<:C

8>:H >C :>I=:G 86H: 7JI HE6I>6A 8DBE6I>7>A>IN B6N =:AE

5-#/'*#+1 

"C ME:G>B:CI  L: :MI:C9 I=: G:HJAIH D; I=: EG:8:9>C<

:ME:G>B:CIH >C ILD L6NH >GHI L: I:HI:9 L=:I=:G E>I8=

A:6GC>C< E:GH>HIH DK:G I>B: DCH>9:G>C< =DL EG:K>DJH G:

H:6G8= 67DJI E>I8= >9:CI>b86I>DC 9:H8G>7:H I=: 68FJ>H>I>DC

D; E>I8=A67:A 6HHD8>6I>DCH 6H HDB:I=>C< 9>;b8JAI >I B><=I

7: I=: 86H: I=6I I=: A:6GC>C< :;;:8I L: =6K: H=DLC >C I=:

ME:G>B:CI  >H ?JHI I:BEDG6GN 6C9 L>AA CDI E:GH>HI DK:G

I>B: -=6I >H L=6I >; CDCBJH>8>6CH L:G: 67A: ID A:6GC I=:

E>I8=A67:A 6HHD8>6I>DCH 6H 6 G:HJAI D; I=: B6CN G:E:I>I>DCH

I=:N L:G: :MEDH:9 ID 7JI I=:N 9>9 CDI ;DGB 6CN ADC<A6HI

>C< G:EG:H:CI6I>DCH D; I=:H: 6HHD8>6I>DCH >C B:BDGN !:G:

<6>C L: G6C 6 CDCE6G6B:IG>8 G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ G>:9B6C I:HI DC I=: IDC: C6B>C< 688JG68N -=: >BEGDK:B:CI ;GDB EG:I:HI

ID EDHII:HI L6H H><C>b86CI >C I=: 8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE χ7   :

  DG I=: >C8DBE6I>7A: <GDJE I=: >BEGDK:B:CI L6H CDI H><C>b86CI

χ7   :  



"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 13

L: 6G<J: I=6I E>I8=A67:A 6HHD8>6I>DCH 86C CDI DCAN 7: >C

8>9:CI6AAN A:6GC:9 7JI I=6I I=: >C;DGB6I>DC >H G:I6>C:9 >C

B:BDGN 6C9 >I 86C 7: :6H>AN G:IG>:K:9 CDI DCAN >BB:9>6I:AN

6;I:G A:6GC>C< >I 7JI :K:C BDG: >CI:G:HI>C<AN 6;I:G HDB:

I>B: ;GDB I=: A:6GC>C< EGD8:HH 0: I=:G:;DG: =NEDI=:H>O:9

I=6I EDHII:HI H8DG:H LDJA9 HI>AA 7: >C8G:6H:9 6;I:G 6 9:A6N

>: I=6I I=: A:6GC:9 E>I8= >C;DGB6I>DC G:B6>CH >C B:B

DGN

,:8DC9 L: 6>B:9 ID HIJ9N I=: :;;:8I D; >CI:CI>DC6A>IN DC

I=: A:6GC>C< 6C9 8DCHDA>96I>DC D; E>I8=A67:A 6HHD8>6I>DCH

)6HI G:H:6G8= HJ<<:HIH I=6I 7:>C< 6L6G: D; I=: 8DCI>C<:C

8>:H 7:;DG: 7:<>CC>C< I=: :ME:G>B:CI 7:C:bIH I=:>G 68FJ>H>

I>DC ,8=B>9I  : !DJL:G 7 6 8 -=6I >H

L=>A: E6GI>8>E6CIH L=D 6G: CDI >C;DGB:9 67DJI I=: G:<JA6G

>I>:H >C I=: I6H@ <:C:G6AAN HI>AA A:6GC H6>9 G:<JA6G>I>:H E6G

I>8>E6CIH >C;DGB:9 >C 69K6C8: 67DJI I=: 8DCI>C<:C8N B6

C>EJA6I>DC D;I:C H=DL :K:C A6G<:G A:6GC>C< :;;:8IH ,>B>A6G

G:HJAIH =6K: 6AHD 7::C D7H:GK:9 >C H:FJ:C8: A:6GC>C< HIJ9

>:H :HIG:7:8FO  -=>H >CHIGJ8I>DC :;;:8I >H D;I:C DCAN

BD9:G6I: 6C9 >H CDI 6AL6NH GD7JHI DG >CHI6C8: >C I=:

67DK:B:CI>DC:9 H><=IG:69>C< HIJ9>:H "DG>D :I 6A 

L: 9>9 CDI bC9 6CN H><C>b86CI 9>;;:G:C8:H >C I=: A:6GC>C<

E=6H: 7:IL::C E6GI>8>E6CIH I=6I L:G: 6L6G: D; I=: 8DC

I>C<:C8>:H 6C9 I=DH: I=6I >C8>9:CI6AAN A:6GC:9 I=:B 'J

B:G>86A 9>;;:G:C8:H L:G: HJ<<:HI>K: =DL:K:G 6C9 EDHII:HI

G6I>C<H L:G: >BEGDK:9 L>I= :MEA>8>I >CHIGJ8I>DC -D 6HH:HH

I=>H FJ:HI>DC >C I=: E>I8= A:6GC>C< 8DCI:MI L: I=:G:;DG:

8G:6I:9 ILD <GDJEH 6C >C8>9:CI6A A:6GC>C< <GDJE I=6I L6H

CDI >C;DGB:9 67DJI I=: B6C>EJA6I>DC 7:;DG: HI6GI>C< I=:

:ME:G>B:CI 6C9 6 9:A>7:G6I: A:6GC>C< <GDJE I=6I L6H 0:

:ME:8I:9 A6G<:G A:6GC>C< :;;:8IH >C I=: 9:A>7:G6I: A:6GC>C<

<GDJE G:A6I>K: ID I=: >C8>9:CI6A A:6GC>C< <GDJE 7DI= >C I=:

E:G;DGB6C8: B:6HJG:H 9JG>C< I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H: 6C9 >C I=:

EDHII:HI H8DG:H -=6I >H >I >H EDHH>7A: I=6I 7:>C< 6II:CI>K:

ID I=: 8DCI>C<:C8>:H =:AEH L>I= 8DCHDA>96I>DC BDG: I=6C

A:6GC>C< >C 6 EJG:AN >C8>9:CI6A L6N

#1&,"

Participants

 HIJ9:CIH ;GDB I=: .C>K:GH>IN D; JG<JC9N IDD@ E6GI

>C I=>H :ME:G>B:CI -=: :ME:G>B:CI L6H E6GI D; 6 H:8DC9

N:6G 8D<C>I>K: EHN8=DAD<N IJIDG>6A 6C9 H:GK:9 6H I=: 76H>H

;DG HIJ9:CI EG:H:CI6I>DCH ,IJ9:CIH L:G: CDI >C;DGB:9

67DJI I=: EJGEDH: D; I=: :ME:G>B:CI JCI>A 6;I:G 8DBEA:I>C<

7DI= E=6H:H =DL:K:G J: ID 8DBEA>86I>DCH L>I= I=:

(/" E6C9:B>8 I=: HIJ9N L6H 6AHD 8DC9J8I:9 DCA>C: JH

>C< I=: H6B: HD;IL6G: 6H I=: EG:8:9>C< :ME:G>B:CIH )HN

IDDA@>I ,ID:I   0: :M8AJ9:9 E6GI>8>E6CIH I=6I

:>I=:G 9>9 CDI 8DBEA:I: 6AA I=: I:HI E=6H:H DG 9>9 CDI 8DG

G:8IAN >C9>86I: I=:>G HIJ9:CI CJB7:G L=>8= 9>9 CDI 6AADL

JH ID B6I8= I=:>G 96I6H:IH ID<:I=:G  E6GI>8>E6CIH I=6I

B:I I=:H: 8DC9>I>DCH 6C9 9:8A6G:9 ID CDI =6K: ) L:G: G6C

9DBAN 9>K>9:9 >CID 6C >C8>9:CI6A A:6GC>C< <GDJE  >C ID

I6A 6C9 6 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE  >C IDI6A (C: E6GI>8>E6CI

L6H G:BDK:9 ;GDB I=: H6BEA: 7:86JH: 688JG68N L6H 7:

IL::C  6C9  >C I=: EG:I:HI H >C I=: EG:K>DJH HIJ9

>:H 6AA E6GI>8>E6CIH H><C:9 6 8DCH:CI ;DGB 7:;DG: HI6GI>C<

I=: HIJ9N -=: HIJ9N L6H 8DCH>HI:CI L>I= I=: :8A6G6I>DC D;

!:AH>C@> 6C9 E6GI>8>E6CIH^ 6CDCNB>O6I>DC L6H <J6G6CI::9

Apparatus,

Design,

and

Procedure

-=: :ME:G>B:CI ;DAADL:9 I=: H6B: HIGJ8IJG: 6H =: EG:

K>DJH HIJ9>:H L>I= HDB: :M8:EI>DCH >GHI I=: E6GI>8>E6CIH

L:G: 9>K>9:9 >CID >C8>9:CI6A 6C9 9:A>7:G6I: A:6GC>C< <GDJEH

0=>A: >C I=: bGHI <GDJE E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: CDI >CHIGJ8I:9

67DJI I=: 8DCI>C<:C8>:H >: 6H >C I=: EG>DG :ME:G>B:CIH

>C I=: 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: IDA9 67DJI I=:

8DCI>C<:C8>:H 7:;DG: 7:<>CC>C< I=: :ME:G>B:CI 6C9 I=:N

L:G: :C8DJG6<:9 ID A:6GC I=:B IG6CHA6I:9 ;GDB G:C8=

F"9>/

+-2

89>/

A366

:</=/8>/.

79</

0</;?/8>6C

A3>2

>2/

-9<</->

>98/

+8.

6/==

0</;?/8>6C

A3>2

>2/

38-9<</->

>98/=

(<C

6/+<8

>2/

89>/

8+7/

09<

/+-2

>98/G

H 6C 699>I>DC6A 8=6C<: >C DG9:G ID HIJ9N I=: 8DCHDA

>96I>DC D; C:L B6I:G>6A L: 6AHD 699:9 6 HJGEG>H: ;DAADL

JE H:HH>DC DC: L::@ 6;I:G I=: :C9 D; I=: A:6GC>C< E=6H:

JG>C< I=: ;DAADL JE E6GI>8>E6CIH L:G: 6H@:9 ID I6@: E6GI

>C 6 H:8DC9 EDHII:HI IDC: C6B>C< I6H@ L=>8= L6H >9:CI>86A

>C 6AA G:HE:8IH ID I=: DI=:G EDHII:HI 6C9 EG:I:HI H 6 B>

CDG 6H>9: L: CDI: I=6I HIJ9:CIH L:G: 6AHD 6H@:9 ID bAA >C 6

E6E:G6C9E:C8>A HJGK:N L>I= K6G>DJH FJ:HI>DCH 67DJI I=:>G

EG>DG BJH>8 :ME:G>:C8:H 0: CDI: I=6I I=>H HJGK:N L6H >C

8AJ9:9 ;DG EJG:AN E:96<D<>86A EJGEDH:H 6C9 L: =6K: CDI

CDG =69 :K:G >CI:C9:9 ID 6C6ANO: I=:H: 96I6 L>I= HDB: :M

8:EI>DCH ;DG I=: FJ:HI>DCH JH:9 ;DG 8DCIGDAA>C< ;DG BJH>86A

:ME:GI>H: B:CI>DC:9 7:ADL

Data

Analysis

-=: 6C6ANH>H L6H 76H:9 DC I=: H6B: 8G>I:G>6 6H I=DH:

JH:9 >C ME:G>B:CIH  6C9  0: 8DC9J8I:9 6 G:E:6I:9

B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG +-H L>I= BJH>86A :ME:GI>H: 6H 6 8D

K6G>6I: 6C9 ;DG :GGDG G6I:H ID 6HH:HH I=: DK:G6AA B6>C :;;:8IH

D; DCI>C<:C8N GDJE 6C9 I=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C I=:B

DAADL>C< I=: :M8AJH>DC 8G>I:G>6 JH:9 >C ME:G>B:CIH  6C9

 L: 9>H86G9:9  D; I=: 96I6 0: G6C >I:HIH 6C9

'(/H DC 88JG68N 6C9 +-H ;DG I=: I:HI E=6H:H 6C9 I=:

;DAADL JE AA 6C6ANH:H L:G: :K6AJ6I:9 6I I=:

  A:K:A D;

H><C>b86C8: <6>C I=: 6N:H ;68IDG L6H G:EDGI:9 ;DG :68=

6C6ANH>H -=: 96I6 H:I >H 6K6>A67A: K>6 I=: ;DAADL>C< A>C@

=IIEHDH;>DM?9I

"C ;68I I=: HJGK:NH L:G: EG>CI:9 I=: EG>DG N:6G ;DG 6C JCG:A6I:9 HIJ9N 6C9 =69 CDI 7::C JH:9 9J: ID I=: (/" E6C9:B>8 6C :A:8IGDC>8

K:GH>DC L6H JH:9 >CHI:69 0: 9:8>9:9 ID JH: I=:H: FJ:HI>DCC6>G:H 7DI= 6 7:86JH: I=:N 8DCI6>C:9 6 ;:L FJ:HI>DCH G:A6I:9 ID DJG H:A:8

I>DC 8G>I:G>6 6C9 7 ID <>K: HIJ9:CIH >CHE>G6I>DC ;DG EDI:CI>6A 9>H8JHH>DC ED>CIH >C I=:>G <GDJE EG:H:CI6I>DCH -=: CDCE:GI>C:CI FJ:H

I>DCH =DL:K:G =6K: CDI 7::C 8D9:9 :A:8IGDC>86AAN



"C8>9:CI6AAN 8FJ>G>C< )>I8=A67:A HHD8>6I>DCH 0>I= 6 &JH>86A DCI>C<:C8N %:6GC>C< -6H@

966+,<+

$=C-29691C 14

#02)10

Response

Times

0: G6C 6 G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG +-H L>I= I=:

;68IDGH DCI>C<:C8N =><= KH ADL 6C9 GDJE >C8>9:CI6A

KH 9:A>7:G6I: I=6I >C9>86I:9 6 H><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I D;

DCI>C<:C8N    :  

    

 H=DL>C< ;6HI:G G:HEDCH:H ;DG =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>

6AH !  BH '   I=6C ;DG ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH

!  BH '   -=: B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE L6H CDI

H><C>b86CI    :  

    

 -=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 GDJE L6H

CDI H><C>b86CI    :  

    

 I=DJ<= I=:G: L6H 6 CJB:G>86A IG:C9 IDL6G9H 6 A6G<:G

8DCI>C<:C8N :;;:8I ;DG I=: 9:A>7:G6I: A:6GC>C< <GDJE !69A

2312

-98>381/8-C

><3+6=   '   8DBE6G:9 ID I=: >C8>

9:CI6A <GDJE !69A2312

-98>381/8-C

><3+6=   '  

Error

Rates

 G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/ ;DG :GGDGH L>I= I=: ;68IDGH

DCI>C<:C8N =><= KH ADL 6C9 GDJE >C8>9:CI6A 6C9 9:

A>7:G6I: G:K:6A:9 6 H><C>b86CI B6>C :;;:8I D; DCI>C<:C8N

   :  

      H=DL>C<

BDG: :GGDGH ;DG ADL8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH &   '

 I=6C ;DG =><=8DCI>C<:C8N IG>6AH &  '

 -=: B6>C :;;:8I D; GDJE    :  

      6C9 I=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C

<:C8N 6C9 GDJE    :  

   

  L:G: CDI H><C>b86CI >C8>9:CI6A <GDJE !2312><3+6= 

 '   !69A><3+6=   '   9:A>7:G6I:

<GDJE !2312><3+6=   '   !69A><3+6=   '

 

Test

Phases

DG I=: HJ7?:8I>K: 6L6G:C:HH FJ:HI>DC   D;

 D; I=: E6GI>8>E6CIH CDI>8:9 I=: 8DCI>C<:C8>:H 7:IL::C

IDC:H 6C9 CDI: C6B:H -=: >C8>9:CI6A A:6GC>C< <GDJE E:G

;DGB:9 H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8: >C I=: EG:I:HI > 

 :   .

     ! '

 

>C I=: EDHII:HI >   :   .

    

!

'

  6C9 >C I=: ;DAADL JE >   :   .

     ! '

  DG I=: 9:A>7:G6I:

<GDJE E:G;DGB6C8: L6H CDI H><C>b86CIAN 67DK: 8=6C8: >C

I=: EG:I:HI >   :   .

    

! '

  7JI L6H H><C>b86CI >C I=: EDHII:HI

>   :   .

     ! '



 6C9 >C I=: ;DAADL JE >   :   .

 

   ! '

  -=: 9>;;:G:C8:H >C 688JG68N

G6I:H ;DJC9 7:IL::C I=: <GDJEH L:G: CDI H><C>b86CI >C I=:

EG:I:HI >   :   .



    DG >C

I=: EDHII:HI >   :   .

   

=DL:K:G I=: 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE E:G;DGB:9 H><C>b86CIAN 7:II:G

I=6C I=: >C8>9:CI6A <GDJE >C I=: ;DAADL JE >   :

  .

    

0: E:G;DGB:9 6C '(/ DC I=: 688JG68N G6I:H L>I=

-:HI EG: KH EDHI 6C9 GDJE 9:A>7:G6I: KH >C8>9:CI6A 6H

;68IDGH -=: B6>C :;;:8I D; -:HI L6H H><C>b86CI  

 :  

      -=: B6>C :;;:8I D;

GDJE L6H CDI H><C>b86CI    :  

 

    -=: >CI:G68I>DC -:HI M GDJE L6H 6AHD CDI

H><C>b86CI    :  

     

EG:I:HI !38-3./8>+6   '  !./63,/<+>/  

' EDHII:HI !38-3./8>+6   '  !./63,/<+>/

  ' ;DAADL JE !38-3./8>+6   ' 

!./63,/<+>/   '

88JG68N G6I:H L:G: H><C>b86CIAN =><=:G >C EDHII:HI 8DB

E6G:9 ID EG:I:HI >C 7DI= <GDJEH 6H H=DLC >C ><JG:  >C

8>9:CI6A <GDJE >   :   .

    

9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE >   :

  .

   

88JG68N G6I:H L:G: H><C>b86CIAN ADL:G >C I=: ;DAADLJE

8DBE6G:9 ID I=: EDHII:HI >C I=: >C8>9:CI6A <GDJE > 

 :   .



    6C9 CDI H><C>b86CIAN

9>;;:G:CI ;DG I=: 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE >   :   .



   &DHI >BEDGI6CIAN 688JG68N G6I:H L:G: H><

C>b86CIAN =><=:G >C I=: ;DAADL JE 8DBE6G:9 ID I=: EG:I:HI

;DG 7DI= <GDJEH >C8>9:CI6A <GDJE >   :   .

    6C9 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE >   : 

 .

   

"C I=: '(/ L>I= I=: ;68IDGH D; -:HI EG: 6C9 EDHI 6C9

GDJE >C8>9:CI6A 6C9 9:A>7:G6I: DC G:HEDCH: I>B:H L=>A:

I=: B6>C :;;:8I D; -:HI L6H H><C>b86CI   

:  

      H=DL>C< 6 9:8G:6H: >C G:

HEDCH: I>B:H 7:IL::C I=: I:HIH &EG:I:HI   BH '

 &EDHI:HI   BH '  &;DAAD JE   BH

'  7DI= I=: B6>C :;;:8I ;DG GDJE   

:  

      6C9 I=: >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C

-:HI 6C9 GDJE    : 

    

 L:G: CDCH><C>b86CI

'0!200',+

-=: G:HJAIH D; ME:G>B:CI  H=DL:9 6C DK:G6AA H><C>;

>86CI B6>C :;;:8I D; DCI>C<:C8N >C 7DI= <GDJEH :HE>I:

I=: A6G<:G H6BEA: H>O: 6C9 8DCIG6GN ID =NEDI=:H:H 6 CDC

H><C>b86CI >CI:G68I>DC 7:IL::C DCI>C<:C8N 6C9 GDJE >C

9>86I:9 CD 8A:6G :K>9:C8: I=6I >CI:CI>DC6A>IN =:AEH I=: 68

FJ>H>I>DC D; I=: 8DCI>C<:C8N 9JG>C< I=>H E:G;DGB6C8: I6H@

,>B>A6GAN CD :;;:8I D; >CI:CI>DC6A>IN L6H D7H:GK:9 >C I=:

EDHII:HI H8DG:H 7DI= >BB:9>6I:AN 6C9 DC: L::@ 6;I:G I=:

A:6GC>C< E=6H: -=:G: L:G: HDB: =>CIH D; A6G<:G A:6GC>C< :;

;:8IH 6I A:6HI >C I=: G:HEDCH: I>B:H 7JI DK:G6AA 9:A>7:G6I:

'DCE6G6B:IG>8 G:E:6I:9 B:6HJG:H '(/H G>:9B6C I:HI DC I=: 688JG68N G6I:H G:K:6A:9 H><C>b86CI >BEGDK:B:CI ;GDB EG:I:HI ID

EDHII:HI >C I=: >C8>9:CI6A χ7   :

  6C9 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE χ7   :

  -=: 9>;;:G:C8: 7:IL::C EG:I:HI 6C9 ;DAADL JE L6H

6AHD H><C>b86CI ;DG I=: >C8>9:CI6A χ7   :

  6C9 9:A>7:G6I: <GDJE χ7   :

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E>I8= 67>A>IN $<9-//.381=

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EC6H

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67HDAJI: E>I8= 67>A>IN 6H G:K:6A:9 7N 8DBEJI:G>O:9

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$/<-/:>398  \

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6C9 I=: >BEA>8>I:MEA>8>I 9>HI>C8I>DC <3>3=2

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6C9 E=DCDAD<>86A H:FJ:C8:H !/79<C

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"BEA>8>I A:6GC>C< ':LH ;GDB I=: ;GDCI (</8.=

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,

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E:G;:8I I=: :6GA>:G I=: 7:II:G $=C-29691C

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:HIG:7:8FO   -=: :;;:8I D; :MEA>8>I @CDLA:9<:

DC H:FJ:C8: A:6GC>C<  <G69:9 688DJCI $=C-296913-+

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DAH8=:>9 , R:A>@ , G@6C ! $YCI6N   &6?>9

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HJH8:EI>7>A>IN ID A6C<J6<: 9183>398  

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*  !66; # & !>CC: & $J8=6GH@Z [ %N 

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ID A:6GC HIG:C<I=:CH A:6GC>C< >C 6C JC>CI:CI>DC6A

A:6GC>C< I6H@ $=C-298973-

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Is Absolute Pitch Learnable? Implicit and Explicit Absolute Pitch

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2025
MUSIC PERCEPT

James R Schmidt

Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify and name an isolated tone by ear. The review begins with a brief overview of AP and the seeming bizarreness of its rarity. I then consider some reasons why AP learning may be inherently more difficult than typically assumed. First, the simplicity of what needs to be learned could be overstated if not taking into consideration the diversity of auditory stimuli (e.g., varying in timbre and octave) within each pitch class. A further reason for the rarity of AP could simply be the lack of extensive appropriate training. I then discuss implicit AP, which seems to be possessed by most, even non-musicians. Implicit AP refers to the ability to identify pitches absolutely at a more unconscious level but the inability to verbally label them. The review then considers growing evidence against the notion that AP is essentially unlearnable without the right genetic endowments and/or early music education. Procedures that might inhibit or facilitate AP learning are discussed. Incidental (i.e., non-intentional) learning may be particularly effective in training this difficult-to-acquire skill. A new multifactorial perspective of AP acquisition is presented along with some open questions for future research.

Stroop-like Effects in Pitch Identification Training and Generalization to Untrained Timbres

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024
MUSIC PERCEPT

Absolute pitch is the ability to automatically identify and name the pitches of tones without the help of a reference tone. Contrary to the common idea that absolute pitch is almost impossible to acquire after a critical period, some research suggests possible improvements in pitch identification in adulthood. Recently, using a simple incidental contingency learning approach, rapid and robust learning of associations between pitches and note names was observed. In the current work, we explored the item specificity of this learning. In our new task, we used three types of instrument tones (i.e., three timbres). For two timbres, contingencies between tones and notes names were directly manipulated. We then tested whether learning transferred (generalized) to tones from a third timbre, for which contingencies were not directly manipulated. Our results indicate clear automatic response biases in response times due to the learned contingencies that transferred from trained to untrained tones. Explicit identification of tones also increased at post-test for both trained and untrained tones. These results demonstrate that learning is not purely instrument specific and that learning of the pitch class is observed. Our results also shed light on the possible underlying representations that participants learn in our paradigm.

Automatizing Sight Reading: Contingency Proportion and Task Relevance in the Music Contingency Learning Procedure

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2023

Learning to read and play music written in standard notation, termed sight reading, is an important yet difficult aspect of early music education. However, the music contingency learning procedure produces rapid and robust early learning of the motor execution associated with note positions. In this task, nonmusicians identify a note name (e.g., “do”) written inside a note in one of the vertical positions of the musical staff with a keyboard response. Each note position is presented frequently with the matching (congruent) note name and rarely with the incongruent note names. The present work further explores this novel learning paradigm. In Experiment 1, we manipulated the proportion of congruent trials from 50 to 100%. The contingency effect, along with contingency awareness (i.e., verbalizable knowledge of note meanings), increased with a stronger contingency manipulation. In Experiment 2, half of the participants responded to the note positions (instead of the note names) with a keyboard response. A learning effect was also observed for this task, though contingency awareness was reduced in this group. These results shed more light on the properties of incidental music learning and further suggest more ideal parameters for future practical applications to supplement traditional instruction in real-world music education.

Incidental Learning in Music Reading: The Music Contingency Learning Task

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2022

The present report investigated whether nonmusicians can incidentally learn musical skills needed for sight-reading. On each trial, participants identified a note name written inside of a note on the musical staff. In Experiment 1, each note was presented frequently with the congruent note name (e.g., "do" with the note for "do") and rarely with the incongruent names (e.g., "do" with the note for "fa"). With or without deliberate learning instructions, a robust contingency learning effect was observed: faster responses for congruent trials compared to incongruent trials. Participants also explicitly identified the meaning of the note positions more accurately than chance. Experiment 2 ruled out the potential influence of preexisting knowledge on the contingency learning effect by presenting notes most often with an incongruent note name. Robust learning was again observed, suggesting that participants acquired sufficient knowledge of musical notation to produce automatic influences on behavior (e.g., akin to the interference effect previously found in skilled musicians). A congruency effect was additionally observed in Experiment 2, however. Experiment 3 further explored to what extent this congruency effect might be due to prior music knowledge and/or spatial stimulus-response compatibility between note and response locations (analogous to the SMARC effect). Overall, our results open up new avenues for investigating the incidental learning of complex material, musical or otherwise, and for reinforcing learning even further.

Incidental Learning of Simple Stimulus-Response Associations: A Review of Colour-Word Contingency Learning Research

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

James R Schmidt

In this article, I review research on incidental learning of simple stimulus-response regularities. The article summarizes work with the colour-word contingency learning paradigm and related simple learning procedures. In the colour-word contingency learning paradigm participants are presented with a coloured neutral word on each trial and are asked to ignore the word and respond to the print colour (e.g., similar to a Stroop procedure). Distracting words are typically colour-unrelated neutral stimuli. However, each distracting word is presented most often in one target colour (e.g., "move" most often in blue, "sent" most often in green, etc.). Learning of these contingencies is indicated by faster and more accurate responses to high contingency trials (in which the word is presented with its frequent colour) relative to low contingency trials. This procedure has proven useful for investigations in incidental learning. The present manuscript summarizes the existing work with this (and related) learning procedures and highlights emerging directions.

Apprentissage incident des associations simples de stimulus-réponse : Revue de la recherche avec la tâche d'apprentissage de contingences couleur-mot

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2020

James R Schmidt

Dans cet article, je passe en revue la littérature sur l’apprentissage incident des régularités simples de stimulus-réponse. L’article résume les travaux utilisant le paradigme d’apprentissage de contingence couleur-mot et les procédures connexes. Dans ce paradigme, un mot neutre coloré est présenté aux participants à chaque essai et ces derniers sont invités à ignorer le mot et à répondre à la couleur d’impression. Chaque mot distracteur est présenté le plus souvent dans une couleur cible (p. ex., « bouge » le plus souvent en bleu, etc.). L’apprentissage de ces contingences est indiqué par des réponses plus rapides et plus précises aux essais de forte contingence (dans lesquels le mot est présenté fréquemment avec sa couleur) par rapport aux essais de faible contingence. Cette procédure s’est avérée utile pour les recherches portant sur l’apprentissage incident. Le présent manuscrit résume le travail existant avec cette procédure d’apprentissage et celles connexes, et met en évidence les orientations émergentes.

Long-term implicit memory for sequential auditory patterns in humans

Article

Full-text available

May 2020
eLife

Memory, on multiple timescales, is critical to our ability to discover the structure of our surroundings, and efficiently interact with the environment. We combined behavioural manipulation and modelling to investigate the dynamics of memory formation for rarely reoccurring acoustic patterns. In a series of experiments, participants detected the emergence of regularly repeating patterns within rapid tone-pip sequences. Unbeknownst to them, a few patterns reoccurred every ~3 minutes. All sequences consisted of the same 20 frequencies and were distinguishable only by the order of tone-pips. Despite this, reoccurring patterns were associated with a rapidly growing detection-time advantage over novel patterns. This effect was implicit, robust to interference, and persisted up to 7 weeks. The results implicate an interplay between short (a few seconds) and long-term (over many minutes) integration in memory formation and demonstrate the remarkable sensitivity of the human auditory system to sporadically reoccurring structure within the acoustic environment.

Reaction Time Data in Music Cognition: Comparison of Pilot Data From Lab, Crowdsourced, and Convenience Web Samples

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2020

Absolute pitch can be learned by some adults

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2019
PLOS ONE

Absolute pitch (AP), the rare ability to name any musical note without the aid of a reference note, is thought to depend on an early critical period of development. Although recent research has shown that adults can improve AP performance in a single training session, the best learners still did not achieve note classification levels comparable to performance of a typical, “genuine” AP possessor. Here, we demonstrate that these “genuine” levels of AP performance can be achieved within eight weeks of training for at least some adults, with the best learner passing all measures of AP ability after training and retaining this knowledge for at least four months after training. Alternative explanations of these positive results, such as improving accuracy through adopting a slower, relative pitch strategy, are not supported based on joint analyses of response time and accuracy. The results also did not appear to be driven by extreme familiarity with a single instrument or octave range, as the post-training AP assessments used eight different timbres and spanned over seven octaves. Yet, it is also important to note that a majority of the participants only exhibited modest improvements in performance, suggesting that adult AP learning is difficult and that near-perfect levels of AP may only be achievable by subset of adults. Overall, these results demonstrate that explicit perceptual training in some adults can lead to AP performance that is behaviorally indistinguishable from AP that manifests within a critical period of development. Implications for theories of AP acquisition are discussed.

Author accepted manuscript: Absolute pitch learning in adults speaking non-tonal languages

Article

Jun 2020

Absolute pitch (AP) refers to labelling individual pitches in the absence of external reference. A widely endorsed theory regards AP as a privileged ability enjoyed by selected few with rare genetic makeup and musical training starting in early childhood. However, recent evidence showed that even adults can learn AP, and some can attain a performance level comparable to natural AP possessors. These training studies involved native tonal language speakers, whose acquisition of AP might be facilitated by tonal language exposure during early childhood. In this study, adults speaking non-tonal languages went through AP training that was 20-hr long, computerised and personalised. Performance on average improved, which was accompanied by enhanced working memory for tones, whereas relative pitch judgement and sensitivity to small pitch differences remained unchanged. Notably, two out of 13 learned to label all 12 pitches within an octave, with accuracy and response time comparable to natural AP possessors. Overall, the findings suggest that tonal language exposure is not a prerequisite for AP learning in adulthood. The understanding of the origin of AP would benefit from considering the role of lifelong learning instead of focusing only on early childhood experience.

Space-pitch associations differ in their susceptibility to language

Article

Mar 2020

To what extent are links between musical pitch and space universal, and to what extent are they shaped by language? There is contradictory evidence in support of both universality and linguistic relativity presently, leaving the question open. To address this, speakers of Dutch who talk about pitch in terms of spatial height and speakers of Turkish who use a thickness metaphor were tested in simple nonlinguistic space-pitch association tasks. Both groups showed evidence of a thickness-pitch association, but differed significantly in their height-pitch associations, suggesting the latter may be more susceptible to language. When participants had to match pitches to spatial stimuli where height and thickness were opposed (i.e., a thick line high in space vs. a thin line low in space), Dutch and Turkish differed in their relative preferences. Whereas Turkish participants predominantly opted for a thickness-pitch interpretation-even if this meant a reversal of height-pitch mappings-Dutch participants favored a height-pitch interpretation more often. These findings provide new evidence that speakers of different languages vary in their space-pitch associations, while at the same time showing such associations are not equally susceptible to linguistic influences. Some space-pitch (i.e., height-pitch) associations are more malleable than others (i.e., thickness-pitch).

Is it impossible to acquire absolute pitch in adulthood?

Article

Nov 2019

Absolute pitch (AP) refers to the rare ability to name the pitch of a tone without external reference. It is widely believed to be only for the selected few with rare genetic makeup and early musical training during the critical period, and therefore acquiring AP in adulthood is impossible. Previous studies have not offered a strong test of the effect of training because of issues like small sample size and insufficient training. In three experiments, adults learned to name pitches in a computerized, gamified and personalized training protocol for 12 to 40 hours, with the number of pitches gradually increased from three to twelve. Across the three experiments, the training covered different octaves, timbre, and training environment (inside or outside laboratory). AP learning showed classic characteristics of perceptual learning, including generalization of learning dependent on the training stimuli, and sustained improvement for at least one to three months. 14% of the participants (6 out of 43) were able to name twelve pitches at 90% or above accuracy, comparable to that of ‘AP possessors’ as defined in the literature. Overall, AP continues to be learnable in adulthood, which challenges the view that AP development requires both rare genetic predisposition and learning within the critical period. The finding calls for reconsideration of the role of learning in the occurrence of AP, and pushes the field to pinpoint and explain the differences, if any, between the aspects of AP more trainable in adulthood and the aspects of AP that are potentially exclusive for the few exceptional AP possessors observed in the real world.

Incidentally Acquiring Pitch-label Associations With a Musical Contingency Learning Task

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