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Pollen, particularly from the Ambrosia genus, plays a pivotal role in triggering allergic rhinoconjunctivitis symptoms. This review delves into the global background of Ambrosia, focusing on its origins, invasive potential, and spread to South America. The ecological niche for Ambrosia species is explored, emphasizing its stability globally but exhibiting unique and dynamic features in South America. Information on Ambrosia pollen concentration in South America is summarized, revealing varying levels across countries. The establishment of new aerobiology stations, as highlighted in the latest findings, contributes valuable data for understanding allergen risk management in the region. The health perspective addresses the rise in allergic diseases due to climate change, emphasizing the need for continuous monitoring, especially in South America. Agricultural damage inflicted by Ambrosia is discussed, emphasizing its invasive potential, high seed production, and negative impact on crops, forage quality, and livestock. The review also positions Ambrosia as a marker of climate change, discussing the effects of global warming on pollen seasons, concentrations, and allergenic characteristics. The importance of expanding aerobiology stations in South America is underscored, requiring collaborative efforts from government, scientific societies, and academic institutions. The review concludes by advocating for increased monitoring to address potential challenges posed by Ambrosia, offering a basis for tailored interventions and future research in South American regions.
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s10453-024-09825-x
REVIEW PAPER
Ragweed inSouth America: therelevance ofaerobiology
stations inLatin America
IvanCherrez‑Ojeda · KarlaRobles‑Velasco· GermanD.Ramon· LauraBarrionuevo·
OscarCalderonLlosa· DenisseCevallos‑Levicek· MarcoFaytong‑Haro· AndrésEspinoza‑Maticurena·
PatricioAlvarez‑Muñoz· IvanTinoco· LászlóMakra· ÁronJózsefDeák
Received: 9 January 2024 / Accepted: 26 April 2024 / Published online: 10 May 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
America. Agricultural damage inflicted by Ambrosia
is discussed, emphasizing its invasive potential, high
seed production, and negative impact on crops, for-
age quality, and livestock. The review also positions
Ambrosia as a marker of climate change, discuss-
ing the effects of global warming on pollen seasons,
concentrations, and allergenic characteristics. The
importance of expanding aerobiology stations in
South America is underscored, requiring collabora-
tive efforts from government, scientific societies, and
academic institutions. The review concludes by advo-
cating for increased monitoring to address potential
challenges posed by Ambrosia, offering a basis for
tailored interventions and future research in South
American regions.
Abstract Pollen, particularly from the Ambrosia
genus, plays a pivotal role in triggering allergic rhi-
noconjunctivitis symptoms. This review delves into
the global background of Ambrosia, focusing on
its origins, invasive potential, and spread to South
America. The ecological niche for Ambrosia spe-
cies is explored, emphasizing its stability globally
but exhibiting unique and dynamic features in South
America. Information on Ambrosia pollen concen-
tration in South America is summarized, revealing
varying levels across countries. The establishment
of new aerobiology stations, as highlighted in the
latest findings, contributes valuable data for under-
standing allergen risk management in the region.
The health perspective addresses the rise in aller-
gic diseases due to climate change, emphasizing the
need for continuous monitoring, especially in South
I.Cherrez-Ojeda(*)· K.Robles-Velasco·
D.Cevallos-Levicek· M.Faytong-Haro·
A.Espinoza-Maticurena
Universidad Espiritu Santo, Km. 2.5 Vía La Puntilla,
0901-952Samborondon, Ecuador
e-mail: ivancherrez@gmail.com
I.Cherrez-Ojeda· K.Robles-Velasco·
D.Cevallos-Levicek· M.Faytong-Haro·
A.Espinoza-Maticurena
Respiralab Research Group, Guayaquil, Ecuador
G.D.Ramon· L.Barrionuevo
Instituto de Alergia e Inmunologia del Sur, BuenosAires,
Argentina
O.CalderonLlosa
Clínica SANNA el Golf, SanIsidro, Lima, Peru
P.Alvarez-Muñoz
Universidad Estatal de Milagro, Milagro, Ecuador
I.Tinoco
Centro de Alergias Tinoco, Machala, Ecuador
L.Makra· Á.J.Deák
Faculty ofAgriculture, Institute ofEconomics andRural
Development, University ofSzeged, Andrássy út 15,
Hódmezővásárhely6800, Hungary
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Keywords Ragweed· Ambrosia· Aerobiology
stations· Latin America· Pollen
1 Introduction
Pollen plays a significant role in triggering the sea-
sonal symptoms of allergic rhinoconjunctivitis. Since
pollen seasons can fluctuate according to tempera-
ture and location, it is crucial to monitor the quanti-
ties of pollen and the predominant species in different
areas. Ambrosia commonly referred to as ragweed,
has been identified as a major allergenic pollen genus
with a strong invasiveness capability (Montagnani
etal., 2017, 2023). Ambrosia has been now described
in approximately 80 countries across all continents,
including South America (Hufnagel etal., 2015; Sun
etal., 2017), with the majority of them finding it as
a casual, invasive, and naturalized alien species and
only a few as the native species of the described area
(Montagnani etal., 2017). This strong invasive poten-
tial has been primarily attributed to human influences
that allowed their introduction into new regions dur-
ing the previous century (urbanization, agricultural
intensification, and improved transportation net-
works) (Marselle etal., 2019).
This review will primarily examine the worldwide
background of ragweed, including its origins, initial
documentation, and its spread to South America. The
first section will further elaborate on the wider eco-
logical niche of Ambrosia, highlighting its signifi-
cance. The following section will discuss the primary
discoveries documented in the literature on the occur-
rence of Ambrosia in several South American nations,
including Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Argentina, and
Chile, as well as the latest results from newly estab-
lished stations in Ecuador. Subsequently, the last sec-
tions will outline the primary issues that occur as a
result of the existence of ragweed in various places,
particularly in the domains of health, agriculture, and
climate change.
2 Origin, occurrence, climate conditions,
andresilience inaworldwide context
Carl Linnaeus initially introduced the botanical
name Ambrosia in volume 2 of Species Plantarum
in 1753, as an annual wind-pollinated monoecious
weed species belonging to the Asteraceae family,
with three documented habitats being Virginia, Can-
ada; Virginia, Pennsylvania; and Etruria, Cappadocia
(Linné & Linné, 1753). Based on the best information
we have; the genus Ambrosia comprises 49 species
(Hufnagel etal., 2015). Of them, 31 species are native
to North America, while 8 come from South America
(Hufnagel etal., 2015).
In every continent, the most frequently occur-
ring Ambrosia species is A. artemisiifolia. However,
besides Europe, there is no information on its esti-
mated distribution compared to the other available
Ambrosia species. For Europe, A. artemisiifolia, A.
trifida, A. psilostachya, and A. tenuifolia are the most
common species (Montagnani et al., 2023). Despite
this, the most widespread of them is A. artemisiifolia.
Its estimated distribution rate vs. other ragweed spe-
cies in Europe is approximately 90:10 (Bartha etal.,
2019; Makra, 2022).
Very few areas in South America have a climate
similar to that of the ragweed’s homeland. In addi-
tion, the climates of South America and North
America differ significantly. Consequently, ragweed
in South America cannot occupy the climatic range
found in North America (Guisan et al., 2014). Fur-
thermore, it should be noted that A. artemisiifolia has
also spread to new climate areas in South America
that are not found in North America (Guisan etal.,
2014). A study showed that 450 species of insects,
mites, and fungi are associated with Ambrosia species
in North and South America (Gerber etal., 2011).
3 Ecological niche forAmbrosia species
Each species exhibits a spectrum of environmental
conditions conducive to favorable population growth,
defining its ecological niche (Takola & Schielzeth,
2022). This niche encompasses two interconnected
components: (1) the range of biotic and abiotic fac-
tors influencing a species’ persistence in a specific
habitat, and (2) the species’ influence on these factors
(Scheiner & Willig, 2011).Based on these principles,
Song etal. mapped the current and potential distribu-
tion of A. artemisiifolia for every continent by eco-
logical niche models to identify areas with the high-
est potential risk of A. artemisiifolia invasion (Song
etal., 2023). The great ecological niche stability in
Africa, Australia, China, Europe, and South America
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suggests that A. artemisiifolia was ecologically con-
servative during the invasion. Ecological niche
growth with a value of 0.407 was seen exclusively in
South America (Song et al., 2023).). This suggests
that A. artemisiifolia has undergone notable changes
in its ability to inhabit and adapt to different condi-
tions in South America.
According to the niche dynamic index, A. arte-
misiifolia is steady throughout its global invasion
area, save for significant growth in South America.
The climatic niches of the invading areas on all conti-
nents, save South America, are not significant. South
America’s climate niche stands out among all invad-
ing regions because of its unique characteristics: a
low Schoener’s D value and a very unstable climate
niche (Unfilling = 0.846, Expansion = 0.407). In non-
native areas, the climatic niches of A. artemisiifolia
remained consistently steady, particularly in Europe.
(Song et al., 2023). These findings suggest that A.
artemisiifolia has a generally stable ecological niche
globally, but South America stands out with a unique
and highly dynamic climate niche, indicating substan-
tial changes and expansion in the species’ ecological
preferences in that region underscoring the impor-
tance of studying ragweed in these regions.
4 Information available ontheAmbrosia pollen
concentration inSouth America
South America is composed of thirteen independent
nations: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trini-
dad and Tobago, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Addition-
ally, it includes French Guiana, which is an overseas
department of France, and five dependent territories
belonging to other countries (América Latina y el
Caribe, no date). The diverse geography of South
America results in a wide range of biomes through-
out the continent. South America’s coastal lowlands’
desert habitat transitions to the harsh alpine biome
of the Andes mountains within a few hundred kilo-
meters. The Amazon River basin is characterized by
lush, tropical rainforests, whereas the Paraná River
basin consists of extensive grasslands. South America
possesses an exceptional variety of plant and animal
species, making its biodiversity stand out compared
to other continents.(Echeverría-Londoño etal., 2018).
Even though the information available on the pol-
len concentrations measured at individual aerobio-
logical stations in South America is still limited, we
can describe the concentration of Ambrosia pollen in
South America as follows:
Hurtado and Riegles-Goihman conducted air sam-
pling in Caracas, the capital of Venezuela with a
tropical climate (Hurtado & Riegles-Goihman, 1984).
They found a very low concentration of Ambrosia
pollen. In Bogota, the capital of Colombia, Ambrosia
spp. were found very rare in 1966 (A Geographical
Atlas of World Weeds—Holm, LeRoy; Pancho, Juan
V.; Herberger, James P.; Plucknett, Donald L., n.d.;
EPPO Global Database, n.d.). However, small quan-
tities of pollen grains were detected in July (Medina
& Fernandez, 1966). During a measurement period in
June 1986–May 1987, the aggregated pollen count of
altogether 72 pollen types was 7,626. Among these,
24 taxa have been identified. Weed pollen counts,
including Ambrosia spp., were very low (4% of the
total, i.e., a mere 304 pollen grains) (Hurtado etal.,
1989). This number assumes a very low annual rag-
weed pollen concentration in Bogota, (Table1).
Calderón etal., identified and registered the most
important aeroallergens in the atmosphere of Lima,
the capital of Peru (Calderón etal., 2015). They found
that the ratio of Ambrosia pollen concentration in the
annual aggregated pollen integral was a mere 0.15%.
In Talca, Chile, Mardones etal. (2013) found signifi-
cant concentrations of A. artemisiifolia were detected
from February until April during the measuring
period from May 2007 to April 2008. However, the
specific value of the concentration was not mentioned
in the paper. Toro et al. studied the concentrations
of 39 different pollen types in the Santiago de Chile
metropolitan area over the period 2009–2013 (Toro
A. etal., 2015). From the ten different weed taxa that
were identified in the pollen samples the contribution
of A. artemisiifolia to the average annual weed pollen
grains was 267 ± 39 grains/m3 per year, which means
7.0% of relative contribution.
In Argentina, Murray et al. described in 2010
the findings of 200 grains/m3/year (0.5%, share in
comparison with annual pollen concentrations)
of ragweed pollen in Bahia Blanca (Murray etal.,
2010). In 2018, Torres etal. described 171 grains/
m3/year (0.7%) of ragweed pollen in San Salvador
de Juyuyuy (Torres etal., 2018). Ramón etal. stud-
ied the annual aggregated pollen concentration in
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Argentina for four cities, from September 2018 to
September 2019 (Ramon etal., 2020). They classi-
fied the pollen concentrations into three categories:
tree, grasses, and weed pollen. The following weed
pollen concentrations (grains/m3/year) and their
ratio in the aggregated annual pollen concentrations
(in bracket) were measured: Bariloche: 7, (0,8%),
Cordoba: 97, (11.3%), Santa Rosa: 14, (2.8%), and
Bahía Blanca: 34, (12.0%), (Table 1). Although
ragweed is in the weed category, there are many
other types of weed pollen in that category. Based
on this alone, we can say that the concentration of
ragweed pollen in the aforementioned cities is not
significant, but more research is needed. Greco
etal. didn’t find ragweed pollen in Belo Horizonte,
Brazil, and its surroundings, during their measure-
ments, from January 1940, up to July 1941 (Greco
etal., 1942).
The establishment of new aerobiology stations in
countries such as Ecuador, Chile, and Peru has signif-
icant importance in advancing the comprehension of
allergic disorders within these geographical regions.
These stations will serve as permanent sources of data
on the behavior of pollen and fungal spores, therefore
contributing to a deeper knowledge of allergic condi-
tions. The significance of achieving the purpose of the
National Allergy Bureau across the United States and
globally is underscored by the potential novelty of the
findings, which may have not been previously docu-
mented. As an example, we present the latest findings
of the surveillance of pollen and fungal spores’ levels
in the atmosphere.
Figure1 offers a visual representation of these ini-
tial findings, laid out in the form of a map overlaid
with proportional circles that correspond to the maxi-
mum daily Ambrosia pollen counts per cubic meter,
recorded from 2019 to 2023. The varying sizes of
these circles clearly illustrate the discrepancies in pol-
len counts among the cities. Guayaquil’s (Ecuador)
circle is the largest, signifying the highest recorded
count at 26 particles per cubic meter, while smaller
circles represent Bahía Blanca and Buenos Aires
(Argentina) with their respective counts of 5 and 8
particles per cubic meter. Lima (Peru) and Santiago
de Chile are depicted with moderately sized circles,
both marking a peak daily count of 10 particles per
cubic meter.
Ecuador reports, in addition to Ambrosia arte-
misiifolia, 3 other species of Ambrosia: (1) A. arbo-
rescens, with the widest distribution in the country,
(2) A. artemisioides and (3) A. cumanensis (Tropi-
cos—NameSearch, no date). Ecuador is a territory
highly vulnerable to the effects of climate variability
and changes in temperature are projected to continue
to rise through the end of the century (World Bank
Climate Change Knowledge Portal, no date). Clearly,
Guayaquil has the highest particle count recorded.
For instance, this cartographic depiction highlights
the geographic spread or intensity of Ambrosia polli-
nation in South America, providing valuable insights
Table 1 Summary of Ambrosia pollen reports in six countries of South America over time
Year Author City, Country Grains/m3/year % of total pollen
1942 Greco etal. (1942) Belo Horizonte, Brazil 0 0
1966 Medina etal. (1966) Bogota, Colombia 0
1984 Hurtado etal. (1984) Caracas, Venezuela Rare observations of
ragweed pollen
1989 Hurtado etal. (1989) Bogota, Colombia 304 4%
2010 Murray etal. (2010) Bahia Blanca, Argentina 200.72 0.5%
2013 Mardones etal. (2013) Talca, Chile 189 1.75%
2015 Calderon etal. (2015) Lima, Peru 0.15%
2015 Toro etal. (2015) Santiago, Chile 267 7%
2018 Torres etal. (2018) San Salvador de Juyuy, Argentina 171 0.7%
2020 Ramon etal. (2020)Bariloche, Argentina 7 0.8%
Córdoba, Argentina 97 11.3%
Santa Rosa, Argentina 14 2.8%
Bahía Blanca, Argentina 34 12%
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for public health planning and allergen risk manage-
ment in the region.
5 Health perspectives
Due to global climate change, according to model
calculations (e.g., Storkey etal. (Storkey etal., 2014);
Chapman et al. (Chapman et al., 2016)), the pol-
len concentration of Ambrosia species increases, the
pollen season becomes longer, and the habitats of
allergenic taxa, including Ambrosia species, expand
higher latitudes. Consequently, more and more peo-
ple are exposed to and becoming sensitive to ragweed
pollen. Therefore, the number of allergic diseases
is increasing globally, and the global public health
risk is increasing (Hess, 2019; Ziska et al., 2019).
The contribution of human forcing on the climate
system – due to the accumulation of anthropogenic
greenhouse gases, especially CO2 and methane,
accounted for 50% of the trend in lengthening pol-
len seasons and 8% of the trend in increasing pollen
concentrations (Anderegg etal., 2021).
Identifying the presence or absence of Ambrosia
in a specific area is crucial from a medical standpoint
due to its well-known status as one of the most aller-
genic pollen. This is mainly due to Amb a 1, a 38-kDa
non-glycosylated protein classified as a pectatelyase
protein. It is a highly allergenic molecule that is rec-
ognized by 90% of individuals sensitized to ragweed.
(Gadermaier etal., 2008).
Existing studies have shown that the threshold
value for clinical symptoms is below 20 ragweed
pollen grains/m3/daily (Jäger, 2000; Taramarcaz
etal., 2005). In the USA, it has been estimated that
allergic reactions to ragweed pollen are found with
concentrations as low as 5–20 pollen grains/m3/
daily, and in the Midwest, the typical pollen count
Fig. 1 Comparative
analysis of maximum daily
Ambrosia volume (m.3):
city-wise distribution from
2019 to 2023
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during the ragweed season is about 200 pollen
grains/m3/daily (Oswalt & Marshall, 2008). The
information for Europe suggests that very sensi-
tive people can be affected by as few as 1–2 pollen
grains/m3 (Chapman etal., 2016).
People allergic to ragweed appear generally to
show allergies to other pollen. For example, Yank-
ova etal. showed that all patients with positive skin
prick tests for ragweed were highly allergic to other
pollen types mostly to Poaceae and Asteraceae
(Yankova etal., 2000). Moreover, serious allergy to
ragweed pollen can result in allergic asthma, aller-
gic rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and various respiratory
diseases (Anees-Hill etal., 2022; Taramarcaz etal.,
2005).
Continuous monitoring is imperative to ascer-
tain three key aspects. Firstly, it enables the iden-
tification of the progression of ragweed infestation
within a particular region. Secondly, it provides
empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness or
ineffectiveness of the implemented measures aimed
at reducing the infestation. Last, but not least, it
aids in facilitating medical decision-making about
pathologies associated with the allergenic pollen in
question (Leru etal., 2019).
Pollen and fungal spores monitoring is being
conducted in several nations worldwide, encom-
passing diverse stations and long-standing aero-
biological initiatives. In Europe, the European
Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology has
available a web page where they provide a “World-
wide Map of Pollen Monitoring Stations” (World-
wide Map of Pollen Monitoring Stations – EAACI
Patients, no date). In the environment of the Amer-
icas, the division of the American Academy of
Asthma, Allergy, and Immunology AAAAI’s Aer-
oallergen Network known as the National Allergy
Bureau (NAB)(AAAAI, no date), is the organiza-
tion in charge of providing updates on pollen and
fungal spore levels. There are 84 stations in North
America. In South America, there are only six cer-
tified aerobiology stations up to 2022 (AAAAI, no
date; Alergia y polinosis—Red Latinoamericana de
Aerobiología, 2023). The expansion of accredited
stations throughout South America will facilitate
the acquisition and dissemination of information
in the field of Aerobiology at both continental and
global scales.
6 Damage inagriculture
Ragweed has an enormous invasive potential through
the production of large quantities of seeds with very
high germination capacity. Each ragweed plant pro-
duces 3.000–62.000 seeds, which can remain dormant
for up to 39 years if the environmental conditions
allow (Montagnani etal., 2017). Moreover, because
ragweed is an anemophilous (wind-pollinating) spe-
cies, it generates small (18–22 microns) pollen grains
with small air chambers between layers of the outer
pollen wall, which is unique in the Asteraceae plant
family (Mandrioli et al., 1998). A single Ambro-
sia plant may yield 1.19 ± 0.14 billion pollen grains
every year (Makra etal., 2005). As a result, these fea-
tures enable it to travel large distances, ranging from
60 to 200km (de Weger etal., 2016) and, in some
circumstances, up to 1000km in ideal meteorologi-
cal conditions (Cecchi etal., 2007). In addition, the
absence of natural enemies of ragweed plants facili-
tated its spread in similar climatic conditions. A. arte-
misiifolia can significantly reduce the yield of cere-
als and other field crops (e.g. sunflower) and cause
harvesting problems. Its presence greatly impairs the
forage quality of meadows and pastures (A. artemisii-
folia is unpalatable to livestock) and, if fed by cattle,
contaminates dairy products.
7 Ambrosia asamarker ofclimate change
Climate change poses a serious risk to airborne
bioparticles like pollen grains and fungal spores
(Pacheco etal., 2021), making them more vulnerable
to factors such as greenhouse gas emissions, humid-
ity, air pollution, and high UV radiation (Schiavoni
et al., 2017). This can disrupt the natural cycle of
pollen seasons, leading to changes in the timing and
amount of pollen released, as well as alterations in the
composition, concentration, and allergenic properties
of pollen. (Glick etal., 2021).
Global climate change is predicted to cause an
increase in Ambrosia species pollen concentration,
lengthen the pollen season, and spread the habitats of
allergenic taxa, such as Ambrosia species, to higher
latitude (Lake etal., 2017; Storkey etal., 2014). As a
result, an increasing number of individuals are devel-
oping a sensitivity to ragweed pollen. Consequently,
the prevalence of allergy disorders is on the rise
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worldwide, posing an escalating global public health
threat (Hess, 2019; Ziska etal., 2019). Human activi-
ties, particularly the buildup of man-made greenhouse
gases like CO2, were responsible for around 50% of
the extension of pollen seasons and about 8% of the
rise in pollen concentrations (Anderegg etal., 2021).
Climate change’s impact on Ambrosia distribution
can boost anemophilous plant abundance, resulting
in more pollen emissions into the atmosphere. This
can elevate the population’s exposure to aeroallergens
and enhance sensitivity. Pollen gathered in northern
Italy from ragweed plants in urban parks and near
busy highways, which are heavily affected by pollu-
tion, exhibited higher allergenicity compared to pol-
len from plants in rural regions.(Moitra etal., 2023).
However, the allergenicity level of ragweed from
South America remains unexplored.
8 Conclusions
The aforementioned information provides substantial
evidence to advocate for the expansion of accredited
aerobiology stations in additional South American
nations. To obtain accurate information on the rag-
weed situation, it is imperative that various stake-
holders, including the government, scientific socie-
ties specializing in allergy, immunology, biology,
and palynology, as well as academic institutions (not
limited to universities) involving individuals of all
ages, actively participate in monitoring efforts. The
implementation of this collaborative approach will
facilitate the dissemination of knowledge regarding
potential challenges related to ragweed and guaran-
tee the accessibility of precise data. This, in turn, can
contribute to the formulation of interventions from
environmental, botanical, and health standpoints.
Furthermore, it may pave the way for future research
endeavors focused on investigating the extent of
allergenic sensitization among individuals residing
in South American regions, as well as the potential
development of tailored immunotherapy approaches
that cater to the unique requirements of these areas.
Author contributions All authors contributed to the study
conception and design. Material preparation, data collection
and analysis were performed by Marco Faytong-Haro, Andres
Espinoza, Laura Barrionuevo and Oscar Calderon. The first
draft of the manuscript was written by László Makra, Áron
József Deák, Karla Robles, Ivan Cherrez, German Ramon and
Denisse Cevallos and all authors commented on previous ver-
sions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.
Funding This study was funded and supported by Univer-
sidad Espiritu Santo, Ecuador [Grant #2023-MED-008]. The
sponsor had no role in the design of the study or in the collec-
tion, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare no competing inter-
ests.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Com-
mons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any
medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the
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