ArticlePDF Available

Gender (im)balance in the Russian cinema: on the screen and behind the camera

Authors:
Xenia Leontyeva at Georgia State University
Xenia Leontyeva
Deb Verhoeven at University of Alberta
Deb Verhoeven
Olessia Koltsova
Olessia Koltsova
Olessia Koltsova
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Download full-text PDF
Read full-text
Download citation

Abstract and Figures

The relationship between on-screen and off-screen inequality in film industries and the relative impact of these on movie attendance is widely discussed but not necessarily empirically demonstrated. This article examines the binary gender composition of film project teams and the gendered representation of film characters as factors for cinema attendance. We collected a unique dataset (N=1285) of all films released during the pre-pandemic decade (2008-2019) in Russia – at that time the largest European cinema market. A marked-up subset of 243 films was used to calculate a novel version of the Bechdel-Wallace test that accounts for the proportion of all non-stereotypical dialogues in the film narration, as opposed to the classical binary test. Our test proves very informative, revealing a strikingly high proportion of dialogues with stereotypical portrayals of women even among the films that pass the Bechdel-Wallace binary threshold. We also undertook a social network analysis (SNA) of the characters’ communications. This analysis demonstrate that women predominantly occupy a peripheral position in film plots. Both stereotyping and marginalization of women are positively related to the proportion of men in the film crew, especially in the role of screenwriter. Simultaneously, having more men in key positions is also correlated with access to larger budgets and better distribution, thus effectively impeding films with stronger women characters from wider audiences. These audiences, however, show no prejudice towards films with such characters: after 2015, films featuring central women protagonists have the same level of attendance as movies without them. Although Russia exemplifies a large non-Western cinema market, the trends we identify, particularly the “gatekeeping” effect of male filmmakers, is notably in line with those observed in Western democracies.
Figures - available via license: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
Content may be subject to copyright.
Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
ARTICLE
Gender (im)balance in the Russian cinema: on the screen and behind
the camera
Xenia Leontyeva1, Olessia Koltsova2, Deb Verhoeven3
1 Saint Petersburg State University of Cinema and Television, 2 National Research University Higher School of Economics, 3 University of Alberta
Keywords: women in cinema, Bechdel-Wallace test, gender equity, cinema attendance, Russian film industry
https://doi.org/10.22148/001c.116142
Journal of Cultural Analytics
Vol. 9, Issue 1, 2024
$ . (0%+*/$%, 03 *+*„/. **+7„/. *%* -1(%05%*9()%*1/0.% /
*0$ . (0%2 %),0+"0$ / +*)+2% 00 ** %/3% (5%/1// 10*+0
*  //.%(5 ),%.%((5 )+*/0.0 z$%/.0%(  4)%* /0$ %*.5# * .
+),+/%0%+*+"9(),.+& 00 )/*0$ # * . . ,. / *00%+*+"9()
$.0 .//"0+./"+.%* )00 ** z +(( 0 1*%-1 0/ 0
•Šklro‚+"((9()/. ( / 1.%*#0$ ,. „,* )%  •ljjr„ljks‚%*
1//%ƒ00$00%) 0$ (.# /01.+, *%* )).' 0z).' „1,/1/ 0+"
lnm9()/3/1/ 0+(1(0 *+2 (2 ./%+*+"0$  $ („(( 0 /00$0
+1*0/"+.0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+"((*+*„/0 . +05,%(%(+#1 /%*0$ 9()
*..0%+*v/+,,+/ 0+0$ (//%(%*.50 /0z1.0 /0,.+2 /2 .5%*"+.)0%2 v
. 2 (%*#/0.%'%*#(5$%#$,.+,+.0%+*+"%(+#1 /3%0$/0 . +05,%(,+.0.5(/+"
3+) * 2 *)+*#0$ 9()/0$0,//0$  $ („(( %*.50$. /$+(z
(/+1* .0++'/+%(* 03+.'*(5/%/•‚+"0$ $.0 ./ˆ
+))1*%0%+*/z$%/*(5/%/ )+*/0.0 0$03+) *,. +)%**0(5+1,5
, .%,$ .(,+/%0%+*%*9(),(+0/z+0$/0 . +05,%*#*).#%*(%60%+*+"
3+) *. ,+/%0%2 (5. (0 0+0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+") *%*0$ 9(). 3v /, %((5
%*0$ .+( +"/. *3.%0 .z%)1(0* +1/(5v$2%*#)+. ) *%*' 5,+/%0%+*/%/
(/++.. (0 3%0$ //0+(.# .1# 0/* 00 .%/0.%10%+*v0$1/
7 0%2 (5%), %*#9()/3%0$/0.+*# .3+) *$.0 ./".+)3% .1% * /z
$ / 1% * /v$+3 2 .v/$+3*+,. &1% 0+3./9()/3%0$/1$$.0 ./u
"0 .ljkov9()/" 01.%*# *0.(3+) *,.+0#+*%/0/$2 0$ /) ( 2 (+"
00 ** /)+2% /3%0$+100$ )z(0$+1#$1//% 4 ),(%9 /(.# *+*„
/0 .*%* )).' 0v0$ 0. */3 % *0%"5v,.0%1(.(50$ …#0 ' ,%*#†
7 0+")( 9())' ./v%/*+0(5%*(%* 3%0$0$+/ +/ .2 %* /0 .*
 )+.% /z
1. Introduction
//1 /+"/' 3 # * .. ,. / *00%+*%*/. *) %v%*(1%*#2 .0%/%*#v
9()v*0 ( 2%/%+*v$2  *0$ "+1/+"00 *0%+*+"0$ " )%*%/0)+2 ) *0
* ) % /$+(./ /%*  0$  ksqj/ •/ "+. 4),( v +$*/0+*~ 1(2 5‚z
  *0(5v0$ / %//1 /$2 00.0 3% .00 *0%+*1 %*,.00+0$ y) 0++
/+%()+2 ) *0%*3$%$*+0( ,.+1 ./v%. 0+./v0+./v*+0$ ./0./
3 .  (( #  0+ $2  / 41((5 1/  +. $.//  0$ %. &1*%+. +.  , * *0
+(( #1 / •%5‚z * %0%+* 0+ # * .%* -1(%05v %*. /%*# 00 *0%+* %/
 %*#,%0+%0/%*0 ./ 0%+*/3%0$. v# v*+0$ ."+.)/+"%/.%)%*0%+*
•+0$+**+7„/. *‚•+*+.‚z
$ %*. /%*#00 *0%+*0++*„/. *# * .%)(* *0$ /0 . +05,%(
. ,. / *00%+*+"$.0 ./%/(/+. (0 0+0$ #.+3%*#1* ./0*%*#+"%0/
/+%(+*/ -1 * /z+/0%),+.0*0%/0$ ,+//%(  7 0+") %%)# /+*
$1)* $2%+.*%*,.0%1(.v+*3% .%*/0* /+"# * .%/.%)%*0%+*
•( 5*$*~lk/0 *01.5+4*$  *2%/*/0%010 +* * .
Leontyeva, Xenia, et al. “Gender (Im)Balance in the Russian Cinema: On the Screen and
behind the Camera.”
Journal of Cultural Analytics
, vol. 9, no. 1, May 2024,
https://doi.org/10.22148/001c.116142.
%* %v 0(z‚z / . /,+*/ 0+ 0$ /  +* .*/v/+)  9() %*1/0.% /$2 
) /)((# /01. /0+# * . -1(%05v"+. 4),( '%*#9()/3%0$/0.+*# .
0$* ,. 2%+1/ " )(  ,.+0#+*%/0/z +((53++ /01%+/v "+. %*/0* v $2 
)+%9 0.%0%+*(".*$%/ ,(+0/0+ *( #. 0 .%2 ./%05%*0$ %./0/1$
/ 0$  )+.  .  *0 0. ./ )+2% / •+, 6~ %*%''‚z +3 2 .v  .  *0
##. #0 . ,+.0+*0$ 0+,kjj#.+//%*#9()/%*+((53++/+1*/*+0 +"
10%+*z*ljlk0$  *0. "+.0$ 015+"+) *%*%()* ( 2%/%+*
% *0%9 0$03+) *+1*0 "+.+*(5mo•+")&+.$.0 ./%*0$ 0+,
kjj#.+//%*#9()/v+3*/(%#$0(5".+)mr•%*ljlj*mq•%*ljks•16 *
p‚z+) *+),.%/ +*(5mn•+"((/, '%*#$.0 ./v(/++3*/(%#$0(5
".+) mp• %* ljlj •16 * q‚z (0$+1#$ 0$  , . *0#  +" 9()/ " 01.%*#
3+) *,.+0#+*%/0/%*. / 5l, . *0# ,+%*0/0+ls•%* ljlkv 0$%/%/
3 (( (+30$ $%#$+"nj•$% 2 %*ljksz$  *0. ˆ/. ,+.0"+1*0$0
"0 .03+5 ./+",.+)%/%*##%*/vljlkˆ/, . *0# +"3+) *,.+0#+*%/0/
3/0$ /) /%*ljkpƒ0$ 5 . "+. 0$ /0.0+"0$ y ++)+2 ) *0
•16 * nƒo‚z $0 / )/ +* 0$  /1." 0+   * %*. /  +" 3+) * %*
/1/0*0%( /. * .+( / %/ *+0 *  //.%(5 /1,,+.0  5 0$  -1*0%00%2 
2% * z$%/,, ./%)%(.(5 2 (+,/-1*0%00%2 ,,.+$0+0$ ,.+( )
+"# * .%/.%)%*0%+*+* /. *3%0$1*%-1  "+1/+*0$ 1//%*9()
%*1/0.5z
+. //+*„/. *# * .%)(* *%0/5*)%/-1*0%00%2 (5v/ 2 .(
) /1. ) *0/$2  *+7 . •#* 0(z~,++. 0(z~+* / 0(z‚*
0$ %.. (0%+*0+9() /1 //$/ * /0%)0 •. )  0(z~%** . 0 (zv
…%((%+*+((.5 {†‚z$ )+/0,+,1(.%* 4v0$  $ („(( •‚
0 /0• $ (‚v%//%),( %*.5%*%0+.•5 /•*+‚+"0$ ,. / * +"0( /0
+* +*2 ./0%+* 03 *03++.)+. 3+) *0+1$%*#+**+*„/0 . +05,%(
0+,%/z +3 2 .v  %*# %*.5v%0 ,.+2% / *+ %*"+.)0%+* +10 0$  01(
,.+,+.0%+* +"*+*„/0 . +05,%( +*2 ./0%+*/ +.$.0 ./ %* 0$  9()/z +
. // 0$%/ (%)%00%+*v %* 0$%/ ,, .v 3  ,.+,+/    0 /0 )+%90%+*
•‚ 0$0 /+. / 9()/ +.%*# 0+ 0$  /$.  +" +*2 ./0%+*/  03 *
3+) *$.0 ./+*-1(%9 0+,%/z
*%0/1.. *0"+.)v0$ 0 /0$/ *3% (51/ 0+/015+*„/. *# * .
(* +0$%*9()/".+) /0 .* )+.% /•#.3( 0(z~.% 0(z~
%** . 0(zv…%((%+*+((.5 {†~%** .*$1(0%*#‚*v( // .
40 *0v 5+*•,++. 0 (z‚z %' 3%/ v/0$ +(( 0%+*+"# * ./00%/0%/
+* 9())' ./ %/  +)%*#  +))+* ,.0%  +" #+2 .*) *0 # *% /
3+.(3% v $%*„0$ „) .# * .(* %/(/+ %*#%*. /%*#(5/01% 
3%0$2.% 05+"-1*0%00%2 ,,.+$ // +*0$ *1) .+"3+) *%*
' 5 ,+/%0%+*/ %* 9() . 3/v0$ %.  // 0+ (.#  1# 0/ * 9**%( /00 
/1,,+.0• *~+((+3/ 0(z~%5‚z
$ /015+"# * .%*1//%*%* ) ,. +)%**0(5"+1/ /+*%* )0%
.0$ .0$*/+%+(+#%(-1 /0%+*/z$ )+/0*+0( /015%/5** 003++}/
kssm %0  +(( 0%+*v  )'( )( ." #&0, ,(z * 0$  9./0 ,.0/
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 2
+"0$%/2+(1) v+0$ %*0 .*0%+*( *(+(. / .$ ./ *(56  0$ $*#%*#
%)# +"3+) *%*+2% 09()/".+)0$ /0*,+%*0+"0$ , . /0.+%' .+*
0$  2 +" 0$  +((,/  +" 0$ z $  .0%( / %*0$  +(( 0%+*0.  0$ 
2+(10%+*+"0$ …3+)*-1 /0%+*†".+),. „. 2+(10%+*.5" )) /"0( /0+
0$ /0.+*#v&+5"1(v,1.,+/ "1(v*+*9 *03+.' ./+"/+%(%/0. (%/)%*0$ 
ksmj/* 0$ 2.%+1/ %)# / +"3+) * %*  /"+((+3%*#z*0$  ksnj/v
/ (: //$+) ".+*03+.' ./v*"%0$"1(3%2 /3%0%*#0$ %.$1/*/".+)
0$ 3.v,, . +*0$ /. */z*0$ ksoj/v3+) *-1%. 0$  2 .55
00.0%2 * //+" 0$ …#%.( * 40++.†z *0$  kspj/v0$ 5 3 . . %)#%*  /
. 9* +),*%+*/* 2 *0$ +/%+*(*0#+*%/0/+") *,.+0#+*%/0/z
*0$  ksqj/v 0$ . 3 .  $+ / +"0$  /0 .* / +*32 +"" )%*%/) %*
+2% 0 9()/v 3%0$ 0$  +*:%0 +" 0$  )*%,0  3+)* 1#$0  03 *
. .*, ./+*((%" u %0$ .1*/ 00( %*(+2 +.+2 .1. * 3%0$+) /0%
10% /v * 05,%((5 1#$0 %*  2%%+1/ /,%.( +" +1(  4,(+%00%+*z
•1(#'+2‚ $  )%#1%05 +" 3+) *ˆ/ ,+/%0%+* %* 0$  +2% 0 *%+* 3/
,.0%1(.(5 2% *0 1.%*# 0$%/ 0%) v /, %((5 %* 0$  +) % / +" (.
56*+2•+&2%**.0 ‚z50$  *+"0$ ksrj/*0$  #%**%*#+"
0$ kssj/v0$ /. */3 . :++ 3%0$/ 4*2%+( * 0$0$(+*# *
. /0.%* 5 */+./$%,z
$  2.%+1/ 10$+./ +" 0$  , . /0.+%' *0$+(+#5 .%0%((5 2(10  0$ 
%* )ˆ/ . ,. / *00%+* +" 3+) * /  ,+(%0%( ,.+45v  +*0%*10%+*+" 
(+*# 0.%0%+* +" /5)+(%((5 ,+.0.5%*# 0$  )+0$ .(* 0$.+1#$ 3+) *z
* 40 * %* 0$  +2% 0 . 0+ 4 ),(%90%+*+" 0$  /00 ˆ/ . (0%+*/$%,
3%0$%0/%0%6 */z$ 10$+./ /.% 0$%/,+.0.5(/5*%(*1,(%%0+1/v
. : 0%*#+*0 ),0"+.…3+)*„)+0$ .(*†*0$  /%. 0+$1)%(%0 $ .
//1(%)0%+*+"0$ /1,,. // +2% 0/+% 05+2 .)*55 ./z•.+6+2~
003++v….0kz+) *v%* )*+% 05ˆ†‚
%* 0$%/%),+.0*0,1(%0%+*v2 .5(%00( /1/0*0%2 . / .$+*3+) **
0$ %* )$/ *2%(( "+.1//%z*  4 ,0%+*%/,1(%0%+*".+)
ljlk0$0+2 ./.+//+2 ..0„)%*/0. )9()/+"0$ ljkj/*+/ .2 /0$0
3+) *ˆ/%* )%*0$%/, .%+/$%"0 0+3./.+)*0%%6%*#0.%0%+*(2(1 /
/# * .(/%/"+.%0/*..0%2 /z$ / 9()/ 4,(+%00$ ( #%0%)5+"…" )( 
,+3 .%*,+3 .( //* //†%*0$ %*. /%*#(5 *0. *$ ,0.%.$(%/+1./ +"
0$ +1*0.5z•E`bhd‚z
+.0$ )+/0 ,.0v$+3 2 .v0$ 1//%* 9()„)'%*# +))1*%05 %/.+(5
%*%7 . *0 0+ 0$  #(+( # * . # *z 1.0$ .)+. v  ,.+, .(5 %*(1/%2
1* ./0*%*#+" # * .„. (0  ,.0% /%* 0$ #(+( 9()%*1/0.5 %/ +*(5
,+//%(  5 *(56%*# (.#  *+*„ /0 .* ).' 0/ +" 3$%$ 1//% %/ *
%),+.0*0. ,. / *00%2 z
/+" ljljv0$  9./0,* )%5 .v0$  1//%*9() %*1/0.5)+1*0  0+
,,.+4%)0 (5 mpj " 01.  9() ,.+10%+* +),*% / •JU^]bfURP 0 (z‚
3$%$ . ( /  kkj„krp 9()/ , . 5 . •*6( . * %)+* v …+1/ ljll
+.( %() .' 0 . */†‚ * ),(+5  +10 lpvjjj ,.+" //%+*(/
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 3
• +*05 2**%(+2‚z1//%*1% * /3 .  *0$1/%/0%9()+*/1) ./z
* ljkqv 1//%v 3%0$lkl )%((%+* 0%' 0/ /+(v 0++' 9./0 ,(  %* 0 .)/ +"
%* ) 00 **  %* 1.+, v  0%*# 0$  ,. 2%+1/(5 , .)* *0 (  . ƒ
.*  •ljs )%((%+* )%//%+*/‚ •*6( . * %)+* v …+1/ ljll +.(
%().' 0. */†‚z3+5 ./(0 .v%*ljksv1//% /0(%/$ 1.+, *
. +. 3%0$ .+1* llj )%((%+* %* ) 0%' 0/ /+( •*6( . * %)+* v
…+1/ljlj+.(%().' 0. */†‚z
%2 * 0$%/v 0$  / *  +" . / .$ +* # * . (*  %* 1//%* )+2% /
,. / *0/*+2%+1/#,z$%/,, ./ '/0+(+/ %05+7 .%*#.%#+.+1/*
+),. $ */%2  4)%*0%+*+"# * .%* -1(%05+0$+**+70$ /. *%*
0$ 1//%*9()%*1/0.5%*0$ ,. „,* )%, .%+•ljjr„ljks‚z, %9((5v
3 / '0+ /0(%/$0$ . (0%+*/$%, 03 *0$ # * .+),+/%0%+*+"…' 5
. 0%2 † . 3 ) ) ./ •,.+1 .v 3.%0 .v * %. 0+.‚v +*„/. * " )( 
. ,. / *00%+* •) /1.  3%0$  *1) . +" ,.+,+/  ) 0$+/v %*(1%*#
‚v*0$ 0$ 0.%()%//%+*/+"0$ 9()/z (/+0. 0$ 5*)%/+"
/ 2 .(# * .„. (0 ,.+ // /%*0$ 1//%*9()%*1/0.5z++/+v3 1/ 
+),( 0 0/ +"((0$ 1//%* " 01. 9()/ /$+3*+*0$ %#/. *
%* 1//% *%* 0$  +))+*3 (0$+" * , * *0 00 / •‚  03 *
ljjr* ljksz%7 . *0/10/'/ ),(+5%7 . *0/1/ 0/ +"0$%/0/ v
%*(1%*#0$ /),( +"lnm9()/)*1((5).' 1,1/%*#+1.0 /0z
$  ,, . +*/%/0/ +" /%4 / 0%+*/v %*(1%*# 0$%/ %*0.+10%+*z $  * 40
/ 0%+*. 2% 3/0$ . ( 2*0(%0 .01. * 2 (+,/+1.$5,+0$ / /z$ 0$%.
/ 0%+* /.% /0*) 0$+/1/ %*0$%/.0%( "+.) /1.%*#+*„/. *
*  $%*„0$ „) . # * . %* -1(%05z $  "+1.0$ / 0%+* ,. / *0/ 0$ 
. /1(0/ +" 0$  *(5/%/ * 0$ %. %/1//%+*z $  ,, . */ 3%0$ 0$ 
%)%00%+*/*+*(1/%+*/ 0%+*/z
2. Literature review and hypotheses
2.1. Measuring gender inequality in the production crew
4%/0%*# 0$ +.% / * ,.0% / +" /015%*# # * . %* -1(%05 %* 0$  9()
%*1/0.5#(+((5$2 *(.# (5/$, 50$ . /, 0%2 . / .$+* 5
2.%+1/*+*„#+2 .*) *0+.#*%60%+*/,.+)+0%*## * . -1(%05v%*(1%*#
0$  ** * .#+1*0%+* •zz )%0$ 0 (zv …* -1(%05 %* kvljj+,1(.
%()/u 4)%*%*# +.0.5(/ +"  * .v  •0$*%%05†~ zz )%0$ 0 (zv
…* -1(%05%* kvmjj +,1(.%()/u 4)%*%*#+.0.5(/+"  * .†‚v 0$ 
 * 2%/*/0%010  •05 z)%0$ 0 (z‚v 0$   3 +.' %()  )5
• ..+* ‚v0$  *0 ."+.0$ 015+"+) *%* ( 2%/%+**%()•16 *‚v
0$ *0 .*0%+*(  .0%+*+"0+./• *‚v*0$ 1.+, *1%+2%/1(
/ .20+.5 0$0v 1*(%'  +0$ ./v "+1/ / +* %*0 .*0%+*( +),.%/+*/
•+*0%* ~ %)+* ‚z $ /  2.%+1/ +.#*%60%+*/ ,.+1  +0$ . ,+.0/ *
0/ /0$0. /1/ -1 *0(53% (5. 1/ 50$  )%+))1*%05z
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 4
$ "+1/+"0$ / . ,+.0/%/+*0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+"3+) *)+*#,.+1 ./v
%. 0+./v /. *3.%0 ./v * /+) 0%) / +),+/ ./ * %. 0+./ +"
,$+0+#.,$5 •3%0$ 0$  03+ (00 . ,.+" //%+*/  )+*/0.0%*# " 3 . 3+) *‚
•%)+* ‚z)+*# 0$ 0$.  )&+.9() 05, /v+1) *0.5 9(),.+10%+*
3/"+1*0+ 0$  /% /0"+.3+) *0+ *0 .%*((0$. …' 5. 0%2 †9()
. 3.+( /•,.+1 .v3.%0 .v*%. 0+.‚v"+((+3 5(%2 „0%+*90%+**
*%)0%+*9()/%*0$ / +**0$%.,+/%0%+*/v. /, 0%2 (5•%)+* ‚z$%/
7 0%/(+/ (5. (0 0+9()1# 0/u0$ )+.  4, */%2 0$ ,.+10%+*%/v
0$ /)(( .0$ /$. +"3+) *z$1/v0$ 1# 0%7 . *  03 *90%+*
*+1) *0.59()/%*1/0.%%*ljkk„ljkm3/. 2 ( 0+  /, %((5
%),+.0*0v3%0$0$ # * .#,$%#$ .%*0$ "+.) .• 0$ .%*#0+*2 * 5
0(zolm‚z*3  *%*ljkm„ljkq9()/3%0$) *%. 0+./v,.+1 ./v*
3.%0 ./3 . "+1*0+$2 1# 0/0$03 . $%#$ . 0$*0$+/ 2%(( "+.
3+) *5 "+1.v / 2 *v* /%4 )%((%+* v . /, 0%2 (5 •%'/0.*z kk‚z
.%0%/$0".+)ljjr„ljkn/$+3 0$0+*(5 mzm•+"9()/1# 0 +2 
mj)%((%+*3 . %. 0 53+) *v3$%( )+*#(+3*)%.+„1# 0
9()/•1* .ojjvjjj‚3+) *„%. 0 3+.'/+),.%/ kp••+((+3/ 0
(zlj‚z. *$/015$/. 2 ( 0$0%*ljjr„ljkq0$ 2 .# 1# 0+"
3+) *„%. 0 9()/1/ 0+ mzmm)%((%+*v#%*/0ozq)%((%+*
"+.9()/%. 0 5) *•%+* 0(z‚z+. +2 .v *0. *0%+*(1%*!)
0 (ˆ%)# *%)! "+1*+100$0%/0.%10%+*1# 0/"+.3+) *„%. 0 
9()/ 3 .  (+3 . 5 mnzn• •%+* 0 (z‚z .$+ 2 * 0 (z 1/%*# 0$  0
".+)nj+1*0.% /*mzn0$+1/*9()/%/0.%10  03 *ljkl*ljkov
,.+2 ,++. //+"3+) * *+0 +*(50+ "1*%*#10 (/+0+ 0$ /. *%*#
%*"./0.101. u%*0$ %./),( v9()/%. 0 /+( (553+) *+1*0 "+.
+*(5m•+"%*0 .*0%+*(/. *%*#/• .$+ 2 * 0(zknj‚•/%)1(0* +1/(5v0$ 
*1) .+"/. */"+.9()/) 5)%4 0 )/3/m„n0%) /$%#$ .0$*"+.
0$+/ ) /+( (553+) *• .$+ 2 * 0(zknmƒnn‚‚z
* 0$  0$%. ,.0 +" 0$  2+(1)  5 5**  003++v ) *0%+*  %* 0$ 
%*0.+10%+*v0$  $%*„0$ „) ./%010%+*%*1//%*%* )3/. 2 ( 
2%  $%/0+.%( , ./, 0%2  *  / .% / +" %*0 .2% 3/ 3%0$ ' 5 1//%*
9())' ./".+) 0$  , . /0.+%' .z 003++* $ .+„10$+./,+* . 
0$  +* ,0 +"…3+) *ˆ/ %* )†* 0. 0$  $%/0+.5 +" 1//%*" )( 
%. 0+./ ".+) (# . +.6$ */'5v 3$+ %. 0  $ . 9./09() %* kskpv
0+/0$ .$1v.5$1'+2v1(%+(*0/ 2v*.#.%0./'5v0+
%*. /*+2v.%/ $ ,%0'+v* %. 1.0+2v )*5 +"3$+) 3 . 
/' ,0%(+"0$ +* ,0+"…3+) *ˆ/%* )†, ./ *0.% *+00+ ),$/%6 
0$ %. # * .z •1.+2/'5‚ $  "+((+3%*# %*0 .2% 3/ 0 /0%"5 0+ 0$  (0*0
%/.%)%*0%+*#%*/03+) *,,(5%*#0+/01500$ •0$ )%*+2% 0
9()%*/0%010 %*+/+3‚*0$ /1/ -1 *0* 0++*0%*1((5,.+2 0$ %.
3+.0$1.%*# *"0 . 0$ %. 10%+* *+0+*(5 /,.+" //%+*(/ 10(/+ /
3+) *z $  ,1(%0%+* )' / "+. %/)( . %*#/ / 3+) * %. 0+./v
%* )0+#.,$ ./v* /. *3.%0 ./. 2 ()%/+#5*5v /1.2%2+.%/ •/+)  +"
0$ ) 0.5 0+ %#*+.  %/.%)%*0%+* #%*/0 0$ )/ (2 / +. 0$ %. +(( #1 /‚v
,0%(%05 •1/%*# +0$ ,.+" //%+*( * , ./+*( +((+.0%+*/ /1$ /
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 5
)..%#  0+ */1.  * 0%*# +. /. *3.%0%*# . .‚v * /0 . +05,%(
0$%*'%*# •…$%(. * )1/0   +.*x†‚z $ 5 '*+3( #  0$  %*1/0.5ˆ/
1*/1%0%(%05 "+. 3+) * 3$+  . 0$  1. * +" $+1/ $+( $+. / *
)+0$ .$++*5 0/$+3*+/%#*/+"" )%*%/02% 3+"0$ ,.+( )/z1.%*#
, .%+ +"$ %#$0 *  %*/0%(%05* $+, /v0$ 5 3 . ,.%).%(5 +* .* 
3%0$0$ 0$ *„.  *0. "+.)+"0$ 9()%*1/0.5v3$%$+(%/$  */+./$%,
*,.+(%) 0$ +)) .%(". +)+"9(),.+10%+**%/0.%10%+*
•%6%0 %~003++v…‡+) *0 .2% 3/+* ./+*(1 /0%+*/zzzˆu+2% 0+) *
('+10$ %.4, .% * /%*0$ %()*1/0.5ˆ†‚z
%2 *$+3(%00(  ),$/%/$/ *,( +*" )%*%/0%*0 .2 *0%+*/%*1//%*
%* )* %0$ .0$ 9())'%*#+))1*%05*+.*5. /, 0%2 %*/0%010%+*/$2 
 *5 0 %*2+(2  %*0$  . #1(. #0$ .%*# +"# * . /00%/0%/z $  9./0„ 2 .
/00%/0%(*(5/%/ +"0$  /$. +" 3+) *,.+1 ./v%. 0+./v /. *3.%0 ./v
*%. 0+./+",$+0+#.,$5•‚%*1//%*%* )3/..% +1050$ 
1.+, *1%+2%/1(/ .20+.5z* /, %((5/)((*1) .+"3+) *$/
 *. 2 ( )+*#/u 3+) *+)%*0 0$ . 0%2 0 )/ +"/
%*( //0$*m•+"9()/0$03 . . ( / 0$ 0.%((5%*ljkm„ljkq•" )( „
+)%*0 0 ) 3/ 9* / 0 ) 3%0$oj•+. )+. +" 3+) *+*0$ 
,+/%0%+*+"‚• +*05 2 0(z‚z$ ,.+,+.0%+*+"9()//$+01* .0$ 
%. 0%+* +" 3+) * 1.%*# 0$  /)  , .%+ 3/ kozs•v 3$%(  9() . 3/
+)%*0 53+) */.%,03.%0 ./*,.+1 ./+),.%/ 0$ (.# /0/$. 
ƒ+10ll• $z$ *(5/%/+"0$  40 * 2 ./%+*+"0$%/0/ 0/,**%*#
".+)ljjs0+ljks•E`bhdlmpƒnl‚/$+3/0$03+) *ˆ/0 )/)' $ , .
9()/*.  %2 ( //%. 0/00 /1,,+.0~%0%/*+0/1.,.%/%*#0$00$ %.9()/. 
( //,+,1(.)+*#0$ 1% * /z
/ 0$ /  /01% / 1/   /.%,0%2  /00%/0%/ +*(5v %* 0$%/ ,, . 3  / ' 0+ 0 /0
0$  . 2 (  0. */ 3%0$ %*" . *0%( /00%/0%/ 5 ,.+,+/%*# 0$  "+((+3%*#
$5,+0$ / /u
kz""#!",."*,)*),.#)() 1)'(')(!5&''%,-#(%3
,.#0*)-#.#)(-b."-'&&,."5&'/!.#-c
lz""#!",."*,)*),.#)() 1)'(')(!5&''%,-#(%3
,.#0*)-#.#)(-b."&)1,5&'#-.,#/.),i-*)1,#-c
mz""#!",."*,)*),.#)() 1)'(')(!5&''%,-#(%3
,.#0*)-#.#)(-b."&)1,."..(() /--#(5&'-#(."
#-c
%0%+*((5v 3 / '0+0 /0 +1.1//%„/, %9//1),0%+*/ +* .*%*#0$ 
$*# /%*0$ 1//%*9()+))1*%050$00++',( .+1*ljkoz/3 / 
 .0%*.%/ %*00 *0%+*0+# * . -1(%05"0 .ljkov3 *0%%,0  . / 
%*0$ /0. *#0$+"0$ %*:1 * +") *9())' ./+*9(),+,1(.%05z
nz .,[YZ]."e*)-#.#0f4.) ."*,)*),.#)() '(')(!
5&''%,-)(.".,#&..((#--'&&,."( ),c
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 6
2.2. Measuring on-screen gender inequality – the Bechdel-
Wallace test
/*+0  +2 v,+,1(. /%),( ) 0$+"+. 4)%*%*# # * .%/+* 0$ 
/. *%/0$  $ („(( 0 /0z0/'/3$ 0$ .0$ . . 0( /003+3+) *
$.0 ./ %* 0$  9()v ,. " .(53%0$ *) /v 3$+ 0('0+ $ +0$ .+10
/+) 0$%*# +0$ . 0$* ) * • $ (‚z $+'%*#(5v / )1$ / nn• +"
+((53++9()/"%(0++2 .+) 0$%/(+30$. /$+(3$%( +*(5op•) 0+* 
0+0$. . -1%. ) *0/•"&-.)0##-.‚z+.1//%v0$ +*(52%(( 
0"+..1**%*# 0$%/0 /0$/  *+*qo 9()/*/$+3/ +(( 0 %*
&+1.*(%/) ,.+& 05+*/0*0%* .1%* * (%62 0+(0+2 •7 8BCW
:FGQV AITIGc AGQROM 8GTFGLV ?O >BUGMS <INO‚z " 0$ /  qo 9()/v mq•
,// 0$ 0 /0v*%0%+*((5vlj•3 . +. .(%* ƒ0+# 0$ .0$ 5+),.%/ 
,.+,+.0%+*/%)%(.0+op•0$0"+1*"+.+((53++9()/z
 2 .( /01% / $2  ,+%*0  +10 0$  (%)%00%+*/ +" 0$   0 /0v 3$%$
+.%#%*0 %*.0++*/0.%,*3/* 2 .%*0 * 0+ /$+(.(5) 0$+z
)+*#/00$ )%/%0/%*%(%050++1*0"+. *0.(+. 2 **+*„/0 . +05,%(
3+) * $.0 ./ 3$+ .  *+0 %*2+(2  %* %(+#1 / 3%0$ +0$ . 3+) *
•#.3( 0 (z‚z $  0 /0 + / *+0 ((+3 1/ 0+  0 .)%*  3$ 0$ . 3+) *
$.0 ./ .  -1((5 /0.+*# 0$.+1#$+10 0$  *..0%2  +. 3$ 0$ . 0$ 5 . 
,. / *0 /05,%(+10(% ./•+* /‚v +. 2 *3$ 0$ .0$ 5/%),(50(' )+. 
0$*+* •#* 0(z‚z /,%0 0$ / /$+.0+)%*#/v0$ 0 /0%/1/ *+0
+*(5%* )%. / .$10%*%*1/0.5,.0% /3 ((z$1/v/,#'!-v
1.+, *%* )/1,,+.0"1*v%/ ),(+5%*#0$%/0 /0"+.)+*%0+.%*## * .
%/ %* /.%,0/ /1)%00  0+ %0/ +), 0%0%+* •…1.%)# /ˆ  * . -1(%05
0.0 #5•ljlk„ljlm‚u-1(+% /"+.-1(( *0†‚z
/  . /,+*/  0+ 0$  .%0%%/) +" 0$  0 /0v * 3 ) 0$+/ "+. ) /1.%*#
# * . *0.(%05*).#%*(%05/ +*/+%(* 03+.'*(5/%/•‚$2 
 * 2 (+, z #.3( 0 (z ,.+,+/  nm " 01. / 0+ (//%"59()/ /
# * . (* z #* 0 (z %*0.+1  0$   * .  #.  0%+ •‚
%*%0+.(1(0 /.0%++"0$ 0+0(" )( $.0 ./ˆ #.  *0.(%050+
0$0+"0$ )( $.0 ./u
$  10$+./,.+,+/  9()/ 3%0$ jzr‹‹ kzl 0+   +*/% . (* 
•#* 0(zr‚z 0 +* /•+* /~+* / 0(z‚.%0%%6 //00%* 03+.') 0.%/
/1*( 0+. : 00$ "+1/+"2% 3 .00 *0%+*+*0$ $ .+%* /%*0$ +*0 40
+"0$ /0+.5(%* z /1## /0/) 0$+/+"5*)%* 03+.'*(5/%/+1*0%*#
"+. 0$  +))1*%0%+* +" $.0 ./ 1.%*# 0$  *0%.  9() 5 (1(0%*#
$.0 . *0.(%0% /%* $%(+#1 *5"1.0$ .,(+00%*#0$ )/#.,$/
+" *0.(%0550%) z
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 7
$ . (0%+*/$%, 03 *0$ # * .+"+*/. *$.0 ./*0$ # * .+"
0$ 9())'%*# 0 )/ 0$0,.+1  0$ ) %/*+0$ . ".1%0"1( . +" *(5/%/
3%0$ ((/ "+. (+/  00 *0%+* 0+ 0$%/ ,$ *+) *+* •%** . 0 (zv …%((%+*
+((. 5 {†‚z / .$ ./ $2  ,. 2%+1/(5 *+0  0$0 0$  # * . +" 0$ 
9())' ./ %/ %. 0(5 . (0  0+ 0$  2%/%%(%05 +" 0$  " )(  $.0 ./ 0$ 5
,+.0.5 •)%0$ * $+1 %0%~ %*'  * .+)) .~ zz )%0$ 0 (zv
…* -1(%05%* kvkjj +,1(. %()/u4)%*%*# +.0.5(/+"  * .v  •
0$*%%05†‚z/ +*0$ / +*/% .0%+*/+1.* 40$5,+0$ /%/%/u
oz""#!",."*,)*),.#)() 1)'(')(!5&''%,-bef
." "#!", ." (.,&#.3 )  '& ",.,-b ( ef ." &--
-.,).3*#&."#,,*,-(..#)(#-c
$  * 90/+"%*. /%*#0$ *1) .+"3+) *+*/. *. )*%"+(z.+)
0$ /+%(,+%*0+"2% 3v) %%)# /. %*:1 *0%(%*/$,%*#, +,( ˆ/# * .
 (% "/ *  $2%+.v "+. 4),( v %*/,%.%*# # * . % *0%90%+*/ ".+)
$%($++•( 5* $*‚v*(%)%0%*#0$  $+% +". .,0$/"+.#%.(/
•lk/0  *01.5 +4 * $   * 2%/ */0%010  +*  * . %*  %v 0
(z‚z$ . . (/+ 0 /+*0$  +*+)% * 90/+" *$*%*#0$ ,.+9( 
+"3+) *+* /. *z$%"0q *. 0%2 .0%/0/ # *5•$%"0q*‚v
/ +***(5/%/+"moj)+/0,+,1(./01%+9()/".+)ljkn„ljkqv/$+3 
,+/%0%2 . (0%+*/$%, 03 *,//%*#0$  $ („(( 0 /0*9()+4
+8 v 3$ . / . )  0 (z $2  .#1  0$0 0$  ,. / *  +"  )(  /0.
%*. / 0$ +4+8 %*0$ $+) ).' 05kl•v*" )( /0.$*+
7 0+*0$ /1 //+"9()/".+)kssj0+ljkjz
%** . * $1(0%*# * %** . 0 (z 4)%*  0$  . (0%+*  03 *
 $ („(( 0 /0. /1(0/*9(), ."+.)* )+*#.%0%/*1% * /z
$ 5 9* 0$0 "+. 3%  1% * / 0$%/ . (0%+*/$%,v %*%0%((5 * #0%2 v %/
. * . %*/%#*%9*03$ *9()# *. *1# 0/%6 . %*0.+1 %*0$ 
)+ (z+*/ -1 *0(5v+.%*#0+%** .v0$%/%*%0%(* #0%2 . (0%+*/$%,%/
4,(%* *+0 50$ 1% * ˆ/,. &1% /v1050$ 3+.'+"…#0 ' , ./†
3$+ ,.+0 0 0$  %*1/0.5 ".+) 4, */%2  ,.+& 0/ 3%0$ /0.+*# " )( 
$.0 ./z  .$,/ )+.  /1.,.%/%*#(5v %** . *+0 / 0$0 0$  .%0%/ˆ
// //) *0/+"9()/". ".+)/0 . +05,%(" )( %)# /. *+0$+/0%( z
 2 (+,%*# 0$  % / +" %** .v 3 ,.+,+/  0$  "+((+3%*# 03+ %0%+*(
$5,+0$ / /u
pzef""#!",."!,(.,&#.3)  '&",.,-(
ef ." &)1, ."#, -.,).3*#(! #( #&)!/- #-b ." "#!", ."
..(() /--#(5&'-#(."#-c
qz ., [YZ]b."e*)-#.#0f 4.) ef '&(.,&#.3 (
ef '&",.,()(g-.,).3*#(!)(..((#-"#!",."(
 ),[YZ]c
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 8
%#1. kz +* ,01()+ (z , * *0*%* , * *02.%( /. %*/-1. /v*+*0.+(2.%( /. %*%.( /z(
* 400+0$ ..+3).'/0$ $5,+0$ /%/*1) .z(1 ..+3//%#*%"5%*0 .0%2  7 0/•)+ .0%+*‚z
+* ,01()+ (+"0$ $5,+0$ / /*2.%( /. (0%+*/$%,/%/,. / *0 
%*%#zkz
3. Method and data
3.1. Datasets and mark-up
1/ 0/ 0•Šklro‚0$0%*(1 /((1//%*9()/,.+1  03 *
ljjr * ljks * 0$ 0.%((5 . ( /   03 *  ) . kv ljjrv *
  ) .mkvljks•. " .. 0+/0$ "1((0/ 0‚z%/0.%10%+*/00%/0%/+2 .
0$ 0 ..%0+.5+"0$ +"3$%$0$ 1//%*  .0%+*%/0$ %## /0).' 0z
1# 0 %*"+.)0%+*%/ 2%(( "+. pnn9()/v * 0 /0 ).'„1, ƒ "+.
lnm 9()/ •"1.0$ . . " ..  0+ / 0$  ).' „1, 0/ 0‚z +0$ +" 0$ (00 .
/1/),( /. . (0%2 (5 2 *(5%/0.%10 0$.+1#$, .%+0$ kl5 ./+"+1.
*(5/%/•%#zl‚z$ 0/ 0/(+*#/% 0$  0%(  /.%,0%+*+"((2.%( /
. 2%(( %*0$ /1,,( ) *00+0$ .0%( 0$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzqskj••
z
$ /),( "+.).'1,3/+*/0.10 0+. ,. / *00$. 05, /+"9()/u
(+'1/0 ./v)+ .0 (5,+,1(.v*9()/+"" /0%2(,, (v*%0%+*((5
%*(1 lk9()/0$0+1(*+0 0 #+.%6 z%0$%*0$%//),( v0 )+"
sn2+(1*0 ./$+/ 0$ 9()/"+.).'„1,z$ + ./ 2 (+, +*0%*# *5
)0.%4+" $.0 ./5/ * /3$ .  0$ .+( +" 0$ "+.) .%* 0$ (00 .3/
+ / %0$ ./, $( //,.0%%,0%+*v+))1*%0%+*+*-1(%9 0+,%v
+. +))1*%0%+* +* +*  +" 0$  %/-1(%9  0+,%/ •+10 . (0%+*/$%,/
 03 * ) * * 3+) *v  105v "/$%+*v +. +10 $%(. * *
$+1/ ' ,%*#‚z
$ )0.%43/1/ /0$ %*,1000+(1(0 0$ /+. z
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 9
%#1. lz 1) .+"9()/50$ 5 .+",.+10%+*u•‚((9()/~•‚((9()/3%0$1# 0%*"+.)0%+*~•‚).' „1,
9()/~•‚).' „1,9()/3%0$1# 0%*"+.)0%+*z
3.2. Variables
Main dependent variable
00 ** u0$ *1) .+"%* )0%' 0//+(z
Other variables tested in hypotheses
"#(g."g-(- !(, &(cDirMaleSharev ProdMaleSharev *
ScrMaleShare .  (1(0  / 0$  ,.+,+.0%+* +" )( / )+*# (( , +,( 
%*0$  ,+/%0%+*+" %. 0+.v,.+1 .v*/. *3.%0 .v. /, 0%2 (5v "+. $
9()z$ ##. #0 2.%( maleshare%/*1)1(0 ,.+,+.0%+*+") *
%* (( 0$.  ,+/%0%+*/ 0+# 0$ .z %*.5 / 4 •)(  +. " )( ‚ 3/ % *0%9 
10+)0%((5/ +*(%/0+")( *" )( 9./0*) /*0$  *%*#/+"
/1.*) /~%03/(/+$ ' )*1((5%"*  z
'&,*,-(..#)()(."-,(%/) /1. 3%0$*# * . #. 
.0%+•#* 0(z‚(1(0 "+.03+'%*/+"* 03+.'/z
BWLe"&g&& .-. ')#5 3 )(.30fa,.+,+.0%+* +"%(+#1 /
)+*#" )( $.0 ./ +*-1(%9 0+,%/ %*0$  0+0(*1) . +"0$ 9()
%(+#1 / •"+.)1( l‚z  %*# * 40 */%+* +" 0$  %*%0%(  $ („(( 
•%** . 0(zv…%((%+*+((.5 {†‚v%7 ./+0$".+)0$ (//%(
%*.52.%*0*0$ "+1.„,+%*0/( ,.+,+/ 5#.3( 0(z* $ (
/0+2% %/0•$00,/u•• $ (0 /0z+)•‚z
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 10
$ %/-1(%9 0+,%/3 . *+0 +*(5 +10) *v/%* 0$ (//%(0 /0v10
(/++103+) *v 105v"/$%+*v00.0%2 * //v$%(. *v*$+1/ ' ,%*#z
$%/  9*%0%+* +" 0$  / 0 +" /0 . +05,%(0$ ) / //+%0  3%0$ 3+) * %/
/ +* /0. ) +",.%+. . / .$ •,++. 0 (z‚z%4  +*2 ./0%+*/v%*
3$%$+0$%/-1(%9 *# * .(0+,%/ 3 . ) *0%+* v3 . +*/% . 
-1(%9 z*(5$.0 ./3$+,.0%%,0 %*)+. 0$*+* / * •+.%*+* v
10%),+.0*0v+.%*#0+ 0$ + .‚*$ 0( /0+*  (%* +"%(+#1 
3 . ).' 1,z+*+(+#1 /3 .  4(1 z
$  # * .  #.  .0%+ •GDR‚ +"  9() %/ (1(0  ".+) 0$  %)+(
* 03+.' +" $.0 ./ * %(+#1 / %* 3$%$ 0$ 5 ,.0%%,0  0$.+1#$+10
0$  *0%.  )+2% z+.0$%/ ,1.,+/ v* 1*%)+( 3 %#$0 ,.+& 0%+*+" 0$%/
* 03+.' %/ +*/0.10  3$ .  0$  2 .0% / .  $.0 ./ +*(5v * 0$  ./
 03 * $,%.+"2 .0% /. ,. / *00$ *1) .+"%(+#1 /%*3$%$+0$
$.0 ./%*0$ ,%.$2 ,.0%%,0 z* v/ +*0$%/0v0$ 3 %#$0 
 *0.(%05"+. $$.0 . %/+0%* v0$  /1)+" *0.(%0% / +" ((" )( 
$.0 ./%/%2% 50$ . /, 0%2 /1)"+.)( /z * . #. .0%+0+0(
•GDRT‚%7 ./".+)3%0$0$ %*,100+*(5u%*/0 +"%(+#1 /v((
/ * /. 1/ v%*(1%*#0$+/ 3$ . #%2 *$.0 .%/,.0%%,0%*#/%( *0(5z
*(%' 0$ 0 /03$%$%)/0+// ///0 . +05,%*#+"3+) *v0$ / * 03+.'
) /1. / 2(10 3+) *ˆ/+2 .((%),+.0* %*9()v/+),. 0+) *z
$ 9()1# 0•BudgetALL‚*0$ )+1*0+"/00 /1,,+.0•StateSup‚
3 .  ) /1.  %* .1( / * &1/0  "+. %*:0%+*z $  ,+3 . +" 0$ 
%/0.%10%+*+),*53$%$%/%0/,%(%050+++'9()3% (53/ 2(10 
2% ,.+45,.) 0 .ƒ +),*5 05, •DistrType‚z 0%/ *+)%*(2.%( 
3%0$ "+1.( 2 (/v 3$ .  n%/ //%#*  0+ . ,. / *00%2 /+" +((53++ )&+.
/01%+/0$0,+// //0$ $%#$ /0,+3 .~mƒ0+. ,. / *00%2 /+"1//%*( %*#
,.+1 ./~lƒ0+%* , * *0%/0.%10+./~kƒ0+/ ("„%/0.%10+./•,.+1 ./
3$+. ( / 0$ %.9()/3%0$+100$ ) %0%+*+"%/0.%10%+*+),*5*
,+// //0$ (+3 /0,+3 .‚z
Threshold %/  %*.5 2.%(  0$0 //%#*/ $ 9() 0+ +*  +" 0$  03+
0 #+.% // +*%0/5 .+". ( / %*v %0$ . "+. +.%**"0 .ljkoz
$%/ 5 . 3/ $+/ * /  +* „$+ 0 /0/ * -1(%00%2  )+2%  %*1/0.5
*(5/%/z $%/ 3/ 0$  5 . 3$ * 0$  00 *0%+* +" 0$  ,.+" //%+*( %* )
+))1*%05 0+ 0$  # * . +" 9())' ./ 4, .% *   /$%"0z )+*# +0$ .
0$%*#/v  /, %( +10„+"„+), 0%0%+* ,.+#.) ,, .  0 0$  )-)1
(.,(.#)(&#&'-.#0&v*3+) *ˆ/9()/ #*0+3%*0#().0,v0$ 
)+/0,. /0%#%+1/9()" /0%2(+"1//%*%* )z
Control variables
0 "+.  0 .)%*%*# 9() # *.  3/ . 0.% 2  ".+) •<INO?OIQK‚
$00,/u••333z'%*+,+%/'z.1• 3$ .  $ 9() 1/1((5 # 0/ )1(0%,(  # *. 
//%#*) *0/z/ +* "0+.*(5/%/ •/  0%(/%*0$  /1,,( ) *02%(( 
0 $00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzqskj••‚3 . 0  *(.# #.+1,/ +"
# *. / 0+ . 1  0$  %) */%+*(%05 +" 0$  %*%0+.z %4 *1) .% 2.%( /
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 11
4,. //0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+" $# *. %*9()u.)•Drm‚v+) 5•Cmd‚v
")%(5 •Fml‚v /1/, */  •Ssp‚v 5*)% •Dyn‚v * ,. /0%#  •Prs‚z +)  +"
0$ )3 .  4(1 ".+)/+) )+ (/1 0+)1(0%+((%* .%05z$ 9()# *. 
%/ %/0%*0 ".+) 0$  9() type 0$0 . ,. / *0/ "+1. 0 #+.% / •.)*v 0,!b
-.#0&b * /(5(f 1/  0+ +),%(  +1. /),(  "+.  ).'„1,v /
 /.% +2 z
1//%* 9() #  .0%*# •AgeRateRu‚ %/  *+)%*( 2.%(  3%0$ "+1.
0 #+.% /uj•p‰vkl‰vkn•kp‰v*kr‰3$%$1*%0 /03+.*'%*#/5/0 )/0$0
4%/0 %*1//% "+. *"0 .0$ . "+.)+"ljklv. /, 0%2 (5z
$ / /+*"0+.%/+*0.+(( 503+2.%( /u0$ *1) .+"5/+7%*0$ 
1//%*  .0%+*+*0$ 3 '+"0$ 9(). ( / •VacDays‚*0$ *1) .
+"9()/0$03 . . ( / %*0$ /) 3 '•Competitors‚z
/ 0$ 1//%* %* ) ).' 03/ "/0#.+3%*# %*0 .)/ +" 0$  *1) .+"
/. */0$.+1#$0$ , .%+1* .%*2 /0%#0%+*v0$ %.2 .# *1) ./+"0$ 
 #%**%*#*0$  *+"0$ )+*0$v3$ *0$ 9()3/. ( / •ScrRU‚v%/
+*0.+(( "+.z0%/ %*#+* 0++), */0 "+.0$ ('+"%*"+.)0%+*+*
0$ *1) .+"/. */++' "+. 2 .59()z
3.3. Data analysis
((0 *(5/%/3/ ..% +10 %* 2 ./%+*mzpzk•ljks„jq„jo‚z $  )%*
) 0$+ "+. 0 /0%*# $5,+0$ / / 3/ (%* . . #. //%+*z +*9.)0+.5 "0+.
*(5/%/ •‚ 3/ ,,(%  "+. # *.  ##. #0%+*z 0.101.( -10%+*
)+ (%*#•‚"+.0$ 0$ +. 0%()+ (/%0%/,. / *0 %*%#zk3/*+0
,,(%( /%7 . *0/),( /3 . 1/ "+.0$ . / .$+"%7 . *0,.0/+"
0$ /$ ) z
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Descriptive statistics
 /.%,0%2 /00%/0%/+"0$ 0/ 0/1/ "+.0$ *(5/%/. ,. / *0 %*( 
k•"1((0/ 0‚*( l•).' „1,0/ 0‚z
*0 .)/+"1*%-1 , ./+*/3+.'%*#+*0$ ,.+& 0/%*(1 %*0$ "1((/),( v
0$  +2 .(( " )(  /$.  %/ kszq•~ " )(  ,.+1 ./ )'  1, ljzp• +" 0$ 
/),( v/. *3.%0 ./ƒkszr•v*%. 0+./ƒkqzo••( m‚z
4.2. Women behind the camera and their access to resources
$  . /1(0/ +" 0$  /015 /$+3 0$0v (%'  %* +0$ . +1*0.% /v ) * +)%*0 
)+*#0$ ' 5. 0+./+"1//%*9()/•%#zm‚z%*#( „# * .9(). 3/3%0$
) *%*((0$. ' 5. 0%2 ,+/%0%+*/•,.+1 ./v%. 0+./v*/. *3.%0 ./‚
,.+1 oqo )+2% / +10 +" klro 1.%*# 0$ /01%    ~ (( ,.+1 ./
3 . ) *%*qlm)+2% /v((3.%0 ./ƒ%*rnsv*((%. 0+./ƒ%*kjlmz
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 12
( kz .+,+.0%+*/+")( /%*' 59(). 3,+/%0%+*/*9()1# 0/~"1((0/ 0•Šklro‚
+.>6./92?+.>6./92? $$ #2.;#2.; (@2B(@2B #6;#6; &0@9&0@9 &0@9&0@9 #.D#.D
(5.>2<3:.92?
6;0>2C.:<;4
      
      
      
      
69:/A142@
.17A?@21>A/92?
      
( lz .+,+.0%+*+")( /%*' 59(). 3,+/%0%+*/*)&+.9()" 01. /~0/ 0•Šlnm‚
+.>6./92?+.>6./92? $$ #2.;#2.; (@2B(@2B #6;#6; &0@9&0@9 &0@9&0@9 #.D#.D
@@2;1.;02
@6082@?
      
(5.>2<3:.92?
6;0>2C.:<;4
      
      
      
      
69:/A142@
.17A?@21>A/92?
      
%@52>?22
;<@2
+.0.E?1.E?       
<:=2@6@<>?
H9:?
      
(0>'*?0>22;?       
,"       
'       
')       
+0 u5/ƒ*1) .+"5/+7%* 9(). ( / 3 '•0$ )4%)1)*1) .+"5/+7%* 3 'kj%/ 4,(%* 5+1*0%*#0$ *1) .+" *+*„3+.'%*#
5/%*.+31.%*#0$  3 .$+(%5/‚z+), 0%0+./ƒ*1) .+"+), 0%*#9()/. ( / 1.%*#0$ /) 3 'z.ƒ0$ 2 .# *1) .+"/. */
%*1//%"+.0$ )+*0$+". ( / zƒ0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+"%(+#1 /)+*#" )( $.0 ./+*-1(%9 0+,%/%*0$ 0+0(*1) .+"9()%(+#1 /zƒ
# * . #. .0%++"$.0 ./,.0%%,0 %*%(+#1 /zƒ# * . #. .0%++"$.0 ./,, . %*0$ /) / * /z
( mz *%-1 , +,( %*' 59(). 3,+/%0%+*/v"1((0/ 0•Šklro‚
$A:/2><3=2<=92 (5.>2<3=2<=926;@52=<?6@6<;
:.92 32:.92 :.92 32:.92
&><1A02>?    
(0>22;C>6@2>?    
6>20@<>?    
99@5>2282E=<?6@6<;?    
G 16>20@<>?
G =><1A02>?
G ?0>22;C>6@2>?

G <B2>.99:.92
?5.>2
G 16>20@<>?
G =><1A02>?
G ?0>22;C>6@2>?

G <B2>.99:.92
?5.>2
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 13
%#1. mz %/0.%10%+*+"1//%*9()/50$ ,.+,+.0%+*+")( /%*0$ 0 )u•‚ƒ)+*#. 3) ) ./%*((0$. 
' 5,+/%0%+*/v•‚ƒ)+*#,.+1 ./v•‚ƒ)+*#/. *3.%0 ./v•‚ƒ)+*#%. 0+./z
 #. //%+* *(5/%/  )+*/0.0 /  ,+/%0%2  (%* . . (0%+*/$%,  03 * 0$ 
(+#„0.*/"+.) 9() 1# 0* 0$  ,.+,+.0%+* +") * %* 0$ 0 ) •( 
n‚z * +0$ . 3+./v ) * $2   // 0+ $%#$ . 1# 0/ %* 0$ 1//%* 9()
%*1/0.50$1/ "1((5 +*9.)%*#kz+3 2 .v0 0$ /)  0%) v 0$ )+1*0
+"/00 /1,,+.0%/*+0. (0 0+0$ # * .+),+/%0%+*+"0$ ' 59(). 3
) ) ./z ( ,.+1 ./v 10 *+0 %. 0+./ +. /. *3.%0 ./$2  // 0+
0$ /0.+*# /0%/0.%10+./+*0$ ).' 0u. ,. / *00%2 /+"+((53++)&+./
*0$ ( %*#1//%*/01%+/z+.)((5v0$%/) */0$0l%/+*(5,.0%((5
+*9.) v $+3 2 .v ,.+1 ./ .  # * .((5 )+.  %),+.0*0 "+.  // 0+
. /+1. / 0$* %0$ . %. 0+./ +. /. *3.%0 ./z 2 .((v0$ /  . /1(0/ . %*
(%* 3%0$ 0$+/ .  %2 "+.+0$ .+1*0.% / • z#z +((+3/ 0(z~%+* 0 (z~
.$+ 2 * 0(z‚z
4.3. Women behind the camera and !lm theatrical attendance
%* . . #. //%+* *(5/%/ +" 9() . 3 # * . +),+/%0%+* 7 0/ +* (+#„
0.*/"+.)  9() 00 **  •(  o‚ /$+3/ 0$0 0$  ,.+,+.0%+* +" ) *
)+*#/. *3.%0 ./3/ *+0 /%#*%9*0%* *5)+ (/z$ * 0$  1# 0%/
+*0.+(( "+.v0$ /%#*%9* +"0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+")( /%*0$ +0$ .03+' 5
.+( / . / /3%0$+*(5 0$  7 0+"0$ ,.+1 ./ˆ# * . /1/0%*%*# %*((
)+ (/z$%/. * ./m,.0%((5+*9.) z* 4,(*0%+*"+.0$%/)5(% 
%*0$ "00$0) *,.+1 ./$2  //*+0+*(50+(.# .1# 0/10)+/0
%),+.0*0(5v0+/0.+*# .%/0.%10+./z
$ %*:1 *  +"0$  $*# / %*0$  1//%* 9()%*1/0.5 +1..%*#%* *
"0 . ljko +* 0$  . (0%+*/$%,  03 * 0$  ,.+,+.0%+* +" ) * )+*#
9())' ./ * 00 **  •n‚ $/  * 0 /0  3%0$ 0$.  . /, 0%2 
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 14
( nz  /1(0/+"0$ . #. //%+**(5/%/+"0$ . (0%+*/$%, 03 * //0+. /+1. /*0$ /$. +") *%*' 59(). 3,+/%0%+*/
2=2;12;@
B.>6./92?
<B2>.99:.92
?5.>2
:.92?5.>2
.:<;4
=><1A02>?
:.92?5.>2
.:<;4
16>20@<>?
:.92?5.>2
.:<;4?0>22;
C>6@2>?
!;12=2;12;@+.>6./92?
69:/A142@9<4@>.;?3<>:21    
(@.@2?A==<>@9<4@>.;?3<>:21    
6?@>6/A@6<;@E=2
/.?296;2?293
16?@>6/A@6<;
   
   
   
<;?@.;@    
%/?2>B.@6<;?    
'    
17A?@21'    
'2?61A.9(@1>><> 13 13 13 13
(@.@6?@60 13

13

13

13

+0 ut,Œjzk~tt,Œjzjo~ttt,Œjzjkz
G 6;12=2;12;@16?@>6/A@<>?
G 92.16;4'A??6.;=><1A02>?F
>2=>2?2;@.@6B2?
G <99EC<<1>2=>2?2;@.@6B2?
%*0 .0%+* 0 .)/z / %0 *   / *v n $/ 0+   *0%. (5 . & 0 v 3$%$
) */0$0"0 .ljko9()/v+*2 .# v#+0/)1$#%*%*00 ** ".+)
,.+1 ./ %*#) */ "+. ljkoz
4.4. The representation of women on the screen
/ +*0$ 0 /0. /1(0/+"lnm1//%*9()/%001.*/+100$0+*(5kpk
9()/+.pk•,//%0%*0 .)/+"0$ %*.5,,.+$ƒ,// •*+0,// •%#z
n ‚u %* 0$ /  9()/v0$ .  3 . 03+ 3+) *3$+ 0(' 0+ $ +0$ . +10
/+) 0$%*# +0$ . 0$* ) * •+. /1$ %/-1(%9  0+,%/ /  105 ,.0% /v
$+1/ ' ,%*#v $%(. *v * +0$ . 3+) *‚z +. +2 .v %" 3  (++' 0 0$ 
,.+,+.0%+*+"+*2 ./0%+*/ 03 *3+) *v0$ . /1(0%/ 2 *)+. /$+'%*#u
)+*#0$+/ pk•0$0+,//0$ 0 /0vps9()/•lr•+"0$ ).' „1,0/ 0‚
5% (  /+. 0$0 + / *+0 4 o• +" (( %(+#1 / •%#z n ‚z $%/
. /1(0 /$+3/ 0$0 " )(  $.0 ./ %* 1//%* 9()/ .  . ,. / *0  -1%0 
/0 . +05,%((5z
%' 3%/ v%*)+/0+"0$ 9()/. 2% 3 v+0$%*%0+./+"# * . #. .0%+
• Ž ‚.  ( // 0$* jzr •%#z o‚v 3$%$ +.%*# 0+ •#* 0
(z‚%*%0 /  ,. 2( * +") * )+*# 0$ )+/0  *0.( $.0 ./z$1/v
0$ / 03+* 03+.'%*%0+.//$+30$0*+0+*(50$ /, $+"1//%*3+) *
$.0 ./%/. ,. / *0 /0 . +05,%((5v100$ 5. *+00((00$  *0 .+"
*..0%+*%*0$ )&+.%05+"9()/z
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 15
( oz %* .. #. //%+*)+ (/+"1//%*9()/00 ** *' 5. 3) ) ./ˆ# * .+),+/%0%+*
!;12=2;12;@B.>6./92? 2=2;12;@B.>6./92@@2;1.;029<4@>.;?3<>:21
   
#.92?5.>26;0>2C.:<;4
   
   
   
6?@>6/A@6<;@E=2
/.?296;2?293
16?@>6/A@6<;
   
   
   
69:.42>.@6;4
/.?296;2
   
   
   
69:/A142@9<4@>.;?3<>:21  
%@52>?22;<@2
(0>'*    
+.0.E?    
<:=2@6@<>?    
)5>2?5<91
/.?296;2/23<>2
 
)5>2?5<91&><1#.92(5.>2  
)5>2?5<916>#.92(5.>2  
)5>2?5<91(0>#.92(5.>2  
<;?@.;@    
%/?2>B.@6<;?    
'    
17A?@21'    
'2?61A.9(@1>><> 13 13 13 13
(@.@6?@60 13

13

13

13

+0 ut,Œjzk~ tt,Œjzjo~ttt,Œjzjkz.ƒ0$  2 .# *1) .+"/. */%*1//%"+.0$ )+*0$+" . ( / z5/ƒ *1) .+" 5/+7 %*9() . ( / 
3 'z+), 0%0+./ƒ*1) .+"+), 0%*#9()/. ( / 1.%*#0$ /) 3 'z$. /$+(u0 +". ( / v %0$ . "+. ljko•/ (%* ‚+."0 .ljkoz*0 .0%+*
0 .)/u%*0 .0%+*+"0$. /$+(• "+. •"0 .ljko‚*0$ /$. +")( /%*0$ . 3%*0$ ,+/%0%+*/+",.+1 ./v%. 0+./v*/. *3.%0 ./v. /, 0%2 (5z
G =><1A02>?
G 16>20@<>?
G ?0>22;C>6@2>?
G 6;12=2;12;@16?@>6/A@<>?
G 92.16;4'A??6.;=><1A02>?F
>2=>2?2;@.@6B2?
G <99EC<<1>2=>2?2;@.@6B2?
G 
G 
G 
4.5 Women crews and the representation of women on screen
$ # * .+),+/%0%+*+"0$ ' 5. 3) ) ./%*0$ ).' „1,0/ 0%/
/(%#$0(5/' 3 0+3./) *v+),. 0+0$ "1((0/ 0•/ ( p2/( 
m‚z/0$%/(%)%00%+*)5$2 7 0 0$ . /1(0/,. / *0  (+3v0$ 5/$+1(
 0. 0 3%0$ .0%*)+1*0+"10%+*z
%* . . #. //%+* *(5/%/ . /1(0/ "+. 0$.  %) */%+*/ +" 3+) *ˆ/
. ,. / *00%+*v0' */0$  , * *02.%( /. ,. / *0 %*( qz$ 
/0.+*#*/%#*%9*0* #0%2 . (0%+*/$%, 03 *0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+" )( /
)+*# 0$  ' 5 . 3 ) ) ./v +* 0$  +*  $*v * 0$   0 /0v v
* v +* 0$  +0$ . •)+ (/ kv ov * s‚ %/ )+/0(5 4,(%*  5 0$ 
+*0.%10%+* +" /. *3.%0 ./ •)+ (/ nv r * kl‚z 0 0$  /)  0%) v 0$ 
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 16
%#1. nz 0 /0. /1(0/"+.lnm1//%*9()/u•‚(//%(,,.+$*•‚0 /0/+. / +*0$ ,.+,+.0%+*+"
-1(%9 %(+#1 /z
%#1. oz  * ..0%++"$.0 . *0.(%0% /•‚ƒ(1(0 5$.0 .%(+#1 /v•‚ƒ(1(0 5
0$ 0+0(*1) .+"$.0 ./ˆ+))1*%0%+*/v).' „1,0/ 0•Šlnm‚z
( pz *%-1 , +,( %*' 59(). 3,+/%0%+*/v).' „1,0/ 0•Šlnm‚
$A:/2><3=2<=92 (5.>2<3=2<=926;@52=<?6@6<;
:.92 32:.92 :.92 32:.92
&><1A02>?    
(0>22;C>6@2>?    
6>20@<>?    
99@5>2282E=<?6@6<;?    
7 0/+" 0$  ,.+,+.0%+*/+" ) * )+*# %. 0+./* ,.+1 ./.  %0$ .
%*/%#*%9*0+.*+0//0.+*#**+0//%#*%9*0z 2 .0$ ( //v0$  *0.(%05
+"" )(  $.0 ./%/ . (0 0+ 0$ # * . +),+/%0%+*+" 0$ 9())' ./v
%* "1(( #. ) *0 3%0$ o * %* +*+.* 3%0$ ,. 2%+1/ . / .$ 0$0
+/ .2 +.. (0%+* 03 *0$  ,. / * +"3+) *,.+0#+*%/0/ *0$ 
# * .+),+/%0%+*+"0$ . 3z$%/+.. (0%+*3/"+1*0+ /%#*%9*0
*+0 +*(5 "+. 3.%0 ./ •1//%* . / .$ ./ $2  (+*# *+0  0$  ,.0%1(.
%),+.0* +"" )( /. *3.%0 ./"+.+) /0%3+) *ˆ/%* )ƒ0+#. 0 .
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 17
40 *00$* .+•1.+2/'5knr‚‚v10 (/+"+.%. 0+./ *v0+ ( // .
 #. v"+.,.+1 ./+*•%*' *.+)) .‚*%*")%(59()/•)%0$
*$+1 %0%‚z
4.6. Women’s on-screen representation and !lm theatrical
attendance
' 5$5,+0$ /%/"+.0$%//015•p‚%/0$09()/%*3$%$3+) *$.0 ./
.  )+.   *0.( * ( // /0 . +05,  •) /1.  5 0$   0 /0 * 03+
%*% / +" # * .  #.  .0%+‚ .  )+.  %*0 . /0%*# "+. 0$  1% * z
%0%+*((5v3  4, 0 ,+/%0%2 $*# /%*0$ 2% 3 ./ˆ00%01 /0+0$ 9()/
3%0$ *0.(" )( $.0 ./"0 .ljko•q‚z3 (2 (%* .. #. //%+*)+ (/
0$00 /00$ / $5,+0$ / /. ,. / *0 %*( rz
$  0(  %*(1 / +*(5 0$+/  +*0.+( 2.%( / ".+) 0$  %*%0%( 0$ +. 0%(
)+ (%#.)•%#zk‚0$0. /%#*%9*0%*0( /0+* )+ (z)+*#0$ )v
0$ (.# /0 7 0/ (+*#0+0$ %/0.%10+.05, *9()05, z.+)0$ 2.% 05
+"##. #0 # *. /v+*(5+) 5*")%(5 )+*/0.0 /%#*%9*0•*
,+/%0%2 ‚. (0%+*/$%,3%0$9()00 ** *+*(5%*0$ )+ (/+*0.+((%*#
"+. 0$  )+2% ˆ/ 1# 0z $  (00 . %/ (35/  /%#*%9*0 ,. %0+. +"
00 ** z
)+*# %* , * *0 2.%( / +" %*0 . /0v 0$   0 /0 /+.  %/ ,+/%0%2 (5
. (0 0+9()00 ** •)+ (k‚v10%0//%#*%9* %/3 '*0$  7 0
%/,, ./ 3$ * 0$  1# 0 %/ %*0.+1  %*0+ 0$  )+ ( •l‚z  *
 . //+%0 3%0$ 00 ** * #0%2 (510 %*/%#*%9*0(5•)+ (/
m„p‚z *+*(1 0$0p$/0+ . & 0 z$ / . /1(0/. %*(%* 3%0$
/+) ,. 2%+1/. / .$•%** . 0(zv…%((%+*+((.5 {†‚** 
%*0 .,. 0 /%)%(.(5v/0$ / * +" 2% * "+.0$ * #0%2 , . ,0%+*+"
/0.+*#" )( $.0 ./50$ 1//%*2% 3 ./z
+3 2 .v 0$  7 0/ +" %*0 .0%2 0 .)/ %*2+(2%*#0$. /$+( •"+. 3$%$ 3 
0++'0$ ljko5 .3$ *# * .%*9()//0.0 0+ ,,. %0 %*1//%‚. 
,+/%0%2 */%#*%9*03$ *(/+%*2+(2%*#*v10*+0z
/ /$+3*5 +1. )+.   0%(  ,+/0„$+ *(5/%/ •%#z p‚v " )(  *0.(%05
) /1. +0$/*$/* #0%2  7 0+*00 ** +*(5
 "+.  ljkov 3$%(  0$%/ 7 0  / / 0+ 4%/0 "0 . ljko •0$  3 ' ,+/%0%2 
. (0%+*/$%,%/ %*/%#*%9*0,‹jzl‚z$%/ /1## /0/0$0 3$%( 1//%* 2% 3 ./
3 . /' ,0%( +10 00 *%*# )+2% / 3%0$ /0.+*# " )(  $.0 ./  "+. 
# * . -1(%053/+*0$ ,1(%# *v0$ %.00%01 $/$*# %*"2+.
+" 0$  ,.+, */%05 0+ 00 * 9()/ %* , * *0(5 +" " )(  *0.(%05z $%/
+%*% / 3%0$ 0$  #(+( 0. * •+, 6~ %*%''‚z (0$+1#$ "+.)((5 q
/$+1( . & 0 / +*0$ +,,+/%0 %. 0%+*+"+0$*
"+1* "+. ljkov +* ,01((5v0$ $*# 0$0+1./"0 .ljko%/ %*(%* 
3%0$+1.//1),0%+*•%z z3 %//1) *%. 2 (0$ #.+30$+"0+( .*
0+3.//0.+*#" )( $.0 ./‚z+3 2 .v0$%/ 2% * %/0+ 0. 0 3%0$
10%+*1 0+0$ /)(( 7 0/%6 *(.# +*9 * %*0 .2(/+/ .2 z
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 18
( qz %* .. #. //%+*)+ (/+"0$ ' 5. 3) ) ./ˆ# * .+),+/%0%+**" )( . ,. / *00%+*%* 4 /
2=2;12;@
B.>6./92? ,","9<4@>.;?3<>:21 ''9<4@>.;?3<>:21 ')')9<4@>.;?3<>:21
!;12=2;12;@
B.>6./92?
           
(5.>2<3:.92?(5.>2<3:.92?
6;0>2C.:<;46;0>2C.:<;4
  
  
  
  
<;?@.;@            
%/?2>B.@6<;?            
'            
17A?@21'            
'2?61A.9(@1
>><>
13


13


13

13

13


13


13

13

13


13


13

13

(@.@6?@60 
13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13

+0 ut,Œjzk~tt,Œjzjo~ttt,Œjzjkz
GG <B2>.99<B2>.99
GG 16>20@<>?16>20@<>?
GG =><1A02>?=><1A02>?
GG ?0>22;C>6@2>??0>22;C>6@2>?
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 19
%#1. pz 7 0+"0$. /$+(• "+. •"0 .ljko‚+*0$ . (0%+*/$%, 03 *(+#„0.*/"+.) •‚*•‚
*(+#„0.*/"+.) 00 ** z
5. Limitations
+)  "0+./ . (0  0+ %* ) 00 **  * . +)) *  5 ,. 2%+1/
. / .$ 3 . *+0 %*0.+1 %*0+ 0$  )+ (/ 1  0+ 0$ %. 1*2%(%(%05+.
%.. ( 2* 0+0$ 1//%*%* )).' 0z*(50$ %*.5# * .+"9(). 3
) ) ./*+*„/. *$.0 ./ %/+*/% . ~0$ 00.%10%+*+" # * .%/
/ +*(5+**) /*+ /*+0. ,. / *00$ / ("„% *0%90%+*+"0$ . 3z
%)%(.(5v3$%( 0$ 0 .)/…/ 4†*…# * .†. 1/ %*0 .$*# (5%*0$%/
,, .0$ 10$+./+*+0,. /1) 0$03+) *+.) *. %+(+#%((5 9* z
$ 0$ 0.%(%/0.%10%+*01/ $// 2 .(/$+.0+)%*#/v10%0%/0$ +*(5
2%(( 0/ 0+* 0$  ).' 0v *%0 %/ 3% (5. +#*%6 / . (%( 
,.+45"+. %/%+*„)'%*#5+)) .%(+),*% /*,1(%+% /z
6. Conclusions
*+1./015v3 $2 ,.+,+/ +*0%*1+1/2 ./%+*+"0$  $ („(( 
0 /0•‚(1(0 /,.+,+.0%+*+"-1(%9 %(+#1 / 03 *3+) *
%*1//%*9()/z1.. /1(0//$+30$0/1$) 0.%. * ./%0%+*(1/ "1(
%*"+.)0%+*+10+*„/. *# * .(* u%*,.0%1(.v3 $2 /$+3*0$0
2 *)+*#0$ 9()/0$0+,//0$ 0 /00$ ,.+,+.0%+*+"*+*„/0 . +05,%(
%(+#1 /%/ /0.%'%*#(5(+3z$%//%010%+* ((/+0$ "+. 3% .1/  +")+. 
*1*  ) 0.%/ * "+. )+.  0%+* 0+3./ # * . -1(%05 %* 0$  9()
%*1/0.5z
1.. / .$+*0.%10 /0+0$ /015+"# * .%*#(+(%* )%*1/0.% /5
%*2 /0%#0%*#(.# *+*„ /0 .*).' 0*5%*0.+1%*#* 3).' „1,
0/ 02%(( "+."1.0$ .%* , * *0/.10%*5z+1/%*#+*%*.5# * .
%)(*  %* 0$  1//%* 9() %*1/0.5 ".+) ljjr 0+ ljksv +1. /015 $/
+*/% . / 2 *$5,+0$ / /v+"3$%$ "+1.3 . ,.0%((5+."1((5 +*9.) 
*0$.  3 . . & 0 •/  ( s‚z +*9.)/ 2 .(0. */ +/ .2 %*
+0$ .+1*0.% /0$0,+%*00+0$ ('+"3+) * $%*0$ ) .*0$ %.
/0 . +05,%(. ,. / *00%+* +* 0$ /. *z $ /015 /$+3/ 0$ %),+.0* 
+" " )(  /. *3.%0 ./ "+. . ,. / *0%*# /0.+*# . " )(  $.0 ./ *v
/%)1(0* +1/(5v0$  +)%** +")( ,.+1 ./*%. 0+./%*0$  //
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 20
( rz %* .. #. //%+*)+ (/+"0$ 9()00 ** *" )( . ,. / *00%+*%*% /
2=2;12;@B.>6./92@@2;1.;029<4@>.;?3<>:212=2;12;@B.>6./92@@2;1.;029<4@>.;?3<>:21
!;12=2;12;@!;12=2;12;@
B.>6./92?B.>6./92?            
2:.92
>2=>2?2;@.@6<;
=2>6<1
,"9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
   
'9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
   
')9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
   
)5>2?5<91
/.?296;2/23<>2

     
,"9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
)5>2?5<91
 
'9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
)5>2?5<91
 
')9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
)5>2?5<91
 
6?@>6/A@<>@E=2
/.?296;2?293
16?@>6/A@6<;
           
           
           
69:@E=2
/.?296;2
:<12>.@29E
G 6;12=2;12;@
16?@>6/A@<>?
G 92.16;4'A??6.;
=><1A02>?F
>2=>2?2;@.@6B2?
G <99EC<<1
>2=>2?2;@.@6B2?
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 21
2=2;12;@B.>6./92@@2;1.;029<4@>2=2;12;@B.>6./92@@2;1.;029<4@>.;?3<>:21.;?3<>:21
!;12=2;12;@!;12=2;12;@
B.>6./92?B.>6./92?            
=<=A9.>
           
           
           
69:/A142@9<4
@>.;?3<>:21
     
%@52>?22;<@2
(0>'*         
<:21E            
.:69E            
<;?@.;@            
%/?2>B.@6<;?            
'            
17A?@21'            
'2?61A.9(@1>><> 13

13

13

13

13

13

13

13

13

13

13

13

(@.@6?@60 
13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13


13

+0 ut,Œjzk~tt,Œjzjo~ttt,Œjzjkz.ƒ0$ 2 .# *1) .+"/. */%*1//%"+.0$ )+*0$+". ( / z+) 5v)%(5ƒ# *. /0 #+.% /•%*, . *0+"# *. / *(%/0 +*%*+,+%/'z.1‚z*(5/%#*%9*00( /0%*+* )+ (2.%( /
. ,. / *0 z
G 32?@6B.9
G @<=
G A;12H;21
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 22
( sz 1)).5+"$5,+0$ / /0 /0%*#
E=<@52?6? E=<@52?6? '2?A9@'2?A9@
)5256452>@52=><=<>@6<;<3C<:2;.:<;4H9::.82>?6;82E
0>2.@6B2=<?6@6<;?@52?:.992>@52H9:/A142@6?
<;H>:21
)5256452>@52=><=<>@6<;<3C<:2;.:<;4H9::.82>?6;82E
0>2.@6B2=<?6@6<;?@529<C2>.H9:16?@>6/A@<>F?=<C2>6?
&.>@6.99E0<;H>:213<>=><1A02>?
)5256452>@52=><=<>@6<;<3C<:2;.:<;4H9::.82>?6;82E
0>2.@6B2=<?6@6<;?@529<C2>@52.@@2;1.;02<3'A??6.;H9:?6;@52
!(6?
&.>@6.99E0<;H>:213<>=><1A02>?
3@2>@52=<?6@6B223320@<3@52=><=<>@6<;<3:2;.:<;4
H9::.82>?<;@52.@>60.9.@@2;1.;026??:.992>@5.;/23<>2
'2720@21
)5256452>@52=><=<>@6<;<3C<:2;.:<;4H9::.82>?.@52
56452>@5202;@>.96@E<332:.9205.>.0@2>?.;1/@5292??
?@2>2<@E=60.9@526>>2=>2?2;@.@6<;.>2
<;H>:21
.)5256452>@5202;@>.96@E<332:.9205.>.0@2>?.;1/@52
9<C2>@526>?@2>2<@E=6;46;16.9<4A2?.>2@5256452>@52.@@2;1.;02
<3'A??6.;H9:?6;@52!(6?
'2720@21
3@2>@52=<?6@6B223320@<3.32:.9202;@>.96@E.;1/
32:.9205.>.0@2>;<;?@2>2<@E=6;4<;.@@2;1.;026?56452>@5.;
/23<>2
&.>@6.99E0<;H>:213<>'.;1')C52>2@52
;24.@6B223320@<3./20<:2?6;?64;6H0.;@.3@2>
<>,"/6@6?6;?64;6H0.;@
0+. /+1. /3$%$( /0+$%#$ .,+,1(.%05+"0$ %.9()/z$ / 03+0. */
0+# 0$ .. /1(0%*,. 2 *0%*#*+*„/0 . +05,%(" )( $.0 ./".+). $%*#
3% . 1% * /z 0 0$  /)  0%) v 1//%* 0  )+*/0.0 /0$  / * 
+"  . (0%+*/$%,  03 * 0$  /1 // +" 0$  9() * %*%0+./ +" # * .
%/ 0+3./ 0$  " )(  $.0 ./v 3$%$ + / *+0 /1,,+.0  ,. &1%  +"
/0.+*# 3+) * / * 1*,+,1(. %)# z $%/ ) */ 0$0 1//%* 1% * /
 "+. ljlj 3 .  ,+0 *0%((5 . 5 0+ 00 * )+2% /3%0$ *+*„/0 . +05,%(
,+.0.5(/+"3+) **0$0%03/*+02% 3 ./ˆ%/ /0$0,. 2 *0 /0.+*#
3+) *".+) %*#)+. 3% (5. ,. / *0 +*„/. *z%*((5v0$ *(5/%/+"
0$ $*#  %*0$ 1//%* 1% * ˆ/00%01 0+3./3+) *+*0$  /. *
,.+2% //1## /0%2  2% *  "+.0$   . / +"0$  * #0%2  7 0+" /0.+*#
" )( $.0 ./+*00 ** u0$%/ 7 0v(0$+1#$3 'v+1( +/ .2 
 "+. ljkov10 *0%. (5%/,, . "0 .0$0z
1.0$ . . / .$ +1( *(.#  0$  4%/0%*#).' „1, 0/ 0 3$%$ 3+1(
((+3 0 /0%*# +1. +* ,01( )+ ( 3%0$ /0.101.( -10%+*)+ (%*# %* 
/%*#( /00%/0%(".) 3+.'z
0. ,+/%0+.5u$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzqskj••n
.. 2% 3 .u*% ($3.06
1)%00 u  ) .kkvljlmv ,0 u .1.5klvljln
)56?6?.;<=2;.002??.>@609216?@>6/A@21A;12>@52@2>:?<3@52>2.@6B2<::<;?@@>6/A@6<;
!;@2>;.@6<;.9"602;?2-+62C@56?9602;?2F?924.91221.@5@@=0>2.@6B20<::<;?<>49602;?2?
/E.;1924.90<12.@5@@=0>2.@6B20<::<;?<>49602;?2?/E924.90<123<>:<>26;3<>:.@6<;
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 23
D@A?B;>C=<
lk/0 *01.5+4*$  *2%/*/0%010 +* * .%* %v 0(z…†
…uzzzzzzz†[Z-.(./,3)2b"(0#-(-.#./.)(
(,#(#b(c&.,")'*-)((.&&#!(vljkrv$00,/u••/ &* z+.#•3,„+*0 *0•
1,(+/•4„9( /„/1((5„ 7 0„. ,+.0„# *„2%/„%*/0%010 z,"z
#.3(v,++.2v 0(z… 5 )( $.0 ./%*%()2 +. 0+('+10 /% / *u
10+)0%*#0$  $ ( /0z†,)#(!-) ."[YZ])( ,() ."),."',#("*.,) 
."--)#.#)( ),)'*/..#)(&#(!/#-.#-a/'((!/!"()&)!#-b--)#.#)( ),
)'*/..#)(&#(!/#-.#-vljkov,,zrmjƒnjz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzmkko•2k•*ko„kjrnz
( 5v (%*v*%*/5$*z…$ +3 ."1((  .+u+*0 *0*(5/%/+" * .
 ,. / *00%+*%*+/0 ./"+.$%(. *ˆ/*%)0 +2% /z†2)&-v2+(zrmv*+zqƒrv zljljv
,,znssƒojsz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjjq•/kkkss„jlj„jkklq„6z
003++v5** z….0kz+) *v%* )*+% 05ˆz†)'()(."#&0,,(v*+.
. //vkssmv,,zksƒkmlz
„„„z)'()(."#&0,,(z*+.. //vkssmz
„„„z…‡+) *0 .2% 3/+* ./+*(1 /0%+*/zzzˆu+2% 0+) *('+10$ %.4, .% * /%*0$ 
%()*1/0.5ˆz†)'()(."#&0,,(v*+.. //vkssmv,,zlloƒnrz
 $ (v(%/+*z3%-.)."/.),z%. .*++'/vksrpz
"&-.)0##-.z5ljlkv$00,/u•• $ (0 /0z+)•z
1(#'+2v'/*z…$ 5.+"0$ +2% 0%* )u$  0)+.,$+/ /+"0$ +2% 0%()
 .+%* ˆz†)'()(."#&0,,(v*+.. //vkssmv,,zknsƒqnz
+*+.vz(,j,.#0#.3a,)!,--)(.",#*#b*#&#.#)(zvljlkz
 *vz!b(,(, ),','*&)3'(.#(/,)*c*),.)(-," ),."(.,(.#)(&
,.#)() .),i-ef,)$.h"(!#(!(,),.,3&a,)').#(!'*&)3'(.
**),./(#.#- ),)'(#(.", ),'#(!,.-ci*1/0.%( (0%+*/ / .$*%0.3%'
1/%* //$++(*%2 ./%05+".3%'vvljjrv,zmkz
.+6+2v.%*z…1(%)0%+*/".+)+%(%/)u 3)# /+"+) *%*+2% 0%* )0+#.,$5
%*0$ .+" . /0.+%'ˆz†)'()(."#&0,,(v*+.. //vkssmv,,zksrƒlknz
…1.%)# /} * .-1(%050.0 #5•ljlk„ljlm‚u-1(+% /"+.-1(( *0z†/,#'!vljljv
$00,/u••.)z+ z%*0•m.„# * .„ -1(%05„/0.0 #5„ljlk„ljlm„3 „lqrk„kpko„nkkn„l•kprjkmjnz
+((+3/vzv 0(z…10+10+"0$ %01. u015+" * .* -1(%05)+*#/0%()%. 0+./%*
0$ %()*1/0.5z†)''#--#)(3#,.),-vljkpz
+*0%* v%(( /z… )( 1%+2%/1(.+" //%+*(/%*1.+, *%0%+*.+10%+*z†/,)*(
/#)0#-/&-,0.),3vljllv,zpnv$00,/u••.)z+ z%*0•" )( „1%+2%/1(„,.+" //%+*(/„%*„
1.+, *„02„90%+*„,.+10%+*„ljl•kprjplpz
.%v2%v 0(z… * ./5)) 0.% /%* (%05*%0%+*u$  $ ( /0+"+%( %z†
,)#(!-) ."_."(.,(.#)(&)( ,()(&)!-()#&#eiZ\fz
,#0c),!v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkpjs•%3/)z2r%kzknollz
 0$ .%*#0+*2 * 5v.*%* v 0(z… * .* -1(%05"+.%. 0+./%*0$ 1.+, *%()
*1/0.5u+1/+*1/0.%z†())%) ..# ),#&'v,.%*# .*0 .*0%+*(1(%/$%*#v
ljkrv,,zojsƒmjz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjjq•sqr„m„mks„qkqkp„p€lrz
+$*/0+*vz…+) *ˆ/%* )/+1*0 .„%* )ˆz†'#(#-'(#&'v %0 5z,(*v
4"+.*%2 ./%05. //vksqmv,,zllƒlmz
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 24
+* /v 0 z)#&.1),%(&3-#-**,)".)2'#(#(!(,",.,)-#.#)(-#(
)*/&,#&',,.#0-zljljz$ *%2 ./%05+"*$ /0 .v0$ /%//1)%00 0+0$ *%2 ./%05
+"*$ /0 ."+.0$  #. +"+0+.+"$%(+/+,$5%*0$ 1(05+"1)*%0% /v
$00,/u••333z,.+-1 /0z+)•+, *2% 3•lmjkq"pr snjpol mjsp•k{,-„
+.%#/%0 Š#/$+(.Ž(ŠkrqojŽ%//Š5z
„„„z… /1.%*# *0.(%05%*%()..0%2 //%*#5*)%$.0 .*0 .0%+* 03+.'/z†)#&
.1),%-v2+(zpmv0zljljv,,zlkƒmqz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjkp•&z/+* 0zljljzjmzjjmz
#*v%)v 0(z…/%*#0% * 0+* ./0*0$ %()*1/0.5ˆ/ * .,z†&!,0
)''/(#.#)(-v2+(zpv*+zkv5ljljv,zslz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjoq•
/nkoss„jlj„jnmp„kz
*6( .v.0%*v 0(z…+1/ljkrz+.(%().' 0. */z†/,)*(/#)0#-/&-,0.),3v
ljkrv,zpnv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjkp•&z"+/zljkrzkkzjmjz
*6( .v.0%*v*0.%6%%)+* z…+1/ljlj+.(%().' 0. */z†/,)*(
/#)0#-/&-,0.),3vljlkv,zppv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjkp•&z"+/zljkrzkkzjmjz
„„„z…+1/ljll+.(%().' 0. */z†/,)*(/#)0#-/&-,0.),3vljllv,zpnz
,++.v*/%'v 0(z…$  $ (%**%u * .  ,%0%+*/%*+*0 ),+..5%*%
%* )z†)/,(&) (,./#-v2+(zlpv*+zlv0zljkov,,zlklƒlpz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•
kjzkjrj•jsorslmpzljkozkkjlklrz
16 *v.0$z.i-(i-e&&/&)#f),&b0(#(('#,a),.,3&-) '&
",.,-#(.")*cc#&'-) [Y[Zzljllz
 +*05 2v *%v 0(z… 5. */%*1//%*%* )z†/,)*(/#)0#-/&-,0.),3vljkrv,z
orv$00,/u••.)z+ z%*0•.1„ljkr„' 5„0. */„+"„.1//%*„%* )•kprjrqlklz
 +*05 2v *%v*2 (*%(+2z…),(+5) *0//1 /%*0$ 1//%*%()*1/0.5}z†
#()/&./,v*+zplvljkrv$00,u••333z'%*+'1(01.z+)•ljkr•pl„( +*05 2„*%(+2z/$0)(z
%5v0 ((v %0+.z)'(#(."(.,(.#)(&#&'(/-.,3a)&#3b,.#()1,z(#.2 
%((*vljljv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjjq•sqr„m„jmj„msjqj„sz
%** .v*. 3zv 0(z…%((%+*+((.5 {$ 7 0+" )( . / * %*+2% /+*+4
8  01.*/z†)#)&)!#&(+/#,3v2+(zrov*+zmvljkov,,znjqƒlrv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkkkk•
/+%*zkljrkz
„„„z…%((%+*+((.5 {$ 7 0+" )( . / * %*+2% /+*+48  01.*/z†
)#)&)!#&(+/#,3v2+(zrov*+zmvljkov,,znjqƒlrz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkkkk•/+%*zkljrkz
%** .v*. 3zv*%##5$1(0%*#z…+3+2% /3%0$ )( . / * . 3%0$.%0%/z†
)#/-a)#)&)!#&-," ),3('#),&v2+(zmv*+zmv*zljkqv,,zkƒpz,)--, v
$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkkqq•lmqrjlmkkqqlqpmpz
%*' v$.%/0%* v*(%6 0$.+)) .z….+) „+10%*0+,+0(%#$0u*1%+„%/1(
$.0 .*(5/%/•‚+*0$ %2 ./%05+" % ,. / *00%+**.+10%+*1(01. z†
./#-#()''/(#.#)(#(-v.zljlkv,,zkƒkqv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzlnnmn•
&z/+)/zljlkzjkzjkjz
+, 6v%.+z…+) **+*„$%0 $.0 ./. , '%*#+. %*  *00../
+2% /}z†,#.3vljkqv$00,/u••2.% 05z+)•ljkq•9()•* 3/•/0.„3./„%2 ./%05„%(+#1 „ $ („
0 /0„.+#1 „+* „kljlpmmnqm•z
1(2 5v1.z…%/1(( /1. *..0%2 %* )z†#-/&(.",&-/,-v1.1(2 5v
(#.2 )%((*vksrsv,,zknƒlpz,)--, v$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjjq•sqr„k„mns„ksqsr„s€mz
 ..+* vzz(,(+/&#.3#(#&'( )!,*"#zljkrv$00,/u••333z*5"z 1•9()„/$++(„(+#•
# * .„%* -1(%05„%*„9()„%*"+#.,$%„1,0 „%*„ljkrz
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 25
%+*vzv 0(z…(  / )) /*/(ˆ%*1/0.% %*!)0+#.,$%-1  01%+2%/1 (( z†v
ljksv,zkllz
+&2%*v.%*v*%).0 v %0+./z)'(#()0#.#&'a""1()-.g"1,#)-z
+10( # vljkqv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjznmln•sqrkmkonjsropz
$%"0q*z'&g#&'-/.*, ),'.)26 ),[YZ\g[YZ^zljkrv
$00,/u••/$%"0qz+)•) %„. / .$z
%)+* v0.%6%z… )( .+" //%+*(/%*1.+, *%().+10%+*z†/,)*(/#)0#-/&
-,0.),3vljlkv,zpqz
)%0$vzzv 0(z…* -1(%05%*kvmjj+,1(.%()/u4)%*%*#+.0.5(/+" * .z†d
."(##.3bj#-#&#.3 ,)'[YY^.)[YZ`c(((,!)/(.#)(vljljz
„„„z…* -1(%05%*kvkjj+,1(.%()/u4)%*%*#+.0.5(/+" * .v •0$*%%05z†j
#-#&#.3 ,)'[YY^.)[YZ^c(((,!)/(.#)(vljkrz
„„„z…* -1(%05%*kvljj+,1(.%()/u4)%*%*#+.0.5(/+" * .v •0$*%%05z†j
#-#&#.3 ,)'[YY^.)[YZ_c(((,!)/(.#)(b*.vljksz
)%0$v05zv*.$+1 %0%z(,#-*,#.3(,(("#(."',#('#&3
#&'-a(2/.#0/'',3zljjsz*%2 ./%05+"+10$ .*(%"+.*%** * .#$++("+.
+))1*%0%+*Ž+1.*(%/)v$00,/u••** * .#z1/z 1•/%0 /• "1(0•9( /•ljko•jn•lr•
 * .•lj%/,.%05•lj*•lj. *•lj*•lj $%*•lj0$ •lj) .•lj%*•lj)%(5•l
j%()/„•lj*•lj4 10%2 •lj1)).5•lj' 5•lj9*%*#/z,"z
)%0$v05zv 0(z… * .%/%0$+10+. ./z†(0#-(-.#./.)((,#(#v
ljknv$00,/u••/ &* z+.#•3,„+*0 *0•1,(+/•# * .„%/„3%0$+10„+. ./„"1((„. ,+.0z,"z
. ) v1(%** v 0(z… * .*+48  ."+.)* z†**&#)()'#-..,-v2+(zlpv*+zsv
1(5ljkrv,,zqrkƒrov$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzkjrj•kmojnrokzljkrzknsorkrz
1.+2/'5v5z…|+) *ˆ/%* )†%*0$ z†)'()(."#&0,,(v*+.
. //vkssmv,,zknkƒnrz
%*%''v%()z"),.,3&) '&",.,-#(.".,,-#&'!zljkrz*%2 ./%05+"
/0 .*%*(*v.+#.10$ /%/v$00,/u•• . ,+z1 "z9•%0/0. )•$*( •klmnopqrs•ksnrj•
1.*€**€9€1 "„ljkrjpomz,"{/ -1 * Š„kz
.$+ 2 *v v 0(z… „%/0.%10%*# * .%*0$ (+(%()*1/0.5u 5+*y ++*
y $. z†#(/-.,#-)/,(&v2+(zpv*+zkv1* ljksv$00,/u••+%z+.#•kjzmssr•
)%&zkojmkrjszjjjpzkjrz
%6%0 %v.%z….+)%()$++(0+%()01%+u+) **%* )0+#.,$5%*0$ .+"
 . /0.+%'ˆz†)'()(."#&0,,(v*+.. //vkssmv,,zlkoƒlnz
%'/0.*vz…$ +* 5//1 z * .-1(%05 ,+.0ljkrz†"1#-"#&'(-.#./.vljkrz
78BCW:FGQVAITIGcAGQROM8GTFGLV?O>BUGMS<INOz$00,/u•• $ (.1z3+.,. //z+)z // 
lj zljlkz
E`bhdvE]VU[XZPz<INOPGHIQQGPKID@ODPGMGNNOM=IPGzK^R^UJXbU`Pbc`]^ULQ^W`U]XUvljlkz
IX]^M^XaZz$00,/u••333z'%*+,+%/'z.1•z
JU^]bfURPvIaU]Xiv 0(z…O^`\X`^RP]XUFPWgHP]]gdN^aaXYaZ^S^IX]^_`^XWR^TabRP
ljks„ljljG^T^RXLeU]ZPM^a[UTabRXYMP]TU\XXz†@BNKRg?GRGPCSPEQKIJ9OQSFBPQRDGNNWJ
;NQRIRSR<INOIAGLGDIFGNIXvljllv,zkkoz
 * .•%)‚(* %*0$ 1//%*%* )u+*0$ /. ** $%*0$ ) .
)/,(&) /&./,&(&3.#- 26
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
From fade-out into spotlight: An audio-visual character analysis (ACIS) on the diversity of media representation and production culture
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2021
The article focuses on gender portrayal in audio-visual media and discusses the visibility and participation of diverse people. Based on a theoretical framework from gender media studies, we conceptualize audio-visual visibility as a dimension of intersectionality and apply this in an empirical approach. Audio-visual character analysis (ACIS) is introduced as a method to investigate media content in order to describe visibility of the represented people. Applying this method, a quantitative content analysis of a representative sample of German television from 2016 was realized to answer the research questions on the portrayal of relevant characters and on the positions behind the camera. The findings show an unequal representation of gender and an intersectional relevance of other categories of difference such as age as well as an interplay between gender of creative positions and visibility of female characters. The article discusses findings and implications for future research.
View
Using data science to understand the film industry’s gender gap
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2020
Data science can offer answers to a wide range of social science questions. Here we turn attention to the portrayal of women in movies, an industry that has a significant influence on society, impacting such aspects of life as self-esteem and career choice. To this end, we fused data from the online movie database IMDb with a dataset of movie dialogue subtitles to create the largest available corpus of movie social networks (15,540 networks). Analyzing this data, we investigated gender bias in on-screen female characters over the past century. We find a trend of improvement in all aspects of women‘s roles in movies, including a constant rise in the centrality of female characters. There has also been an increase in the number of movies that pass the well-known Bechdel test, a popular—albeit flawed—measure of women in fiction. Here we propose a new and better alternative to this test for evaluating female roles in movies. Our study introduces fresh data, an open-code framework, and novel techniques that present new opportunities in the research and analysis of movies.
View
Measuring centrality in film narratives using dynamic character interaction networks
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2020
  • SOC NETWORKS
The tools of social network analysis offer a promising framework for studying fictional texts and the relational activity of the characters therein. The goal of this paper is to offer both a conceptual refinement of the project of measuring the centrality of characters within narratives using network tools, as well as the proposal of a novel measure with which to do so. Conceptually, we argue that as questions of time, order and sequence are central in narratives, measures of characters’ narrative importance should be based on dynamic network representations which respect the time-ordering of narrative events. We suggest a directed dynamic measure of relative character importance based on character interactions and illustrate it through an examination of gender in the 2015 film Star Wars: The Force Awakens. We find that the measure helps illuminate important narrative dynamics which cannot be captured by static measures, and presents a platform on which future character network research can productively build.
View
The Powerful Male Hero: A Content Analysis of Gender Representation in Posters for Children’s Animated Movies
Article
Full-text available
Findings across a wide body of research suggest that media targeted at young audiences often portray characters according to stereotypical gender roles. Childhood is a particularly sensitive time in gender identity development, and logic from social cognitive theory suggests that repeatedly observing these stereotypes can have a lasting influence on young audiences’ worldview. Building on previous research investigating gender role displays in film content, and with the expectation that content creators use movie posters to convey a one-shot summary of films to audiences, we conducted a content analysis on the gendered power depictions of the main characters in movie posters of 152 popular U.S. animated children’s feature films produced over the last 80 years. Findings revealed that main characters were more likely to be male and that males were portrayed as more powerful. These results add to a growing, yet substantial, body of research illustrating the prevalence of stereotypical gender role portrayals across virtually every popular medium with which children come into contact. We discuss our results’ implications for potential short-term and long-term effects of exposure to films’ gender role stereotypes on young viewers’ real-life gender role expectations.
View
Re-Distributing Gender in the Global Film Industry: Beyond #MeToo and #MeThree
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2019
This article draws on a big cultural dataset of over 130 million global screen times to consider the impact that the gender of a film’s director has on the screening prevalence and geographic spread of new release feature films at the cinema. We compare results based on film screenings between December 2012 and May 2015 across a set of forty countries including the United States, France, Germany, Australia, Japan, India, and Brazil. This research is timely in light of renewed attention given to sexism and gender discrimination in the film industry. Rather than focus on the statistical paucity of women in production teams, where discrimination acutely diminishes workplace opportunities, our analysis instead focuses at the other end of the spectrum and identifies gendered patterns in film screenings across the globe. We correlate our findings to the social gender gap analysis undertaken by the World Economic Forum. We hope the research may be used as evidence to support nuanced policy innovations that can result in greater gender equality in the film industry and society more broadly.
View
Gender and box office performance
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2018
We analyse the box office–movie star relationship since the 1990s. We find that, on average, the contribution of at least one star was large, equalling roughly 10% of a film’s revenues. Also, consistent with the substantial difference in the average compensation between male and female stars, having a male star in a film generated a premium in the neighbourhood of 12%, while female star had no statistical impact on a movie’s performance.
View
Employment issues in the Russian film industry
Article
  • Oct 2018
Article upon the research into issues encountered by Russian employees of the film sector. http://www.kinokultura.com/2018/62-leontyeva-danilov.shtml
View
View
Women in the International Film Industry Policy, Practice and Power: Policy, Practice and Power
Book
  • Jan 2020
This book is about the struggle for gender equality in film industries across seventeen countries. Little is known about contemporary activism outside of Hollywood and this collection aims to fill this crucial gap in our knowledge. Contributors from countries as diverse as Iceland, New Zealand and Ireland evaluate their respective industries by establishing the scale of gender inequality with reference to structural inequalities, discrimination, unconscious bias and gendered power relations. The collection addresses the extent to which gender equality is tackled, with a focus on female practitioners— screenwriters, directors, producers, cinematographers and editors. Significantly, it addresses the surge of recent activism in the aftermath of MeToo and Times Up and the variety of responses from funding bodies throughout the world. The book makes a valuable contribution to international debates. It offers academics, students, activists, policy makers, practitioners and film goers a comprehensive insight into the impact of gender equality demands across the globe and positions them within specific historical and cultural contexts. It also establishes a solid foundation for further research.
View
Marlen Khutsiev’s July Rain, cultural liberation, and a new Soviet woman
Chapter
  • Jan 2017
Marlen Khutsiev’s July Rain (Iiul’skii dozhd’, 1966) commences with a fleeting glimpse of sacred tranquility. The very first image in the film is a black-and-white close-up of an Italian Renaissance painting, Andrea Mantegna’s late fifteenth-century The Holy Family with Saints Elizabeth and John the Baptist, which appears for several seconds on screen. Mary, holding the Christ child in her arms, stands serenely between St. Elizabeth and St. John the Baptist, as Khutsiev, via Mantegna, brings the sanctity of divine motherhood to the fore, if only for a brief moment. It is a motionless vision of female devotion and maternity quite at odds with what will ensue in July Rain. © 2018 selection and editorial matter, Marina Rojavin and Tim Harte; individual chapters, the contributors.
View