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Legitimacy Through Diversity: China’s Leadership in the BRICS + Expansion for Global Balance

May 2024
Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences

DOI:10.1007/s40647-024-00411-6

Authors:

Brice Tseen Fu Lee

Fudan University

Juan Pablo Sims

Universidad del Desarrollo

This analysis explores China’s quest for international legitimacy through its leader- ship in the BRICS + expansion, a strategic maneuver to foster a multipolar world that integrates diverse political and economic systems. The evolution into BRICS+is significant, with the collective GDP of member countries reaching $30.76 trillion, accounting for 30% of the global economy. This underscores the alliance’s economic impact and challenges the existing world order. The inclusion of nations like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Ethiopia, Egypt, and the UAE offers a blueprint for shared benefits and mutual growth. China advocates for an alternative, inclusive pathway to legitimacy, promoting a world order that values sovereignty, cultural identity, and balanced global governance.

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Legitimacy through Diversity: China's Leadership in the BRICS+

Expansion for Global Balance

Brice Tseen Fu Lee

Fudan University, School of International Relations and Public Affairs, PhD Candidate

Universidad Del Desarrollo, Faculty of Government, Senior Researcher

Oxford Global Society, Research Associate

briceleetseenfu@gmail.com

Juan Pablo Sims

Universidad Del Desarrollo, Faculty of Government, Associate Professor

Fudan University, School of International Relations and Public Affairs, PhD Candidate

jsims@udd.cl

Abstract:

This analysis explores China's quest for international legitimacy through its leadership in the

BRICS+ expansion, a strategic maneuver to foster a multipolar world that integrates diverse

political and economic systems. The evolution into BRICS+ is significant, with the collective GDP

of member countries reaching $30.76 trillion, accounting for 30% of the global economy. This

underscores the alliance's economic impact and challenges the existing world order. The

inclusion of nations like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Ethiopia, Egypt, and the UAE offers a blueprint for

shared benefits and mutual growth. China advocates for an alternative, inclusive pathway to

legitimacy, promoting a world order that values sovereignty, cultural identity, and balanced

global governance.

Keywords: China, International Legitimacy, BRICS+, Multipolar World, Global Governance,

Mutual Growth, Sovereignty, Cultural Identity, Strategic Expansion, Resource Diplomacy.

Introduction

China's meteoric rise as a global economic powerhouse has been accompanied by multifaceted

challenges in the international system. Historically, China has faced exclusion or limited

participation in various international initiatives and organizations. For instance, its influence in

Bretton Woods institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank was

limited for many years, and it has been excluded from major economic groupings such as the G7

(Kent 2002). Furthermore, China's absence from the world's most significant multilateral energy

institutions underscores its reluctance to join these restrictive organizations and their lack of

engagement with China (Kong 2011).

However, in the realm of international relations, legitimacy plays a pivotal role. Legitimacy is

often sought by states to validate their actions, policies, and global outreach. In the case of China,

its quest for legitimacy is intricately linked to its historical exclusions and its aspirations to

reshape the international order in alignment with its interests (Benabdallah 2019). A recent

manifestation of China's legitimacy-building efforts is evident in the expansion of the BRICS bloc.

The inclusion of countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iran, Ethiopia, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates

into BRICS, which this paper will term as BRICS+, is not merely a strategic move for economic

cooperation. A closer examination reveals that many of these countries are among the world's

top oil producers, with Saudi Arabia, Russia, China, UAE, Iran, and Brazil being notable members

of BRICS+. Moreover, the combined GDP of BRICS+ countries amounts to $30.76 trillion,

accounting for 30% of the global economy, further emphasizing their collective economic clout.

This paper delves into China's strategic and thoughtful expansion of BRICS+, focusing particularly

on integrating countries rich in natural resources and predominantly situated outside the

influence of the Western liberal order. This initiative is a calculated strategy aimed at enhancing

China's international legitimacy amidst the escalating great power rivalry, especially with the

United States and its allies. China, in its pursuit of global recognition and influence, has

recognized the critical importance of fostering inclusivity in the international arena. By

intentionally extending its diplomatic and economic outreach to regions historically marginalized

and underrepresented in global governance structures, China is articulating a clear and powerful

vision. It is advocating for a more inclusive, multipolar world order that transcends traditional

power dynamics and offers representation to nations from Africa, the Middle East and Asia.

This strategic alignment with resource-rich countries, many of which have experienced tensions

with the Western liberal order, underscores China's commitment to reshaping the global

governance landscape. It represents a bold move to recalibrate the international system,

ensuring it more accurately reflects the diverse nature of our global society. In doing so, China is

not only solidifying its own position on the world stage but also promoting a more equitable

distribution of power and influence. By aligning itself with countries rich in natural and human

resources, and advocating for the inclusion of underrepresented regions in the global governance

structure, China is contributing to the establishment of a more balanced and representative

international system. This emerging multipolar world envisions a distribution of power that is

more evenly spread, allowing for a true representation of the global community. In this context,

China is positioning itself as a central player, a nation that is willing and able to challenge existing

global hierarchies and offer an alternative vision for the future of international relations.

In summary, this paper contends that China's expansion of BRICS+ is a strategic and deliberate

effort to build international legitimacy and challenge the existing world order. By aligning with

nations rich in resources and often positioned outside the Western liberal order, and by

promoting the inclusion of underrepresented regions in global governance, China is actively

contributing to the creation of a more inclusive, balanced, and multipolar world order.

The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 delves into the Theoretical Framework:

Legitimacy in International Relations. This section is subdivided into various segments that

explore different facets of legitimacy in the context of global governance and power dynamics.

Specifically, we discuss "Great Power Competition and the Quest for Legitimacy," "BRICS+

Expansion and Legitimacy Building," "Inclusion of Resource-Rich Nations," "Engaging with the

Marginalized," and "Implications for the International System," culminating in a discourse on

"Towards legitimacy."

Following the theoretical exploration, Section 3 focuses on "China's Great Power Rivalry and

Quest for Legitimacy." Here, we examine the intricacies of the US-China rivalry, highlighting the

instances and implications of China's exclusion from Western-led international organizations.

This section provides a nuanced understanding of China's strategic maneuvers within the global

arena, shaped by its interactions with established powers.

Section 4, the Discussion, offers an in-depth analysis of "Acceleration of China's Need for

International Legitimacy" and "Building Legitimacy through International Organizations and

Partnerships." It further elaborates on how "BRICS: A Platform for China's Legitimacy Building"

and the "BRICS+ Expansion: Strategic Inclusion of Resource-Rich Countries" serve as mechanisms

for China to enhance its standing and influence on the global stage. Additionally, this section

delves into "The Quest for Legitimacy," emphasizing the broader implications of China's actions

for international relations and global governance.

Finally, Section 5 concludes the paper by synthesizing the findings and outlining the implications

of China's quest for legitimacy through its leadership in the BRICS+ expansion and its strategic

engagements in the international system. The conclusion reflects on the potential future

trajectories of China's role in global governance and the evolving dynamics of international power

structures.

The research purpose of this study is to critically analyze China's strategic expansion of the BRICS+

bloc as a pivotal element in its broader quest for international legitimacy amid the great power

rivalries and its historical marginalization from key global institutions. This study aims to unravel

the implications of China's integration of resource-rich and geopolitically significant nations into

BRICS+, examining how this expansion not only enhances China's economic and political clout

but also serves as a vehicle for promoting a more inclusive and multipolar world order. The issues

being addressed encompass China's response to its exclusion from the Western-dominated

liberal world order, its efforts to construct an alternative global governance framework through

BRICS+, and the potential ramifications of these actions for the established international order.

By delving into China's motivations, strategies, and the broader geopolitical context, this study

seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of China's aspirations to reshape global power

dynamics and foster a world system where diverse nations have a voice and their sovereignty

and developmental paths are respected and valued.

Theoretical Framework: Legitimacy in International Relations

Great Power Competition and the Quest for Legitimacy

The concept of great power competition, particularly evident in the strategic rivalry between

China and established powers such as the United States, plays a crucial role in shaping the

dynamics of international relations. This competition extends beyond mere military might,

encompassing economic, technological, and ideological dimensions, thereby challenging the

existing global power structure (Goldstein 1997). China's ascendance introduces a new paradigm,

necessitating a reevaluation of power relations and the balance of influence, particularly in the

context of both hard and soft power (Brooks and Wohlforth 2016).

However, China's rise has not been without resistance. The established liberal world order,

predominantly influenced by Western powers, has exhibited instances of apprehension and

containment, leading to China’s exclusion from certain aspects of global governance (Zhao 2015).

This exclusion extends to participation in international institutions and the shaping of global

norms and rules, reflecting a reluctance to adapt to changing power dynamics and accommodate

new rising powers (Zeng and Breslin 2016). Ikenberry (2008) further questions the ability of the

liberal system to survive in the face of China's rise, highlighting the challenges and uncertainties

that accompany this power transition. This underscores the importance of understanding the

implications of China's ascendance, not just for the existing powers, but also for the international

system as a whole. In response to these challenges, China has embarked on a path of innovation,

developing alternative strategies to assert its influence and build legitimacy on the global stage.

This includes the formation and expansion of new international institutions and partnerships,

such as BRICS and the Belt and Road Initiative, which embody China’s vision for a more inclusive

and multipolar world order (Zhai 2018)

Through these initiatives, China engages with countries often marginalized by the traditional

liberal world order, positioning itself as a leader in the emerging multipolar world. This approach

challenges existing hierarchies and advocates for a more equitable distribution of power and

resources, reflecting China’s commitment to reshaping the global governance landscape (Zhao

2008). Collectively, these scholarly works provide a comprehensive understanding of the great

power competition and its implications for China's quest for legitimacy. They highlight the

strategic rivalry, the challenges of exclusion, and China's innovative responses as it seeks to

establish itself as a legitimate and influential actor in the international system.

BRICS+ Expansion and Legitimacy Building

The strategic expansion of BRICS to include additional countries, as seen in the BRICS+ format, is

a deliberate effort by China to enhance its global influence and establish legitimacy beyond the

Western liberal order. This move aligns with China's broader strategy of promoting a more

inclusive and multipolar world order, challenging existing global power structures, and

advocating for a fairer distribution of power and resources (Lissovolik 2023; Hallding et al. 2013).

The inclusion of new members in BRICS, such as South Africa in 2010, has sparked varied views

in the literature, ranging from dismissing BRICS as a mere acronym to recognizing it as a

significant player impacting the global economic order (Kirton and Larionova 2022).

The expansion of BRICS has led to discussions on how this format, particularly BRICS+, can

strengthen the position of BRICS in the global arena and among the Global South (Ye 2023;

Lissovolik 2023). Moreover, the success of initiatives like the New Development Bank (NDB)

within BRICS could influence the group's ability to enhance global governance. However, there is

limited evidence suggesting that BRICS intends to overhaul the current global order (Kutu and

Ngalawa 2017). Recommendations have been made for BRICS countries to maintain policy

consistency, especially in monetary policy, to stimulate industrial output effectively (Panin 2023).

The potential expansion of BRICS to include countries like Ethiopia and Egypt has been viewed as

a consideration of South Africa's interests, ensuring its continued significance within the

organization in Africa (Sergeeva 2024). The prospects of an expanded BRICS membership in the

global economy and the directions of cooperation between Russia and foreign partners within

BRICS have also been explored. In conclusion, the literature on BRICS expansion and legitimacy

building underscores the evolving dynamics of global power shifts, the strategic motivations

behind BRICS+, and the implications for global governance and economic cooperation among

member countries.

Inclusion of Resource-Rich Nations

The strategic incorporation of resource-rich nations into the BRICS+ framework marks a

significant pivot in China's global strategy, aiming to secure essential natural resources vital for

its burgeoning economic needs while simultaneously establishing robust partnerships that

enhance its geopolitical sway and global influence. This calculated maneuver aligns with the

concept of output legitimacy, as delineated by Steffek (2003), emphasizing an entity's capability

to deliver tangible results and uphold the global public interest to garner legitimacy.

In parallel, the discourse on the interconnectedness of economic development, resource

utilization, and environmental degradation gains prominence in the context of the BRICS+

expansion. Rafei, Esmaeili, and Balsalobre-Lorente (2022) delve into the intricate dance between

economic complexity, natural resource exploitation, and ecological footprints, illuminating how

variations in institutional quality across nations precipitate disparate environmental impacts. This

narrative is particularly resonant within the BRICS+ consortium, encapsulating nations with

diverse levels of institutional robustness and resource endowments, thereby accentuating the

imperative for policy frameworks that are sensitive to the unique economic and environmental

tapestries of these countries (Yu et al. 2024).

Furthermore, the intricate relationship between economic activities and environmental

degradation underlines a global concern over climate change and its ties to economic paradigms

(Gao et al. 2024). The environmental strain wrought by human consumption and exploitation of

natural resources echoes through the strategic underpinnings of the BRICS+ expansion, where

economic collaboration is intrinsically linked to resource acquisition and its ensuing

environmental repercussions (Cai and Zhang 2022). The discourse extends to the nuanced role

of the Economic Complexity Index (ECI) in shaping nations' economic trajectories and their

environmental footprints (Lee and Olasehinde‐Williams 2024). The Economic Complexity Index

(ECI) measures the productive capabilities and accumulated knowledge within an economy,

relating to the diversity and sophistication of its export products. High ECI values, seen in

countries like Japan or Germany, indicate a varied and advanced economy, exporting unique and

complex products. Conversely, low ECI scores, as observed in Angola or Botswana, suggest an

economy with limited diversity and simpler, more common export products. The ECI is calculated

using a mathematical approach that assesses the interconnectedness of countries and the

products they export. Dogan et al. (2020) as well as Pata and Caglar (2021) elucidate how the ECI

serves as a dual-edged sword, driving economic growth while also fostering opportunities for

sustainable development through research, development, and clean energy adoption, offering a

valuable lens to examine the economic strategies and environmental engagements of BRICS+

nations.

The significance of institutional quality in sculpting environmental outcomes emerges as a central

theme, with Fu, Lu, and Pirabi (2023)as well as Haqi (2023) shedding light on the pivotal role

governance structures play in steering sustainable development and environmental governance.

This facet is particularly salient for the BRICS+ coalition, aspiring to synergize cooperation among

nations with disparate governance frameworks and institutional capacities, thereby influencing

their collective and individual approaches to sustainable development and environmental

stewardship. At the heart of the sustainability discourse is the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC)

hypothesis, explored within various contexts, including Jahanger et al. (2022)'s examination

within NAFTA, revealing an inverted U-shaped relationship between economic growth and

environmental impact. This paradigm is crucial for BRICS+ countries, suggesting that while

economic expansion may initially exacerbate environmental degradation, a turning point can be

reached where further economic maturation and technological advancements precipitate a

reduction in environmental harm.

The dialogue on the tension between economic growth and environmental health is further

enriched by Ahmad et al. (2019) who emphasize the inherent trade-offs in pursuing economic

expansion at the expense of ecological well-being. This conversation is particularly pertinent to

the BRICS+ ensemble, where rapid economic ascension is often predicated on resource-intensive

and environmentally detrimental practices. Therefore the importance of economic development,

resource management, and environmental sustainability, BRICS+ nations are positioned at a

critical juncture. Their collective and individual paths forward will not only define their economic

trajectories but also their environmental legacies, underscoring the pressing need for an

integrated approach that harmonizes economic aspirations with sustainable and eco-friendly

practices.

Engaging with the Marginalized

China’s intentional engagement with countries frequently marginalized by the traditional liberal

world order is a strategic move to position itself as a leader in the emerging multipolar world.

This strategy challenges existing hierarchies and underscores China’s dedication to transforming

the global governance landscape. Dellmuth, Scholte, and Tallberg (2019)emphasize the

importance of institutional qualities, including democratic, technocratic, and fair procedural and

performance qualities, as sources of legitimacy for international organizations. Through the

establishment and expansion of BRICS+, China is fostering a more democratic and inclusive global

governance structure, enhancing its own legitimacy in the process.

China is proactively crafting an alternative development model, offering a complementary

pathway for global growth, particularly for states that often find themselves at the margins of

the prevailing liberal world order. Through initiatives like BRICS+ and institutions such as the New

Development Bank (NDB) and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), China is not

merely challenging the existing frameworks but is presenting an inclusive alternative that

underscores democratic engagement and broader participation in global governance (H. Wang

2019; Hawkins et al. 2022; Johnston 2019). This approach is rooted in China's own experiences

of exclusion and seeks to create a platform where marginalized nations can find their voice and

pursue development within a supportive, multipolar context. China's endeavors, exemplified by

the Belt and Road Initiative and its leadership within the AIIB, underscore its commitment to

fostering a model where development is not a zero-sum game but a shared journey towards

collective prosperity (Kumar 2023; Kirton and Larionova 2022).

In positioning itself as a key proponent of this alternative model, China aims to redefine the

contours of international relations, emphasizing cooperation and mutual growth. Its involvement

in sectors like global energy governance illustrates a broader ambition to offer governance

solutions that are adaptable and responsive to the needs of the Global South, thereby advocating

for a balanced global architecture where diverse development narratives can coexist and flourish

(Hawkins et al. 2022). Hence, China's strategic engagement in the global arena, particularly

through BRICS and its affiliated frameworks, is emblematic of its aspiration to establish a platform

for South-South cooperation, enabling nations to chart their own development trajectories in

tandem with others, free from the constraints of traditional Western-centric paradigms

(Nuruzzaman 2022; Duggan et al. 2022). In this light, China's initiatives are not seen as revisionist

challenges to the established order but as constructive contributions towards a more inclusive

and equitable global governance model.

Implications for the International System:

The enlargement of BRICS+ has profound implications for the international system, signaling the

potential emergence of a more inclusive and multipolar world order. It undermines the

dominance of Western powers and opens avenues for cooperation and collaboration among

emerging economies. This development resonates with the findings of Dorussen and Ward

(2008), who highlight the role of intergovernmental organizations in forging network ties

between states, thereby enhancing their capacity to effectively intervene in conflicts and

contribute to global stability. By promoting a more inclusive and cooperative international

environment through BRICS+, China is not only bolstering its legitimacy but also affirming its role

as a pivotal player in the global governance system.

The strategic expansion of BRICS+ serves as a pivotal mechanism for China to navigate the

complexities of international relations and assert its legitimacy amidst great power competition.

Dellmuth and Tallberg (2015) insights into the social legitimacy of international organizations

underscore the importance of delivering tangible results and maintaining public confidence,

which China aims to achieve through BRICS+. By fostering effective collaboration and delivering

economic benefits, BRICS+ enhances the perceived legitimacy of China’s role in global

governance.

Stephen (2018) discussion on legitimacy deficits due to legitimacy drift highlights the challenges

faced by traditional international organizations, and by extension, emphasizes the necessity for

innovative platforms like BRICS+. China’s initiative to expand BRICS+ can be seen as a proactive

measure to prevent legitimacy drift, ensuring that the organization remains aligned with the

evolving needs and expectations of the international community. Nasiritousi and Faber (2021)

shed light on the sources of legitimacy in a complex institutional landscape, suggesting that the

expansion of BRICS+ contributes to China’s legitimacy by diversifying its diplomatic engagements

and creating a more inclusive international order. This aligns with Gronau and Schmidtke (2016)

exploration of international institutions’ legitimation strategies, as China leverages BRICS+ to

articulate a clear vision and rationale for its role in global governance, further solidifying its

legitimacy. Together, these works provide a comprehensive framework for understanding how

the expansion of BRICS+ serves as a strategic tool for China to build and consolidate its legitimacy,

navigate the challenges of institutional complexity, and position itself as a central actor in the

evolving international order.

Towards legitimacy:

In the theoretical framework, we have delved into the intricate dynamics of great power

competition, focusing on China's strategic rivalry with established powers, particularly the United

States. We highlighted how this rivalry has led to China’s exclusion from certain facets of the

liberal world order, necessitating innovative approaches and alternative strategies to assert its

influence and build legitimacy on the global stage. The formation and expansion of BRICS and

BRICS+ serve as quintessential examples of these strategies, providing a platform for emerging

economies to collaborate, assert their influence, and challenge the existing global order.

The significance of understanding China’s actions within this context cannot be overstated. The

great power competition is not just a contest of military or economic might; it is also a battle for

influence, legitimacy, and the ability to shape the global governance landscape. China’s strategic

actions, including the expansion of BRICS+, are aimed at enhancing its standing in the

international system, building legitimacy, and fostering a more inclusive and multipolar world

order. The potential long-term implications of China’s strategy for the international system and

global governance are profound. By creating and expanding platforms like BRICS+, China is

challenging the dominance of Western powers and advocating for a more equitable distribution

of power and resources. This could lead to a more balanced and multipolar international system,

where emerging economies have a greater say in global affairs.

However, the journey is not without challenges. The existing literature highlights the complexities

and nuances of building legitimacy in the international system. Material power, while significant,

is not the sole determinant of a country's influence in global governance. The attitude of a

country's leadership towards the international order, the length of its membership in major

international organizations, and the strength of its civil society all play crucial roles in shaping its

participation and influence in global governance (H. Wang and French 2013). Additionally, the

legitimacy of international governance hinges upon popular assent to the justifications of its goals,

principles, and procedures (Steffek, 2003). Therefore, China’s strategic actions in the realm of

great power competition, particularly its efforts to build legitimacy through the expansion of

BRICS+, are reshaping the international system and the landscape of global governance.

Understanding these dynamics is crucial for comprehending the potential trajectories of

international relations and the future of global governance. The journey is complex, and the

outcomes are uncertain, but the implications for the international system and global governance

are undeniably significant.

China's Great Power Rivalry and Quest for Legitimacy

Overview of the U.S.-China Rivalry

The U.S.-China rivalry has manifested in various forms of exclusion, significantly impacting China's

quest for international legitimacy and influence. In the realm of economic and technological

domains, the U.S. has implemented policies restricting China's access to advanced technologies,

particularly in sectors deemed crucial for national security. This has led to a partial decoupling of

technological supply chains, pushing China to invest significantly in its own technological

development and strive for self-reliance (Zhao 2019). Despite these challenges, Christensen

(2006) suggests that the U.S. could potentially exert more regional influence through cooperation

with China, rather than attempting to contain its economic and diplomatic growth. The

ideological divide between the U.S. and China further complicates their relationship. The U.S.

promotes a liberal democratic model, while China advocates for a state-led authoritarian

approach, fostering mutual suspicion and impeding collaboration in various international settings

(Ferchen 2013). Zhao (2015) highlights that this strategic rivalry is deeply rooted in ideological

differences, adding a layer of complexity to their interactions.

In terms of international governance, China perceives itself as marginalized from the prevailing

structures dominated by Western influences. In response, it has actively sought to establish and

participate in alternative international platforms, such as BRICS and the Belt and Road Initiative,

aiming to enhance its global influence and cooperation with other nations (Zhao 2022). This is a

deliberate strategy to counteract its exclusion and assert its role in the global arena. The

relationship is further strained by perceptual gaps and normative exclusion, with both nations

viewing each other with suspicion and often framing each other as challengers to the existing

international order (Chengqiu 2020). In the military and security domain, China feels encircled by

the U.S.'s network of military alliances in the Asia-Pacific region, interpreting these security

partnerships as a containment strategy (He and Feng 2023). This has prompted China to seek

alternative means of ensuring its security and expanding its influence. Collectively, these various

forms of exclusion have accelerated China's quest for international legitimacy, prompting it to

explore innovative strategies and form new partnerships to navigate these challenges and assert

its role in the global arena.

For example, The Group of Seven (G7), a coalition of some of the world's major industrialized

democracies, has increasingly positioned itself in opposition to China, reflecting a shift

reminiscent of Cold War dynamics. This stance was evident at the Hiroshima summit, where the

G7 nations, along with several of China's neighbors, convened in a manner that some observers,

including Shi Jiangtao from the South China Morning Post, characterized as an event that views

China in a negative light (Shi 2023). The summit highlighted the G7's concerns over China's

growing assertiveness and its strategic partnership with Russia. The Economist notes that the

G7's original formation did not consider China, which has since grown into a formidable global

force, challenging the group's economic and democratic ideals (The Economist 2021). British

Prime Minister Rishi Sunak, as reported by Tessa Wong of the BBC, has labeled China as 'the

greatest state-based threat to the UK's economic security,' as the G7 would see a disturbing rise

of the weaponization of economic vulnerabilities as the G7 believes that these coercion measures

would undermine the foreign and domestic policies and position of G7 members as well as

partners all around the world which leads to the underscoring of the group's ideological rift with

Beijing (Wong 2023). Lili Yan Ing, writing for the Jakarta Globe, warns that the G7's anti-coercion

campaign against China could have unintended consequences, potentially backfiring (Ing 2023).

Collectively, these developments and the media coverage surrounding them, including reports

from the South China Morning Post, the BBC, the Jakarta Globe and many legitimate news site,

contribute to a narrative that challenges China's legitimacy and portrays the G7's posture as a

unified front aimed at countering China's influence.

Furthermore, The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), as

characterized by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), is often viewed as an

exclusive "club" of affluent democracies, accounting for a substantial share of global GDP and

establishing benchmarks across a spectrum of economic and policy realms. The membership

prerequisites of the OECD, highlighting shared democratic values and economic systems,

implicitly preclude nations that diverge from these tenets. Notably, China, with its distinctive

state-led authoritarian schema, does not conform to the conventional profile of an OECD

member state. This exclusion may be construed as a form of anti-legitimacy, insinuating that the

organization's standards and practices are crafted to endorse and validate certain types of

economic and political frameworks while discrediting others, such as that of China (Runde, Askey,

& McKeown, 2020). The OECD's pivotal role in steering global economic governance, through its

advisories and norm-setting in domains like taxation, anti-corruption, and the digital economy,

further emphasizes this schism. The focus of the organization often mirrors the interests and

modalities of its member states, which predominantly are aligned with market-oriented

economic models and liberal democratic governance structures. This emphasis can be perceived

as a counterpoint to China's state-driven approach, potentially feeding into a narrative that the

OECD's undertakings are part of a more extensive anti-legitimacy campaign against China's

economic and political system (Runde, Askey, and McKeown 2020).

Moreover, the internal discourse within the OECD regarding China's status—whether to extend

an invitation for full membership or to sustain its present level of engagement—highlights the

intricacies of assimilating China into a system of governance that maintains values at odds with

its own. The deliberations concerning China's prospective membership evoke questions about

the organization's willingness to embrace diverse economic models and governance practices. In

essence, the OECD's membership criteria, strategic orientation, and governance frameworks can

be seen as implicitly sidelining China, thereby contributing to a perception of anti-legitimacy

efforts aimed against it. This perception is bolstered by the organization's role in establishing

global standards that may not resonate with China's internal policies and global ambitions (OECD,

n.d.). In crafting this narrative, the insights of Daniel F. Runde, Senior Vice President, William A.

Schreyer Chair in Global Analysis, and Director of the Project on Prosperity and Development at

CSIS, alongside Thelma Askey, former Deputy Secretary-General of the OECD, are particularly

instructive, providing a nuanced understanding of the OECD's position and its implications for

global economic governance (Runde, Askey, and McKeown 2020).

Another example is reflected in the deliberate exclusion of China from the International Space

Station (ISS) by the United States, as highlighted by Jeffrey Kluger, an esteemed author of 12

books including "Apollo 13," exemplifies a strategic move that has implications for legitimacy and

competition in the domain of space exploration (Kluger 2015). This exclusion, rooted in concerns

over national security, has not only sidelined China from participating in a significant

international endeavor but has also inadvertently contributed to the legitimacy building of

China's own space program. As China was compelled to forge its own path, it has achieved

remarkable milestones, such as the development of multi-crew spacecraft and the planning of

interplanetary missions, thereby establishing its own space exploration credentials. This self-

sufficient progression in space technology, in the face of exclusion, serves as a testament to

China's resolve to construct and legitimize its space capabilities independently, challenging the

notion that legitimacy in space can only be conferred through collaboration with established

space-faring entities (Kluger 2015).

The narrative of China's global engagement is one of resilience in the face of exclusion, as seen

in its space endeavors, and strategic adaptation within international trade systems. The

deliberate sidelining of China from the International Space Station (ISS), as noted by Kluger (2015),

has not only highlighted geopolitical tensions but also spurred China to bolster its own space

program, thereby enhancing its legitimacy in the realm of space exploration. Similarly, China's

accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) marked a pivotal shift in its economic trajectory.

Embracing the liberalization policies of the 1990s, China's integration into the WTO catalyzed a

period of unprecedented economic growth and innovation, as evidenced by the surge in patent

applications by Chinese firms, a move that solidified its legitimacy as a global economic

powerhouse despite the backdrop of competitive tensions (Liu et al. 2011; Ianchovichina and

Martin 2001). This juxtaposition of exclusion from space collaboration and inclusion in global

trade underscores the complex dynamics of legitimacy and participation that China navigates on

the world stage.

Despite these integrative steps, China's relationship with the WTO has also been characterized

by selective contestation, particularly in sectors like steel and agriculture, suggesting a nuanced

stance towards the WTO's liberal trade order (Weinhardt and ten Brink 2020). Moreover, the

compliance of China with the WTO Dispute Settlement System underscores its commitment to

the international trading order, despite the reputational costs associated with noncompliance

(Harpaz 2010).However, the area of export restrictions reveals a bias against late accession

members like China, hinting at an embedded form of exclusion within the WTO's framework

(Karapinar 2011). The narrative of exclusion extends beyond the WTO, as seen in China's absence

from the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for

Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). The expected negative impact on China's trade with the TPP

region post-implementation of the agreement exemplifies the tangible consequences of such

exclusion (Sikdar and Mukhopadhyay 2017). It is also worth noting that the TPP has also been

seen as a strategy to contain China in international trade which can be further seen as an anti-

legitimacy initiative (Chow 2016). Despite this, there have been calls for the U.S. to encourage

China's participation in the TPP, recognizing the potential benefits of inclusivity.

Another example can be seen in China's approach to its Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs) which

demonstrates a conscious effort to maintain WTO compatibility, suggesting a deliberate strategy

to uphold legitimacy within the international trade norms, even as it navigates the complexities

of compliance and criticism, such as in environmental regulations post-WTO accession (Snyder

2009; Long, Oh, and Cheng 2013). This strategic adaptation, coupled with internal policy diversity

in response to international trade norms, reflects China's multifaceted engagement with the

global trade system (Khan, Congmei, and Ali 2024). Therefore, China's experience with global

trade governance encapsulates a struggle for legitimacy, marked by both integration and

exclusion. The country's efforts to adapt and comply with international norms, while facing

embedded biases and exclusion from key trade agreements, highlight the ongoing challenges and

dynamics of legitimacy in the context of global economic governance.

The governance structure of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank has been

a subject of scrutiny and debate, particularly concerning the distribution of voting power among

member countries. The United States, as the largest shareholder in these institutions, wields

significant influence, which some argue borders on a de facto veto power due to its substantial

voting share and the requirement for a supermajority for key decisions. This disproportionate

influence has been criticized for favoring elite interests within wealthy nations, with the United

States alone commanding 16.4% of votes within the World Bank, a share that is large enough to

block major decisions that require an 85% supermajority (Birn and Dmitrienko 2005). The political

alignment with the United States has also been found to increase a country's probability of

receiving an IMF loan, suggesting that geopolitical considerations may play a role in the decision-

making process (Thacker 1999). Moreover, the IMF and World Bank have been accused of

defending their institutional supremacy in a fast-changing global system, which may not always

align with the interests of rising powers like China (Güven 2017).

The current voting structure within these institutions has been characterized as undemocratic by

some scholars, who argue that it disproportionately favors the interests of the United States and

other wealthy member countries at the expense of a more equitable representation of all

member states (Birn and Dmitrienko 2005). This has led to calls for reform in the governance of

the IMF and World Bank to preserve a multilateral system of monetary and financial cooperation

that is fair and representative of all member countries (Ocampo 2005). Therefore, while the

United States does not hold formal veto power in the IMF and World Bank, its significant voting

share and the institutions' decision-making rules effectively give it a powerful say in their

operations, which can be seen as a form of de facto veto power. This has implications for the

legitimacy and inclusivity of these global financial institutions, particularly in how they interact

with and represent the interests of emerging economies like China.

Furthermore, the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) and the AUKUS security pact represent

pivotal shifts in the Indo-Pacific's strategic landscape, with direct implications for China's quest

for regional legitimacy. The Quad, comprising the United States, Japan, India, and Australia,

engages in joint military exercises and diplomatic consultations, which (Kliem 2020) interprets as

a collective response to perceived challenges posed by China's assertive policies. AUKUS, a

trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, further

consolidates this trend by enhancing military collaboration and intelligence sharing, particularly

in the realm of underwater capabilities and cyber warfare (Wilson 2018). These alliances not only

serve as platforms for their members to project power but also as instruments to counteract

China's influence, thereby impeding Beijing's efforts to build legitimacy as a benign regional

power. Pan (2014) argues that such alignments, while not explicitly anti-China, effectively

function as constraints on China's strategic space, thereby shaping the regional order in a manner

that dilutes China's authority. The activities of the Quad and AUKUS, which include freedom of

navigation operations and infrastructure investment initiatives, are seen as counterweights to

China's Belt and Road Initiative and its maritime claims, reflecting a broader strategy of 'inclusive

institutional balancing' that seeks to curtail China's influence without direct confrontation (Zhou

and Esteban 2018). This strategic containment, as Medcalf (2014)suggest, aims to preserve a

multipolar regional order and prevent China from translating its economic might into

unchallenged geopolitical clout.

Discussion

Acceleration of China's Need for International Legitimacy

The intense competition with the United States has accelerated China's need for international

legitimacy. As the most viable peer competitor to U.S. power, China's actions and strategies are

closely scrutinized on the global stage (Schweller and Pu 2011). In this context, legitimacy

becomes a crucial asset for China, as it seeks to navigate the challenges posed by the rivalry and

assert its own vision for the international order as reflected in their exclusions in various

international organizations (Zhao 2019; Karapinar 2011; Birn and Dmitrienko 2005). The quest

for legitimacy is not just about gaining acceptance; it is also about challenging and reshaping

existing norms and institutions that have been dominated by Western powers (Dorussen and

Ward 2008; Ferchen 2013; He and Feng 2023).

China's quest for international legitimacy within the liberal world order is a complex and

multifaceted endeavor, shaped by the need to navigate and potentially reshape a system that

has historically been dominated by Western powers. The rise of China has transformed the

international system into a multipolar world, challenging the unipolarity that allowed the liberal

international order to flourish (Mearsheimer 2019). This shift necessitates an acceleration in

China's pursuit of legitimacy as it seeks to assert its vision for the international order and gain

acceptance, not merely within the existing norms but also by promoting alternative norms that

align with its interests (Schweller and Pu 2011). China's approach to this challenge is strategic

and differentiated. It defends liberal pluralism within the hegemonic order while contesting

liberal cosmopolitan anti-pluralism, and endorses state-centric solidarism in constructing a liberal

global governance order (Zhang 2016). This nuanced strategy reflects China's position as a

revisionist stakeholder, embracing the Westphalian principles of state sovereignty and adapting

to the liberal norms of globalization, without being fully satisfied with its status in the hierarchy

of the order (Zhao 2019).

The legitimacy crisis in the contemporary global order, symptomatic of tensions within it,

threatens the fabric of this order (Clark 2003). China's efforts to make global governance

institutions ideologically neutral, not representing liberal values, complicate the West's ability to

export liberal democracy and economic liberalism to the developing world (van der Putten 2013).

This is part of China's broader strategy to navigate the dialectical interchange between upholding

the existing international order and promoting alternative norms and practices to reform parts

of the order that are unsatisfactory to its interests (Benabdallah 2019). Therefore, China's

accelerated need for international legitimacy is driven by the imperative to establish itself as a

viable peer competitor to U.S. power and to play an important role in determining the future

shape of international politics (Schweller and Pu 2011). This need is further amplified by the

strategic competition and the quest to construct and legitimize its own version of an international

order that accommodates its rise as a global power.

Building Legitimacy through International Organizations and Partnerships

China's strategy of building legitimacy through international organizations and partnerships is a

calculated response to the challenges it faces within the liberal world order. Legitimacy is crucial

for China as it seeks to secure its place as a global power and to mitigate the strategic

containment efforts by Western powers. By engaging with and sometimes creating international

institutions, China positions itself as a key player in global governance, which is essential for its

acceptance and influence on the world stage (Liping 2001).

The importance of legitimacy stems from the need for recognition and respect for a country's

political system, economic model, and cultural values. For China, a non-liberal state, legitimacy

is not just about being powerful; it's about being seen as rightfully powerful and having its status

acknowledged by others. This recognition is vital for China to advance its interests and to shape

international norms and rules in ways that reflect its values and priorities (Johnston 2019). The

pursuit of legitimacy is also a way for China to counteract the narrative of being an outlier or a

challenger to the existing order. By contributing to international stability and development, China

demonstrates its commitment to being a responsible global actor. This is particularly appealing

to other non-liberal states that have felt marginalized or bullied by the West. Countries like Russia,

India, Brazil, and South Africa, which are part of BRICS, as well as participants in the Belt and Road

Initiative (BRI), find in China a powerful ally that champions a more inclusive and multipolar world

order (Stuenkel 2021). This is important as reflected by the work of Steffek (2003) that legitimacy

is dependent on popular assent to the justifications of goals, principles and procedures.

These countries, along with new members seeking to join BRICS, are attracted to the idea of an

alternative global platform where their voices are heard, and their interests are represented. This

is especially important for states that have faced Western sanctions or criticism for their domestic

policies. By aligning with China, these countries can bolster their own legitimacy and push back

against Western dominance (Zhou and Esteban 2018).Therefore, China's engagement with

international organizations and strategic partnerships is a multifaceted effort to build legitimacy

and reshape the international order. It provides a platform for non-liberal states to collaborate

and support each other in the face of Western pressure, thereby creating a counter-narrative to

the Western-centric model of global governance. As China continues to rise, its approach to

legitimacy building through international cooperation will likely play a significant role in the

evolution of global politics (Liping 2001). This is also due to the fact that China was able to grow

despite the exclusion of many liberal led organizations and other states could potentially see this

as a alternative growth model in comparison to the liberal led world order (Ferchen 2013; Zhao

2022; 2008; 2015; Runde, Askey, and McKeown 2020).

The evidence from the research supports the view that China is actively creating a new

international economic order where its political power is more aligned with its economic power,

and its creation of new international institutions is a significant part of this strategy. These

institutions are intended to be open and inclusive, introducing "better practices" to global

economic governance (Paradise 2016). However, China's engagement is not without its

challenges, as it must overcome skepticism about its intentions and a narrow view of its national

interest to make a major contribution to global economic governance (Paradise 2016).

Furthermore, China's absence from key multilateral energy institutions highlights its reluctance

to join restrictive organizations, as well as these organizations' lack of seriousness in engaging

with China (Kong 2011). This absence speaks to the broader issue of how international

organizations have sometimes marginalized or failed to fully engage with non-Western powers.

In terms of social legitimacy, international organizations derive their legitimacy from their

capacity to deliver and the general confidence of citizens in political institutions. This challenges

the belief that more democratic procedures automatically lead to greater social legitimacy for

international organizations (Dellmuth and Tallberg 2015). This perspective is crucial for

understanding China's engagement with international organizations, as it seeks to build

legitimacy not only through procedural compliance but also through substantive contributions to

global governance.

The evidence also suggests that China has embraced the norms of the International Monetary

Fund (IMF) to a significant extent, indicating a pragmatic approach to international institutional

pluralism (Ferdinand and Wang 2013). This engagement with international financial institutions

is part of China's broader strategy to gain legitimacy and reshape the international order in a way

that accommodates its rise as a global power. In summary, China's engagement with

international organizations is a deliberate effort to build legitimacy and counter the legitimacy

deficits that arise from the dominance of Western powers in global governance. This strategy is

particularly relevant for other non-liberal states seeking to assert their own legitimacy and

challenge the Western-centric international order (Steffek 2003; H. Wang and French 2013).

BRICS: A Platform for China's Legitimacy Building

China's strategy of bolstering its international legitimacy through active engagement in

international organizations and strategic partnerships is a meticulously crafted response to its

perceived marginalization within the liberal world order, a system dominated by Western

ideologies and governance structures. Recognizing the imperative of legitimacy in its quest to

affirm its status as a global power, China endeavors to counteract the strategic containment

measures employed by Western nations, seeking to reshape the global governance landscape in

a manner that accommodates its interests and reflects its governance model, thus challenging

the existing international order to promote a more inclusive and multipolar world (Zhao 2022;

Chengqiu 2020; He and Feng 2023). By engaging with and sometimes creating international

institutions, China positions itself as a key player in global governance, which is essential for its

acceptance and influence on the world stage (Liping 2001). This is also reflected through multiple

initiatives such as the NDB, AIIB and so on which is deeply rooted in China’s own experience of

exclusion (Hawkins et al. 2022; H. Wang 2019; Kirton and Larionova 2022).

The imperative of legitimacy in the international realm extends beyond mere power acquisition;

it necessitates a nuanced recognition and respect for a nation's unique political framework,

economic paradigm, and cultural identity. China's pursuit of legitimacy is a multifaceted endeavor

aimed at securing a respected place within the global order, particularly challenging given its

divergent governance model from the prevalent liberal democratic norm. Legitimacy enables

China to influence international norms and policies, ensuring they are reflective of its values and

strategic imperatives, thereby fostering a global environment conducive to its interests (Zhao

2015; Johnston 2003). This endeavor is not solely about power projection but about attaining

rightful acknowledgment in the global arena, allowing China to advocate for its interests and

perspectives effectively. This quest is crucial for China to mitigate narratives that cast it as a

peripheral or adversarial entity within the international system. Through its contributions to

global stability and development, China seeks to assert its role as a constructive global

stakeholder, countering the West's strategic containment and ideological exclusions (Chengqiu

2020; He and Feng 2023).

Moreover, China's engagement in building legitimacy resonates with other nations, particularly

within frameworks like BRICS and the Belt and Road Initiative, which are platforms for

collaboration among countries that feel marginalized by or seek alternatives to the Western-

centric global order. These nations view China as a formidable ally advocating for a more inclusive,

multipolar world order, where diverse governance models are acknowledged and respected, thus

providing a counter-narrative to the dominant Western discourse (Stuenkel 2021; Zhao 2022).

These countries, along with new members seeking to join BRICS, are attracted to the idea of an

alternative global platform where their voices are heard, and their interests are represented. This

is especially important for states that have faced Western sanctions or criticism for their domestic

policies. By aligning with China, these countries can bolster their own legitimacy and push back

against Western dominance (Zhou and Esteban 2018). Therefore, China's engagement with

international organizations and strategic partnerships is a multifaceted effort to build legitimacy

and reshape the international order. It provides a platform for non-liberal states to collaborate

and support each other in the face of Western pressure, thereby creating a counter-narrative to

the Western-centric model of global governance (H. Wang and French 2013). As China continues

to rise, its approach to legitimacy building through international cooperation will likely play a

significant role in the evolution of global politics (Liping, 2001).