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Plants2024,13,1283.https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13101283www.mdpi.com/journal/plants
Article
QuantitativeDeterminationofBiogenicElementContentsand
PhytochemicalsofBroccoli(Brassica oleracea var. italica)
CookedUsingDifferentTechniques
FahadAlJuhaimi
1
,IsamA.MohamedAhmed
1
,MehmetMusaÖzcan
2,
*andNurhanUslu
2
andZainabAlbakry
3
1
DepartmentofFoodScienceandNutrition,CollegeofFoodandAgriculturalSciences,KingSaud
University,POBox2460,Riyadh11451,SaudiArabia;faljuhaimi@ksu.edu.sa(F.A.);
iali@ksu.edu.sa(I.A.M.A.)
2
DepartmentofFoodEngineering,FacultyofAgriculture,SelcukUniversity,Konya42031,Turkey ;
nurhanuslu.gmuh@gmail.com
3
CollegeofOceanFoodandBiologicalEngineering,JimeiUniversity,Xiamen361021,China;
20236100007@jmu.edu.cn
*Correspondence:mozcan@selcuk.edu.tr;Tel. :+90-332-2232933
Abstract:Inthisstudy,theeffectofdifferentcookingtechniquesonbroccolimoisture,totalphe-
nolic,totalflavonoid,andradicalscavengingcapacityresults,polyphenolcontents,andtheirquan-
titativevalueswasinvestigated.Thetotalphenolicquantitiesoffreshandcookedbroccolisamples
wereassessedtobebetween36.32(conventionalboiling)and423.39mgGAE/100g(microwave
heating).Theradicalscavengingactivitiesofthebroccolisampleswerereportedbetween2.55(con-
ventionalboiling)and4.99mmol/kg(microwaveheating).Inaddition,catechinandrutinquantities
ofthefreshandcookedbroccolisamplesweremeasuredtobebetween2.24(conventionalboiling)
and54.48mg/100g(microwaveheating),andbetween0.55(conventionalboiling)and16.33mg/100
g(microwaveheating),respectively.Themostabundantelementsinfreshandcookedbroccolisam-
pleswereK,Ca,P,S,andMg.Theresultsshowedsomechangesdependingoncookingtechniques
comparedtothecontrol.Thebioactivepropertiesofbroccolisamplescookedbymeansofconven-
tionalboiling,boilinginvacuumbag,andhigh-pressureboilingwereestablishedtobelowercom-
paredtothefreshsample.Catechin,3,4-dihydroxybenzoicacid,rutin,andgallicacidwerethekey
phenoliccompoundsoffreshandcookedbroccolisamples.Thephenoliccomponentsofbroccoli
weresignificantlyaffectedbytheappliedcookingtechniques.Thehighestproteininbroccolisamples
wasdeterminedinthebroccolisamplecookedbyboilinginavacuumbag.Therewerestatistically
significantchangesamongthemineralresultsofbroccolicookedwithdifferentcookingmethods.
Keywords:broccoli;cookingmethods;bioactivecompounds;antioxidantcapacity;polyphenols;
elements;HPLC
1.Introduction
Broccoli(Brassicaoleraceavar.italica),whichisnativetotheEasternMediterranean
basinandItaly,andamemberoftheBrassicaceaefamily,isahorticulturalandafavorite
wintervegetablewithhighnutritionalvalue,bioactivecompounds,andantioxidantprop-
erties[1–5].Phenoliccompounds,phenolicacidssuchaskaempferolandascorbicacid
inbroccolihaveantioxidantcapacity[6,7],Broccolicontainssignificantamountsofhealth-
beneficialcompounds,whichhasincreaseditsconsumptionbypeople[8].Theconsump-
tionofbroccolihasapositiveeffectonhumanhealththankstosomeminerals,phenolics,
xanthophylls,sulforaphane,phenolics,anduniquebioactivecompounds[6].Broccolicon-
tainssignificantamountsofhealth-beneficialcompounds,whichhasincreaseditscon-
sumptionbypeople.Mineralsarethebuildingblocksofbones,teeth,blood,andmuscle
Citation:AlJuhaimi,F.;Mohamed
Ahmed,I.A.;Özcan,M.M.;Uslu,N.;
Albakry,Z.Quantitative
DeterminationofBiogenicElement
ContentsandPhytochemicalsof
Broccoli(Brassicaoleraceavar.italica)
CookedUsingDifferentTechniques.
Plants2024,13,1283.hps://doi.org/
10.3390/plants13101283
AcademicEditor:Nicoleta-Gabriela
Hădărugă
Received:27March2024
Revised:24April2024
Accepted:1May2024
Published:7May2024
Copyright:©2024bytheauthors.
Submiedforpossibleopenaccess
publicationunderthetermsandcon-
ditionsoftheCreativeCommonsAt-
tribution(CCBY)license(hps://cre-
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Plants2024,13,12832of12
cells,andincreasetheusefulnessofvitamins[9–11].Phenoliccompoundsplayacrucial
roleinexertingawidevarietyofbiochemicalandpharmacologicaleffects[12,13].
Thephenoliccomponentsoffoods,andthereforetheirpotentialantioxidantactivi-
ties,areaffectedbydomesticprocessingproceduressuchascooking[14,15]andthermal
treatments[16,17].Ifoxidativeenzymesarenotinactivatedduringcooking,theycanin-
creasethechemicalorenzymaticdegradationofphenoliccompoundsorcausechemical
changesthatmayaffectqualityproperties[18,19].Steaminghasbeenreportedtobemore
beneficialforcertainhealth-promotingcompoundsinfruitsandvegetables[20].Inaddi-
tiontocausingchangesinthechemicalcompositionofgreenleafyvegetables,cooking
processescanalsocausechangesintheconcentrationsofbioactivecompounds[21–24].
Amongthemainfactorsthatcanchangethelevelofphytochemicalsinvegetablesbefore
consumption,themostimportantonesareheat-involvingpreparation/processing,ther-
maldegradation,oxidation,leaching,andmatrixdegradation[25].Broccolicookedwith
variouscookingmethodscanalsobeusedinsaladsorsidedishes.Althoughthemost
commoncookingmethodsareusuallyboilingandsteaming,theuseofsousvidehasre-
centlybecomewidespreadinordertopreservethecontentandincreasethebioavailability
ofbioactivecompoundsinvegetables[20,26,27].Variousheattreatmentsarewidelyap-
pliedtogreenleafyvegetables,whicharecommonlyconsumedraworcooked/processed,
toneutralizemicroorganismsandenzymesandincreaseflavor,thusincreasingproduct
safetyandquality[26,28].Vegetablesandfruitsarefoodstuffsthathaveanimportant
placeinnutrition.Theycontributetohumanhealthnotonlywiththevitaminsandmin-
eralstheycontain,butalsowiththeirphenoliccomponents.Combinedphytochemicalsin
plantfoodsactthroughvariousmechanismssuchasantioxidantactivity,cellregenera-
tion,andtumorsuppression[29,30].Vegetabl esareconsumedrawaswellasprocessed
andconsumedasvariousproducts.Sinceitisdifficultforvegetablestobestoredfora
longtimewithoutspoilinginfreshform,itispossibletostorethemforalongtimeby
applyingprocessessuchasboilinganddrying[31].Boilingisappliedtopreventenzy-
maticchangeincannedfoodproductionuntilheattreatment,topreventthenegativeef-
fectsofenzymesinthedryingprocessuntiltheendofdrying,andtopreventtheeffectof
enzymesuntilconsumptioninfreezingpreservation.Enzymesarerenderedinactiveby
theseprocesses.Thus,therawmaterialispreventedfromundergoingenzymaticchanges
untilitissterilized.Inaddition,themicroorganismloadisalsoreducedbyboiling[32].
Dryingisoneofthefirstpreservationmethodsusedbyhumanitytopreservefood.Today,
inparallelwiththeincreasingconsumptiontrendofready-madefoods,theimportanceof
driedvegetables,whichisoneofthebasicingredientsofsuchfoods,isincreasingallover
theworld.AlthoughvegetablesaregenerallyconsumedasfreshinTurkey,vegetables
driedbyvariousmethodsarealsodemandedbyfinalconsumersandfoodindustrycom-
panies.Thedriedvegetablesectorhasbecomeoneoftheimportantsub-sectorsofthefood
industrywiththemoderndryingmethodsitusesaswellasthetraditionalsundrying
method[30,33].Boilingandsteamingarethemostwidelyusedtraditionalcookingmeth-
ods.Traditionalcookingmethodscanleadtoalossofnutrientsandflavorelements[34].
Newcookingmethodsarebeingstudiedtominimizetheselosses.Theobjectiveofthis
investigationwastomonitortheeffectofdifferentcookingtechniquesonbroccolimois-
ture,totalphenolic,totalflavonoid,andradicalscavengingcapacityresults,polyphenol
contents,andtheirquantitativevalues.
2.ResultsandDiscussion
2.1.TotalPhenolicandTotalFlavonoidAmounts,andAntioxidantActivityValue sofBroccoli
CookedwithDifferentCookingTechn iques
Themoisturequantitiesandbioactivepropertiesofbroccolifloretscookedwithdif-
ferentcookingtechniquesaredisplayedinTable1.Theresultsshowedsomechangesde-
pendingoncookingtechniquescomparedtothecontrol.Themoisturequantitiesoffresh
andcookedbroccolisampleswerefoundtobebetween50.84(microwave)and91.82%
Plants2024,13,12833of12
(conventionalboiling).Ingeneral,themoisturequantitiesofbroccolicookedbymeansof
conventionalboiling(openpot),boilinginavacuumbag,andhigh-pressureboilingwere
establishedtobehigherwhencomparedtofresh,whilethemoistureamountsofbroccoli
samplescookedwithconventionalheatingandmicrowaveheatingapplicationarefound
tobelowerthanthoseoffreshones.
Tab le1.Bioactivepropertiesofbroccolicookedusingdifferenttechniques.
ProcessMoistureContent
(%)
TotalPhenolic
Content(mg/100g)
TotalFlavonoid
Content(mg/100g)
AntioxidantActivity
(mmol/kg)
Fresh86.93±0.09*d116.69±0.74c157.30±5.06b4.75±0.02c
Conventionalboiling91.82±0.50a**36.32±0.46f60.16±0.90f2.55±0.10f
Boilinginavacuumbag89.58±0.05c75.63±1.24d92.86±0.78d3.75±0.05d
High-pressureboiling90.41±0.70b65.05±1.95e73.81±0.78e3.60±0.04e
Conventionalheating72.84±0.68e148.04±4.32b147.78±2.50c4.99±0.00a
Microwaveheating50.84±1.81f423.39±3.96a409.68±3.67a4.79±0.00b
*Standarddeviation;**valueswithineachcolumnfollowedbydifferentleersaresignificantly
different:“p<0.05”.
Whilethetotalphenolicamountsofcookedbroccolisampleswerefoundtobebe-
tween36.32(conventionalboiling)and423.39mgGAE/100g(microwaveheating),the
totalphenolicquantityoffreshbroccolisampleswas116.69mgGAE/100g.Also,thetotal
flavonoidquantityoffreshbroccolisampleswasrecordedas157.30mg/100g,whilethe
totalflavonoidquantitiesofcookedbroccolisamplesrangedbetween60.16(conventional
boiling)and409.68mg/100g(microwaveheating).Inaddition,theantioxidantactivities
offreshandcookedbroccolisampleswereassessedtobebetween2.55(conventionalboil-
ing)and4.99mmol/kg(microwaveheating).Whilethetotalphenolandtotalflavonoid
quantitiesandtheantioxidantactivitiesofbroccolisamplescookedbymeansofconven-
tionalboiling,boilinginavacuumbag,andhigh-pressureboilingwerefoundtobelower
comparedtothefreshsample,thetotalphenol,totalflavonoid,andantioxidantactivities
ofbroccolisamplescookedinconventionalheatingandmicrowaveheatingwereestab-
lishedtobehigherthantheresultsofbothfreshbroccoliandbroccolicookedusingthe
otherthreecookingtechniques.Thefactthatthetotalphenolandtotalflavonoidquanti-
ties,andtheradicalscavengingcapacityvaluesofbroccolisamplescookedusingconven-
tionalandmicrowaveheatingwerehigherthantheothersisprobablycausedbyMaillard
reactionproductsthatmayoccurasaresultofdryheating.Theamountoftotalphenols
andflavonoidsinbroccolisamplescookedbymeansofboilinginavacuumbag,high-
pressureboiling,andconventionalboilingmayhavedecreasedduetothedeterioration
oftheirstructure.Therewerestatisticallysignificantchangesamongthebioactivecharac-
teristicsofbroccolicookedwithdifferentcookingmethods(p<0.05).Manyphysicaland
chemicalchangesandthermaldeteriorationsmayoccurinthestructureofmostvegeta-
blescookedusingboiling,microwaveoven,steaming,orbakingmethods[35].Inaddition,
Maillardreactionproducts,formedasaresultofheattreatment,canproducestronger
antioxidantproducts[36,37].Themoisturecontentsoffreshbroccoli,water-boiledbroc-
coli,steamedbroccoli,andmicrowavedbroccoliwere89.86%,93.26%,91.87%,and93.27%,
respectively[38].Theproteincontents(dw)offreshbroccoli,water-boiledbroccoli,
steamedbroccoli,andmicrowavedbroccoliwere3.34%,2.27%,2.68%,and2.26%,respec-
tively[38].Inadditiontothese,thetotalphenoliccontentofbroccolirangedfrom412to
987mgGAE/100ginfreshsamples[34,39].Thetotalphenoliccontentsofrawbroccoliand
broccolicookedusingMW,boiling,andsteamingwere169.6mgGAE/100g,164.3–185.8
mgGAE/100g,164.2–171.3mgGAE/100g,and67.9–139.3mgGAE/100g,respectively[40].
Thetotalphenoliccontentandradicalscavengingactivityofrawbroccoliwerefoundto
be2282.97mgGAE/kgand0.189mmolTE/g,respectively[5].Thetotalphenolicresultand
radicalscavengingactivitiesofrawbroccolicookedusingthesousvidemethodat
Plants2024,13,12834of12
differenttimes(5,10,and15min.)rangedbetween1845.88and2098.96mgGAE/kg,and
between0.119and0.158mmolTE/g,respectively[5].Thetotalphenolicandantioxidant
activityresultsofrawbroccolicookedusingthesteamingmethodatdifferenttimes(5,10,
and15min.)rangedbetween1981and2188.3mgGAE/kg,andbetween0.144and0.174
mmolTE/g,respectively[5].Thetotalphenoliccontentandantioxidantactivitiesofraw
broccolicookedusingtheboilingmethodatdifferenttimes(5,10,and15min.)ranged
between926.56and1692.47mgGAE/kg,andbetween0.069and0.133mmolTE/g,respec-
tively[5].Thetotalphenoliccontentofvegetablesdecreasedusingbothconventionaland
sousvidecookingmethods[41].Theantioxidantactivityvaluesofrawbroccoliandbroc-
colicookedusingMW,steaming,andboilingwere637,563–692,599–732,and249–617
µmolTE/100g,respectively[40].Turkmenetal.[42]pointedoutthatthecookingmethod
withthehighesttotalphenolcontentofbroccoliwasmicrowavecooking.Inaprevious
study,therewerenodifferencesinantioxidantactivitybetweenfreshandcookedbroccoli
[43].Ithasbeenstatedthattherearedifferencesevenintheantioxidantcapacityresults
ofdifferentpartsofbroccoli[44,45].Findingspointedoutsomefluctuationscomparedto
theresultsofseveralstudies.Thesechangesinresultsareprobablyduetothegenetic
variationofthesample,differentclimaticfactors,plantparts,boilingtimesandtypes,ag-
ronomicalconditions,harvesttime,variety,andanalyticalconditionssuchassolventused
andextractiontypes.
2.2.ThePhenolicCompoundsofFreshandCookedBroccoliSamples
Thephenolicprofilesandtheirquantitativeresultsoffreshandcookedbroccolisam-
plesaredisplayedinTabl e2.Catechin,3,4-dihydroxybenzoicacid,rutin,andgallicacid
werethekeyphenoliccompoundsoffreshandcookedbroccolisamples(Figure1).Itwas
observedthatthephenoliccomponentsofbroccoliweresignificantlyaffectedbytheap-
pliedcookingtechniques.Itwasdeterminedthattheamountofphenoliccomponentsof
cookedbroccolisignificantlydecreasedwhencomparedtothefreshsample.However,
theamountsofsomephenolicprofilesdiffereddependingonthecookingtechnique.The
phenoliccomponentsofbroccolisamplescookedwithconventionalheatingandmicro-
waveheatingwerehigherwhencomparedtotheresultsoffreshbroccoliandbroccoli
cookedusingothercookingtechniques.Whilethegallicacidquantitiesofbroccoliflorets
variedbetween0.52(conventionalboiling)and4.29mg/100g(microwaveheating),the
3,4-dihydroxybenzoicacidquantitiesofbroccolisampleswereassessedtobebetween0.41
(conventionalboiling)and15.17mg/100g(microwaveheating).Inaddition,thecatechin
andrutinquantitiesoffreshandcookedbroccolisampleswereassessedtobebetween
2.24(conventionalboiling)and54.48mg/100g(microwaveheating),andbetween0.55
(conventionalboiling)and16.33mg/100g(microwaveheating),respectively.Thehighest
caffeic(7.07),syringic(6.21),p-coumaricacid(2.03),ferulicacid(4.72),resveratrol(1.11),
quercetin(4.68),cinnamicacid(0.78),andkaempferol(5.12mg/100g)werefoundinbroc-
colicookedinthemicrowave.Asignificantpartofthephenoliccompoundsinbroccoli
wereadverselyaffectedbyconventionalboiling,boilinginavacuumbag,andhigh-pres-
sureboilingmethods.Thecatechincontentsofbroccolicookedbymeansofboilingina
vacuumbag,high-pressureboiling,andconventionalboilingwerehigherthanbroccoli
cookedusingconventionalboiling.Therewerestatisticallysignificantchangesamongthe
phenoliccompoundsofbroccolicookedwithdifferentcookingmethods(p<0.05).Gun-
athilakeetal.[46]pointedoutthatthereisadecreaseintotalpolyphenoliccompounds
duringthecookingofsomevegetables,andthisdecreaseisprobablyduetothediffusion
ofpolyphenoliccompoundsintoboilingwater.Theeffectofcookingmethodsonthere-
leaseofphenolicconstituentsshowedthatheattreatmentscauseapartialhydrolysisof
conjugatedpolyphenols.Thereleaseofpolyphenolsintofreephenoliccompoundstrig-
geredbyheattreatmenthasbeenreported[23,35].Caffeicacid,chlorogenicacid,andne-
ochlorogenicacidwerethemajorphenolicacidsfoundinbroccoli[45,47].Freshbroccoli
andbroccolicookedinthemicrowavecontained1.845and0.173µg/gquercetin,1.230and
0.474isorhamnetin,4.976and7.252trans-ferulicacid,0.262and1.258p-coumaricacid,and
Plants2024,13,12835of12
52.158and46.489µg/gchlorogenicacid,respectively[48].Lopez-Hernandezetal.[40]
reportedthat0.27mg/kggallicacid,16.43chlorogenicacid,0.97caffeicacid,10.89isoquer-
citrin,0.16myricetin,0.30luteolin,and0.12quercetinwereidentifiedinrawbroccoli.
Also,0.28–0.32and0.29–0.35mg/kggallicacid,11.97–18.76and15.25–25.84chlorogenic
acid,0.72–1.06and0.93–1.27caffeicacid,10.49–11.16and9.87–12.86isoquercitrin,0.14–
0.18and0.14–0.18myricetin,0.31–0.37and0.39–15.01luteolin,and0.10–0.13and0.11–
0.15mg/kgquercetinweredetectedinbroccolicookedusingMWandsteaming,respec-
tively[40].Inanotherstudy,adequateamountsofchlorogenic,neochlorogenic,andferu-
licacidsweredetectedinthreebroccolisamples(stem,leaf,andflower),whilecaffeicand
p-coumaricacidsweremeasuredinbroccolileafextracts.Inaddition,gallicacidandva-
nillicacidweredetectedinbroccolistemsandflowerextracts,whilesinapicacidwasde-
tectedonlyinbroccolileavesandflowerextracts[49].Ourfindingsillustratedsomefluc-
tuationscomparedtotheresultsofpreviousstudies.Thesechangesarelikelyduetobroc-
colivariety,agriculturalandclimaticfactors,harvesttime,usedparts,solventtypes,ex-
tractionmethods,andsomeotherfactorssuchasanalyticalconditions,storage,andcook-
ingtimesandtypes.
Broccoli—Uncooked(control)
Broccoli—Conventionalboiling
010 20 30 40 min
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
mAU
280nm,4nm (1.00)
Gallic acid
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
Cate chin
Caffe ic acid
Syrin gic a cid
Rutin
p-Coumaric acid
Ferulic a cid
Resveratrol
Quercetin
Cinnamic acid
Kaempferol
010 20 30 40 min
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
mAU
280nm,4nm (1.00)
Gallic acid
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
Cate chin
Caffe ic acid
Syringic acid
Rutin
p-Coumaric acid
Ferulic a cid
Resveratrol
Quercetin
Cinnamic acid
Kaempferol
Plants2024,13,12836of12
Broccoli—Boilinginavacuumbag
Broccoli—High-pressureboiling
Broccoli—Conventionalheating
010 20 30 40 min
0
5
10
15
mAU
280nm,4nm (1.00)
Gallic acid
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
Cate chin
Caffe ic acid
Syrin gic a cid
Rutin
p-Coumaric acid
Ferulic a cid
Resveratrol
Quercetin
Cinnamic acid
Kaempferol
010 20 30 40 min
-5
0
5
10
15
20
mAU
280nm,4nm (1.00)
Gallic acid
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid
Cate chin
Caffe ic acid
Syringic acid
Rutin
p-Coumaric acid
Feru lic acid
Resveratrol
Quercetin
Cin namic acid
Kaempferol
010 20 30 40 min
0
50
100
150
200
mAU
280nm,4nm (1.00)
Gallic acid
3,4-Dih ydroxybenzoic acid
Cate ch in
Caf fe ic ac id
Syringic acid
Rut in
p-Coumaric acid
Ferulic acid
Resv era tro l
Quercet in
Cinnamic acid
Kaempferol
Plants2024,13,12837of12
Broccoli—Microwaveheating
Figure1.Phenolicchromatogramsofbroccolisamples.
Tab le2.Phenoliccompoundsofbroccolicookedusingdifferenttechniques.
PhenolicCompounds
(mg/100g)FreshConventional
Boiling
Boilingina
VacuumBag
High‐Pressure
Boiling
Conventional
Heating
Microwave
Heating
Gallicacid1.53±0.43*c0.52±0.01f1.91±0.57b1.02±0.36d0.66±0.22e4.29±0.94a
3,4-Dihydroxybenzoic
acid3.48±0.36b
**0.41±0.10f2.13±0.26d1.77±0.22e2.83±0.91c15.17±0.21a
Catechin24.00±2.11b2.24±0.49f10.93±1.48d7.01±1.43e13.36±2.69c54.48±0.75a
Caffeicacid0.83±0.30b0.13±0.02d0.15±0.06c0.06±0.0e0.86±0.36b7.07±0.17a
Syringicacid0.60±0.06c0.08±0.02e0.19±0.02d0.16±0.04d0.92±0.49b6.21±0.17a
Rutin4.16±0.77b0.55±0.06f1.29±0.17d0.62±0.14e2.56±0.69c16.33±1.58a
p
-Coumaricacid0.21±0.06e0.02±0.00f0.08±0.01d0.06±0.01e0.36±0.14b2.03±0.06a
Ferulicacid0.21±0.04d0.07±0.03f0.12±0.02e0.26±0.09c0.59±0.27b4.72±0.21a
Resveratrol0.44±0.03b0.07±0.01e0.31±0.01c0.13±0.03d0.46±0.08b1.11±0.22a
Quercetin0.67±0.04b0.62±0.11c0.50±0.08d0.40±0.05e0.38±0.10f4.68±0.52a
Cinnamicacid0.16±0.03d0.15±0.03d0.09±0.03e0.30±0.04c0.33±0.04b0.78±0.04a
Kaempferol0.23±0.06e0.31±0.08d0.21±0.06
ef0.51±0.06c0.74±0.02b5.12±0.47a
*standarddeviation;**valueswithineachrowfollowedbydifferentleersaresignificantlydif-
ferentatp<0.05.
2.3.MineralandProteinContentsofBroccoliCookedwithDifferentCookingTechn iques
Themineralandproteinresultsoffreshandcookedbroccolisamplesaredepictedin
Table3.ThemostabundantelementsinfreshandcookedbroccolisampleswereK,Ca,P,
S,andMg.TheelementwiththehighestamountamongthemicroelementswasFe,fol-
lowedbyZn,Mn,B,andCuindecreasingorder.WhilethePamountsoffreshandcooked
broccolisamplesrangedbetween3114.94(fresh)and4383.36mg/kg(conventionalboil-
ing),theKquantitiesofbroccolisampleswereassessedtobebetween19,638.27(conven-
tionalboiling)and32,729.06mg/kg(boilinginvacuumbag).Also,theCaandMgamounts
offreshandcookedbroccolisampleswerefoundtobebetween3555.67(fresh)and
6052.mg/kg(conventionalboiling),andbetween1197.02(fresh)and5039.27mg/kg(con-
ventionalheating),respectively.Inaddition,theSquantitiesoffreshandcookedbroccoli
samplesvariedbetween3167.03(conventionalboiling)and5112.97mg/kg(microwave
heating).Lookingatthemicroelements,theFeandZnquantitiesoffreshandcookedbroc-
colisampleswereassessedtobebetween41.46(boilinginvacuumbag)and55.99mg/kg
(conventionalheating),andbetween11.88(fresh)and17.53mg/kg(conventionalheating),
respectively.Also,whiletheCuresultsoffreshandcookedbroccolisamplesrangedbe-
tween2.56(conventionalheating)and3.55mg/kg(boilinginvacuumbag),theMn
amountsofbroccolisamplesweremeasuredtobebetween9.61(fresh)and15.22mg/kg
(high-pressureboiling).Ingeneral,themineralcontentofbroccolisamplescookedby
010 20 30 40 min
0
25
50
75
100
mAU
280nm,4nm (1.00)
Gallic acid
3,4-Dihydro xybenzoic acid
Cat ech in
Caf fe ic a cid
Syringic acid
Rut in
p-Coumaric acid
Ferulic acid
Resv era tro l
Quercet in
Cinnamic acid
Kaempferol
Plants2024,13,12838of12
differentmethodsincreasedwhencomparedtothecontrol(fresh).Partialreductionswere
observedinsomeoftheappliedcookingtechniques.Theproteincontentsoffreshand
cookedbroccolisamplesrangedbetween13.35%(fresh)and17.27%(boilinginavacuum
bag).Therefore,thehighestproteininbroccolisampleswasdeterminedtobeinthebroc-
colisamplecookedbymeansofboilinginavacuumbag,followedbythesamplecooked
usingconventionalboiling,high-pressureboiling,microwaveheating,conventionalheat-
ing,andthefreshsampleindescendingorder.Therewerestatisticallysignificantchanges
amongthemineralresultsofbroccolicookedwithdifferentcookingmethods(p<0.05).
BroccoliisagoodsourceofelementssuchasCa,Mg,Na,K,Ca,Cl,P,andS,andtrace
elementssuchasFe,Zn,MnandCu,whichareessentialforhumannutrition[7,50].Fresh
broccoli,water-boiledbroccoli,steamedbroccoli,andmicrowavedbroccolicontained
8.67,8.01,8.11,and8.61mg/100gZn;2.66,1.68,2.33,and1.78mg/100gFe;112.52,28.52,
94.21,and63.79mg/100gCa;562.22,275.37,447.72,and205.20mg/100gMg;3992.2943.76,
3796.3,and2460.02mg/100gK;576.52,235.45,379.58,and256.61mg/100gNa;respec-
tively[38].Freshbroccolicontained562.22Mg,3992.4K,576.52Na,8.67Zn,2.66Fe,and
112.52Camg/100g(dw)[38].Ourresultsshowedsomedifferenceswithresultsdescribed
byFarnhametal.[50],Mukherjeeetal.[7],andMansouretal.[38],whostatedthatbroc-
coliisagoodalternativesourceofCa,K,andNa.Itwasthoughtthatthebioactiveprop-
erties,phenoliccompounds,andmineralandproteinquantitiesoffreshandcookedbroc-
colisamplesprobablyvarydependingongrowingconditions,theharvesttimeofbroccoli,
soilplantnutrientelements,cookingtechniques,cookingtime,andanalyticalconditions.
Tab le3.Mineral(mg/kg)andcrudeprotein(%)contentsofbroccolicookedusingdifferenttech-
niques.
Treatment
sPKCaMgSFeCuMnZnBProtein
Control
(Fresh)
3114.94±
21.59f
29730.49
±299.48
*c
3555.67±
54.46f
1197.02±
50.90f
3935.51±
34.56e
46.60±
1.40e
2.73±
0.03d
9.61±
0.55f
11.88±
0.11f
2.76±
0.04d
13.35±
0.32f
Conventio
nalboiling
4383.36±
159.37a
19638.27
±526.42
f**
6052.69±
150.03a
1610.79±
37.84b
3167.03±
43.75f
51.59±
1.14c
3.28±
0.34b
13.07±
0.54e
13.48±
0.09e
2.21±
0.41e
15.75±
0.43b
Boilingin
avacuum
b
ag
3787.59±
30.86d
32729.06
±998.34a
4731.34±
240.78c
1508.55±
30.02c
4208.92±
60.08c
41.46±
0.24f
3.55±
0.10a
14.54±
0.05d
16.30±
0.02b
6.13±
0.72a
17.27±
0.47a
High-
pressure
b
oiling
3908.20±
16.18c
21876.31
±463.36e
5598.51±
32.73b
1326.53±
0.88e
4015.41±
19.26d
53.06±
2.11b
2.97±
0.40c
15.22±
0.13a
14.34±
0.12d
1.70±
0.02f
15.61±
0.12c
Conventio
nalheating
3658.44±
85.05e
28322.47
±1190.18
d
3791.24±
127.93e
5039.27±
557.90a
4969.11±
137.71b
55.99±
5.31a
2.56±
0.11f
14.89±
1.05c
17.53±
1.16a
5.12±
0.22b
13.85±
0.83e
Microwave
heating
3934.30±
51.88b
30420.44
±211.57b
4156.85±
73.95d
1392.06±
42.53d
5112.97±
70.60a
48.51±
0.36d
2.64±
0.13e
15.04±
0.71b
15.39±
1.71c
4.41±
0.68c
14.02±
0.80d
*standarddeviation;**valueswithineachcolumnfollowedbydifferentleersaresignificantly
differentatp<0.05.
3.MaterialandMethods
3.1.Material
BroccolisampleswerepurchasedfromalocalmarketinKonyaprovinceinTurkey.
Thesampleswerebroughtincoolconditionstothelaboratory,washed,anddividedinto
florets.Thebroccolifloretshadstemsandwereapproximately3–4cmwideand6–7cm
long.
Plants2024,13,12839of12
3.2.Methods
3.2.1.BoilingandHeatingProcesses
Broccolisampleswerecookedusingconventionalboiling,boilinginavacuumbag,
apressurecooker,conventionalheating,andmicrowaveheatingfor13,13,7,10,and10
min.Inthepressurecooker,7minwastakenintoaccountasthecookingtimefromthe
steamexit.Intheoven,afterthetemperaturewasadjustedto200°C,acookingtimeof10
minwasapplied.Thesousvideprocesswascarriedoutusing100gbroccoliinplastic
packagingat100°C/10min.Conventionalboilingwascarriedoutinanopenpot.Also,
broccolisampleswereheatedinamicrowaveat720Wfor10min.
3.2.2.DeterminationofMoistureResultsofBroccoliSamples
ThemoistureresultsofbroccolisampleswererecordedusingtheKERN&SOHN
GmbHinfraredmoistureanalyser.
3.2.3.DeterminationofProteinQuantitiesofBroccoliSamples
TheproteincontentsofthebroccolisampleswereestablishedaccordingtotheAOAC
[51]method.
3.2.4.ExtractionProcedure
BroccolisampleswereextractedaccordingtothestudyrecognizedbyGirginandEl
[52].After3gpowderedbroccolisampleswasaddedto20mLofsolvent(methanol–wa-
ter,80:20,v/v),thesolutionwasstoredinanultrasonicbathfor30min.Then,itwascen-
trifugedfor10min.Thesupernatantwasremovedandthesestepswerecarriedouttwice
with20mLofsolvent.Thecombinedextractswereusedforanalyses.
3.2.5.TotalPhenolicResultsofBroccoliSamples
TheFolin–Ciocalteu(FC)reagentwasusedtodeterminethetotalphenoliccontents
ofbroccoliextractaccordingtoYooetal.[53].FC(1mL)andNa2CO3(10mL)wereadded
totheextractandmixedusingavortexmixer.Deionizedwaterwasaddeduntilthefinal
volumewas25mL,andthesamplewaskeptindarknessfor1h.Afterpre-processing,the
absorbancevalueofthesamplewasrecordedat750nm.Thefindingsarestatedasmg
gallicacidequivalent/100g.
3.2.6.TotalFlavonoidContentofBroccoliSamples
Thetotalflavonoidresultsofbroccolisampleswereobtainedaccordingtothework
recognizedbyHoganetal.[54].Afterpre-processing,theabsorbanceresultofthemixture
wasmeasuredat510nm.Thefindingsobtainedaregivenasmgquercetin(QE)/100g.
3.2.7.AntioxidantActivityResultsofBroccoliSamples
1.1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH)wasappliedfortheantioxidantactivityre-
sultsofbroccoliextracts[55].Theextractwasaddedto2mLofamethanolicsolutionof
DPPH,andwasthenvortexedandkeptindarknessfor30min;theabsorbanceofextracts
wasobtainedat517nm.Theresultsobtainedaregivenasmmoltrolox(TE)/kg.
3.2.8.PhenolicCompounds
AHighPerformanceLiquidChromatographyunitmountedonaPDAdetectorand
anInertsilODS-3(5µm;4.6×250mm)columnwereusedforthechromatographicsepa-
rationofthephenoliccompoundsofbroccolisamples.Theinjectionvolumewas20µL.
Thepeakswererecognizedat280usingaPDAdetector.Themobilephasewasamixture
of0.05%aceticacidinwater(A)andacetonitrile(B)withaflowrateof1mL/minat30°C.
Plants2024,13,128310of12
3.2.9.DeterminationofMineralsofBroccoliSamples
After0.5gbroccolipowder,driedat70°C,wasincineratedbyusing5mlof65%
HNO3and2mLof35%H2O2inaclosedmicrowave,itsvolumewascompletedwith20
mLdistilledwater.MineralsweremeasuredusingICP-AES[56].
3.3.StatisticalAnalyses
TheJMPversion9.0statisticalanalysismethodwasusedfortheanalysisofvariance.
Themeanofthetriplicateanalysisdatawassubjectedtoanalysisofvariance.Thesignifi-
cantdifferencesamongthevaluesofcontrolandcookingtypesweredeterminedusing
Duncan’sMultipleRangeTest(p<0.05).
4.Conclusions
Cookingmethodsaffectthebioactivesubstances,phenolicprofiles,mineralresult,
andantioxidantactivityobservedinbroccoli.Thetotalphenol,totalflavonoid,andradical
scavengingcapacityresultsofbroccolisamplescookedusingconventionalboiling,boiling
inavacuumbag,andboilinginasteamcookerwerefoundtobelowercomparedtothe
freshsample.Theconventionalandmicrowaveheatingmethodscanberecommendedas
heattreatmentsthatbeerpreservetheoriginalcontentofbeneficialsubstancesinbroc-
coli.Morestudiesareneededtopreservethecontentofhealth-promotingnutrientsin
consumedbroccoli,gainnewinsights,andoptimizethewaybroccoliiscooked.Cooking
techniquesandtimeshadsignificanteffectsonthebioactivecomponents,antioxidantac-
tivities,polyphenolcontents,mineralresults,andproteinvaluesofbroccoli.Thebioactive
propertiesofbroccolisamplescookedusingconventionalheatingandmicrowaveheating
wereestablishedtobehigherthantheresultsofbothfreshbroccoliandbroccolicooked
usingtheotherthreecookingtechniques.Thephenolicconstituentsofbroccolisamples
cookedwithconventionalheatingandmicrowaveheatingwerehigherwhencompared
totheresultsoffreshbroccoliandbroccolicookedusingtheothercookingtechniques.
Therefore,thehighestproteininbroccolisampleswasdeterminedtobeinthebroccoli
samplecookedbymeansofboilinginavacuumbag,followedbythesamplecookedusing
conventionalboiling,boilinginasteamcooker,microwaveheating,conventionalheating,
andthefreshsampleindescendingorder.
AuthorContributions:F.A.:methodologyandvalidation;I.A.M.A.:validation,software,editing,
andstatisticalanalysis;M.M.Ö.:supervision,formalanalysis,andwriting—reviewing;N.U.:inves-
tigation,methodology,andformalanalysis,Z.A.:investigationanddatacuration.Allauthorshave
readandagreedtothepublishedversionofthemanuscript.
Funding:ThisworkwassupportedandfundedbytheKingSaudUniversity,Riyadh,SaudiArabia.
DataAvailabilityStatement:Datasupportingtheresultsofthisstudyareavailablefromthecorre-
spondingauthoruponreasonablerequest.
Acknowledgments:TheauthorsextendtheirappreciationtoResearchersSupportingProjectNum-
ber(RSP2024R083),KingSaudUniversity,Riyadh,SaudiArabia.
ConflictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictsofinterest.
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