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A review of health effects of carbon disulfide in viscose industry and a proposal for an occupational exposure
Critical Reviews in Toxicology
Abstract
Occupational exposure limits (OELs) for carbon disulfide vary between 1 and 10 ppm worldwide. They are generally based on health effects observed in viscose industry. Publications after the mid-1970s are reviewed to determine whether there is a scientific justification for an OEL below 10 ppm. The exposure situation in viscose industry is governed by long exposure durations, high exposures in past decades, high peak exposures, former analytical procedures underestimating exposure, and shift work. Three approaches were used to define an OEL based on workplace data: (1) Division of a cumulative exposure index by lifetime exposure duration. This approach ignores the possible existence of a threshold and fails to differentiate between brief high and sustained low exposures. (2) Defining the NOEL/LOEL by mean exposure levels. With a wide range of exposures, effects observed at the mean are driven by high exposures underestimating the true NOEL. (3) Assessment of effects observed at workplaces complying with a predefined exposure limit. Without adverse effects at such a limit this should be the starting point to define the OEL. The most important health effects for carbon disulfide are coronary heart disease, coronary risk factors, retinal angiopathy, color discrimination, effects on peripheral nerves, psychophysiological effects, morphological and other central nervous system (CNS) effects, and fertility and hormonal effects. The data generally support an OEL of 10 ppm. Some uncertainties exist for effects on electrocardiogram (ECG), heart rate, retinal microaneurysms (in Japanese workers), peripheral nerve conduction velocities, some psychophysiological parameters, brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI; hyperintensive spots), and hearing function. Further investigations on workers under defined long-term exposure conditions might help to come to a final conclusion. Finally, the reproductive capacity of female workers may not be adequately protected at exposures around 10 ppm.
... In Poland the current permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 4 ppm, and TLV -below 12,5 ppm [10][11][12][13][14]. According to the reports, some authors claim that the reproductive capacity of female workers may not be adequately protected at the exposure of 10 ppm [15][16][17][18]. Amongst workers of the viscose industry, long exposure causes chronic toxicity varying between 40-80 ppm. ...
... It must be stressed that detoxication capacities of a woman's liver against industrial poisons are 5 times smaller than men's. Moreover, women's organisms produce less detoxication enzymes [1,16,20]. ...
... Due to smaller heart volume, the stroke volume of a woman's heart is smaller, which leads to deterioration of muscles' blood supply [21]. One of the more serious effects of CS 2 are changes in the cardiovascular system connected with arteriosclerosis leading to coronary disease and arterial hypertension [1,16]. ...
Many women are exposed to carbon disulfide (CS2) hazards at work every day. Working with CS2 may cause some women to experience abnormalities in their reproductive health. Until now obtained data is generally concentrated on the health effects of CS2 observed in the viscose industry. To date, CS2 has not been studied precisely for its potential to have damaging effects on female reproductive system, especially the frequency of menstrual disturbances and the course of menopause. The aim of the study was to sum up female reproductive health hazards amongst women chronically exposed to CS2 in their workplace in the viscose industry. In order to study the effect of CS2 in the contemporary viscose industry, exposure measurements should be collected in prospective or cross-sectional studies. In conclusion, reproductive health hazards for women chronically exposed to CS2 in the workplace in the viscose industry are the following: 1) menstrual disorders essentially are more frequent than in the case of the healthy women, 2) for women chronically exposed to CS2 the average menopausal age is statistically earlier, as compared to healthy women, 3) complex disturbances in neurohormonal system for women exposed to CS2, resulting from toxic influences of CS2, which cause the secretion of estrogens and progesterone in ovaries and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in the adrenal gland to diminish. Med Pr 2018;69(3).
This work is available in Open Access model and licensed under a CC BY-NC 3.0 PL license.
... Carbon disulfide (CS 2 ) is used for the production of regenerated cellulose through the viscose process and as a synthesis intermediate for the production of organic sulfur compounds. Chronic exposure to high levels of CS 2 (>10 ppm) is associated with increased mortality from coronary disease (Gelbke et al. 2009). The pathophysiological basis of this cardiovascular (CV) effect appears multifactorial because high exposure to CS 2 was associated in several studies with increased total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, blood pressure, cardiac frequency and electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities (Gelbke et al. 2009). ...
... Chronic exposure to high levels of CS 2 (>10 ppm) is associated with increased mortality from coronary disease (Gelbke et al. 2009). The pathophysiological basis of this cardiovascular (CV) effect appears multifactorial because high exposure to CS 2 was associated in several studies with increased total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, blood pressure, cardiac frequency and electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities (Gelbke et al. 2009). An occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 5 ppm, such as recommended by the European Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits (SCOEL) or by the French authorities since May 2012, appears protective against these effects (Tan et al. 2002(Tan et al. , 2004. ...
... In their review, Gelbke et al. (Gelbke et al. 2009) concluded that studies including most of the CV risk markers generally support an OEL of 10 ppm for carbon disulfide. Similar conclusions were also reached in other studies evaluating similar endpoints [blood pressure Kotseva 2001;Kotseva et al. 2001;Tan et al. 2004), LDL cholesterol Di Lorenzo et al. 2003;Kotseva et al. 2001;Takebayashi et al. 2004;Tan et al. 2004)]. ...
Purpose:
Carbon disulfide (CS2), used in the viscose process, is well known for having multiple health effects, including on the cardiovascular system, in workers with long-term exposure higher than 10 ppm. The mechanisms of those effects are, however, not precisely defined, and it remains uncertain whether cardiovascular toxicity may occur at exposure levels lower than 10 ppm. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the health impact of low CS2 exposure levels using an array of preclinical biomarkers of cardiovascular risk.
Methods:
Exposure intensity was determined by measuring urinary 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (TTCA) in 117 workers from two plants using the viscose process, sampled in multiples phases (2003, 2006 and 2013). A cumulative exposure index (CEI) and a recent exposure index (REI) were calculated for each worker, and shiftwork was documented to account for potential confounding. Cardiovascular parameters included blood pressure, total, LDL and HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, C-reactive protein dosed in serum with high sensitivity (HsCRP), N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, and albuminuria/creatininuria ratio (UACR). Potential biological confounders were fasting blood glucose and serum creatinine. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses were used to trace relationships between cardiovascular risk biomarkers and other variables, including CEI, REI and shiftwork duration.
Results:
Median REI and CEI were 0.05 mg TTCA/g creat and 21.5 mg TTCA/g creat*months, respectively. While expected associations, such as between HsCRP and LDL Cholesterol, were found, significant associations between cardiovascular risk markers and CS2 exposure indexes (CEI or REI) were not detected. Shiftwork duration was positively associated with UACR in workers with elevated fasting blood glucose.
Conclusion:
In practice, when CS2 exposure levels are kept below 5 ppm (TTCA < 2.2 mg/g creat), it does not appear useful to perform a systematic monitoring of total serum cholesterol or its subfractions, or of the new biomarkers of cardiovascular risk (NTproBNP, HsCRP, UACR) investigated in the present study. It appears important to carefully monitor the existence of diabetes that may justify avoiding shiftwork.
... Some human epidemiological studies have indicated severe cardiovascular disease, i.e., increased risk of coronary heart disease in workers exposed to CS 2 in viscose rayon plants [76,77]. This may be due to an increase in LDL cholesterol and a decrease in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which have been reported in several cohorts. ...
... Some human epidemiological studies have indicated severe cardiovascular disease, i.e., increased risk of coronary heart disease in workers exposed to CS2 in viscose rayon plants [76,77]. This may be due to an increase in LDL cholesterol and a decrease in highdensity lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which have been reported in several cohorts. ...
This review provides an overview of the assessment of the endocrine disrupting (ED) properties of carbon disulfide (CS2), following the methodology used at the European level to identify endocrine disruptors. Relevant in vitro, in vivo studies and human data are analyzed. The assessment presented here focuses on one endocrine activity, i.e., thyroid disruption, and two main adverse effects, neurotoxicity and cardiotoxicity. The data available on the different ED or non-ED modes of action (MoA), known to trigger these adverse effects, are described and the strength of evidence of the different MoA is weighted. We conclude that the adverse effects could be due to systemic toxicity rather than endocrine-mediated toxicity. This assessment illustrates the scientific and regulatory challenges in differentiating a specific endocrine disruption from an indirect endocrine effect resulting from a non-ED mediated systemic toxicity. This issue of evaluating the ED properties of highly toxic and reactive substances has been insufficiently developed by European guidance so far and needs to be further addressed. Finally, this example also raises questions about the capacity of the technics available in toxicology to address such a complex issue with certainty.
... Saat itu efek merugikan pada pekerja yang terpajan di industri rayon viskos mulai teridentifikasi (17). Batas pemajanan kerja (occupational exposure limits) untuk konsentrasi CS 2 bervariasi antara 1-10 ppm, umumnya diperoleh berdasarkan studi dampak kesehatan para pekerja industri rayon viskos (18). ...
... TTCA tidak akan terdeteksi pada orang-orang yang tidak pernah terpapar CS 2 (19). Studi epidemiologi di Jerman terhadap para pekerja industri rayon menunjukkan bahwa CS 2 dapat menyebabkan penyakit jantung koroner (20), efek syaraf periferal dan central nervous system (CNS) (21,22), psikofisiologi, hormonal (10), dan retinal angiopathy (18). Sementara itu, keracunan H 2 S secara akut berpotensi menyebabkan efek iritasi dan asphyxiant (sesak nafas). ...
Hidrogen sulfida (H 2 S) dan Karbon disulfida (CS 2 ) merupakan salah satu pencemar yang diemisikan dari kegiatan industri rayon. H 2 S dan CS 2 merupakan senyawa yang menimbulkan bau tidak menyenangkan dan berdampak pada sistem syaraf. Pengukuran H 2 S dan CS 2 mengacu pada metode Indian Standard (IS) 11255 (part 4) (2006, Reaffirmed 2006): Methods for Measurement of Emission From Stationary Sources, Part 4: Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Disulfide (First Revision) dengan melakukan modifikasi larutan penyerap yang terdapat dalam metode Deutsche Industrie Norm (DIN) 51855-4:1995-06. Hasil pengujian menunjukkan diperoleh bahwa konsentrasi H 2 S dan CS 2 masing-masing adalah 2414 dan 2239 ppmv. Hasil perhitungan beban emisi H 2 S dan CS 2 masing-masing sebesar 5,74 dan 10,25 kg/Ton fiber. Nilai tersebut masih berada di bawah baku mutu berdasarkan PerMenLH No 7 Tahun 2012, dimana baku mutu H 2 S adalah 38 kg/Ton fiber dan CS 2 adalah 115 kg/Ton fiber. Dalam kajian ini, metode pengambilan contoh uji H 2 S dimodifikasi menggunakan seng asetat (Zn(O 2 CCH 3 ) 2 ) yang lebih ramah lingkungan dibanding kadmium klorida alkalin (CdCl 2 ). Pada pengujian CS 2 dilakukan modifikasi dengan penambahan CaCO 3 untuk mempermudah penentuan titik akhir titrasi. Laboratorium P3KLL mampu menunjukkan kompetensinya dalam menerapkan metode pengujian H 2 S dan CS 2 .
... [1c] Researches have shown that CS 2 has deleterious effects on neuron, liver, and reproduction systems, while also possessing potential bioregulatory and therapeutic functions. [24] However, due to the high lipophilicity and volatility of CS 2 , most experiments were performed through inhaling CS 2 vapor or injecting CS 2 edible oil solution in the early time, which can hardly deliverer CS 2 with precise concentrations. Additionally, releasing CS 2 from hydrolysis of DTCs is difficult to control the release rate in the complex biological system. ...
Bioorthogonal chemistry has emerged as a powerful tool for the development of controllable drug delivery systems. Bioactive sulfur species, which participate in complex sulfur signaling pathways, play crucial roles in various physiological and pathological processes. However, achieving precise and controlled administration of these sulfur species remains challenging due to their unique physicochemical properties. Over the past few years, a growing number of delivery strategies, which are triggered by different stimuli, have been developed to enhance our understanding of sulfur signaling. Bioorthogonal triggers not only offer excellent controllability but also provide advantages such as tunability, targeted delivery, and spatiotemporal feedback. This review highlights representative donors that can be activated through bioorthogonal reactions and their applications in studying the biological mechanisms and therapeutic functions of the bioactive sulfur species.
... Carbon disulfide is a solvent which has been employed since the midnineteenth century in cold vulcanization of rubber; at the turn of the twentieth century, it was introduced into the production of rayon and other cellulose-based viscose processes. Occupational exposure to carbon disulfide is known to cause parkinsonism as well as psychosis and peripheral neuropathies [51,52]. The mechanisms through which carbon disulfide acts as a neurotoxicant leading to parkinsonism include damage to dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra [14,15,53,54]. ...
Background
Case reports implicate disulfiram treatment in causing parkinsonism, but these observations lack epidemiological confirmation. Aim of the present study was to estimate the risk of incident parkinsonism associated with disulfiram dispensing in a large Italian population.
Methods
In this observational cohort study, administrative data were used, linking records at the individual level from civic registries, population census, mortality registers, hospital admissions, archives of drug prescriptions, and direct ambulatory drug distribution. Participants included all residents in the Piedmont region of Italy aged ≥ 40 years participating in 2011 census, still resident and alive at the beginning of 2013, followed-up from 2013 to 2019. The outcome was incident parkinsonism identified through multiple prescriptions of levodopa or a hospital admission for Parkinson’s disease or atypical parkinsonism. Exposure to disulfiram and to neuroleptics was assessed through regional drug prescription archives. The association between disulfiram and parkinsonism onset was assessed using Cox proportional hazards models, adjusted for gender, age and neuroleptic use.
Results
The study population included 2,498,491 individuals (mean age: 62 years). During follow-up, 19,072 parkinsonism cases were identified, 8 of whom had been prescribed disulfiram. Exposure to disulfiram was associated with a three-fold increased risk of parkinsonism (HR = 3.10, 95% CI = 1.55–6.21) that remained significant when adjusted for neuroleptic use (HR = 2.04, 95% CI = 1.01–4.10). The association was stronger among persons unexposed to neuroleptics and among those with more than four disulfiram prescriptions.
Conclusions
These results support the hypothesis that disulfiram may cause parkinsonism. Clinicians and drug regulatory agencies should consider parkinsonism when assessing the risks and benefits of disulfiram use.
... Each jurisdiction implements the monitoring of standards with some variation, influenced by local practices and compliance frameworks. For example, labs in the U.S. often adhere to OSHA's higher PEL of 20 ppm, while European and Australian labs generally follow the more conservative NIOSH and ACGIH recommendations [17,18], focusing on the 1 ppm threshold. In practice, these jurisdictions tend to prioritise air monitoring due to its direct measurement of airborne CS 2 levels, yet biological monitoring is also implemented selectively. ...
Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a highly toxic and flammable solvent extensively used in chemical processes and laboratory analyses. This review examines both air and biological monitoring methods for assessing the exposure of laboratory workers to CS2. Emphasis is placed on the measurement of airborne CS2 concentrations and the monitoring of 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (TTCA) in urine, a key biomarker of exposure. By analysing case studies and practical applications, the paper outlines the effectiveness and limitations of current monitoring techniques. Additionally, the review addresses key challenges such as CS2 volatility, dietary influence on biomarker levels, and the sufficiency of protective measures, including nitrile gloves. It also proposes best practices to mitigate exposure, such as improved ventilation, the use of polyvinyl alcohol gloves, and the substitution of CS2 with less hazardous solvents. This comprehensive review underscores the need for continuous vigilance in managing chemical exposure and offers insights into how laboratories can better protect their workers by integrating air and biological monitoring strategies.
... Multiple solvents are established or suspected carcinogens in studies of adults, with adverse reproductive and child health endpoints additionally reported (Gelbke et al., 2009; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2014; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2022; Kalkbrenner et al., 2018;Sharma et al., 2022). With regards to childhood cancer, a study found residential proximity to industrial solvents was related to an increase in pediatric leukemia, and similar increases in retinoblastoma (García-Pérez et al., 2015, 2016b. ...
Background
Maternal solvent exposure has been suspected to increase offspring cancer risk. The study aimed to evaluate the associations between maternal residential exposure to solvents from industrial pollution during pregnancy and childhood cancer.
Methods
The present study included 15,744 cancer cases (aged 0–19 years at diagnosis) identified from California Cancer Registry and 283,141 controls randomly selected from California Birth Registry (20:1 frequency-matched by birth year: 1998–2016). We examined industrial releases of tetrachloroethylene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane within 3 km of the birth address, while we used a 5 km buffer for carbon disulfide. We calculated the total exposure from all linked Toxic Release Inventory sites during each index pregnancy and assigned “ever/never” and “high/low exposed/unexposed” exposure, using median values. We performed quadratic decay models to estimate cancer risks associated with maternal solvent exposure in pregnancy.
Results
1,1,1-Trichloroethane was associated with rhabdomyosarcoma (adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR): 1.96; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.16, 3.32) in the “ever exposed” group. Ever exposure to carbon disulfide was associated with increased risks of medulloblastoma (OR = 1.85, 95% CI 1.01, 3.40) and ependymoma (OR = 1.63 95% CI 0.97, 2.74).
Conclusions
Overall, our findings suggested maternal residential exposure to solvents from industrial sources might be associated with elevated childhood cancer risks.
... CS 2 is extremely unstable under ultraviolet irradiation, and it can be oxidized to form SO 2 and other substances, leading to the formation of acid fog and acid rain that pose serious environmental harm [4]. In addition, CS 2 has cytotoxic effects on human systems, especially in the nervous system, cardiovascular system, and reproductive system [5][6][7][8]. In addition to the petroleum and chemical industries, notable sources of C 2 H 6 S emissions include marine ...
In this paper, the physical adsorption of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as methyl chloride (CH3Cl), carbon disulfide (CS2), dimethyl sulfide (C2H6S), and benzene (C6H6) by three models of activated carbon (without a functional group, with a pyridine-containing functional group, and with a pyrrole-containing functional group) was simulated. The surface electrostatic potential (ESP), physical adsorption energy, and non-covalent interaction between activated carbon and VOC molecules were analyzed based on the density functional theory (DFT). The effect mechanism of nitrogen-containing functional groups on VOC adsorption by activated carbon was determined. Our simulations showed that nitrogen-containing functional groups can change the surface ESP and polarity of activated carbon. The pyrrole functional group is conducive to CH3Cl and CS2 adsorption on the activated carbon plane, while the pyridine functional group is relatively small or even unfavorable for CH3Cl and CS2 adsorption on the activated carbon plane. The promotional effect of the pyrrole functional group on the adsorption of C2H6S is more significant than that of the pyridine functional group. The adsorption of C6H6 on activated carbon occurs through parallel-displaced π–π stacking interactions, in which functional groups have little influence on it. The adsorption energy of VOCs on the activated carbon plane is higher than that at the edge, so VOCs are more likely to be adsorbed on the activated carbon plane.
... The adsorbed compounds on the sorbent are chemically desorbed for at least 30 min with l ml of carbon disulfide (CS 2 ) and for subsequent analysis, a 1 µl-aliquot is injected into a GC coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID). The conventional sampling and analytical methods are well established but they have some disadvantages: use of a toxic solvent for which health effects on cardiovascular system and CNS are known (Gelbke et al. 2009) and which also adds waste; long turn-around time for analytical results which delays communication of risk data (Soo et al. 2018); costs for lab supplies and technicians; reduced sample mass (i.e., amount injected) due to the high dilution factor (1:1000) (Floyd et al. 2022); and use of a benchtop GC which limits portability for onsite analysis. ...
The standard method to evaluate human exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is in general performed by sampling the air on sorbents followed by liquid extraction and detection using laboratory gas chromatograph (GC). The conventional method is time and labor intensive and employs a toxic solvent which adds a risk factor as well as waste. Hence, there have been increasing demands for portable GC instruments which allow near real-time, in-situ analysis. In this study, the potential use of a prototype, dual column portable GC (protoGC) with flame ionization detector (FID) was examined by comparing its performance with a conventional GC laboratory method. Four target concentration levels (1x, 2x, 4x, and 8x; x = 1.12 ± 0.01 ppm) of toluene, ethylbenzene, and o-, m-, and p-xylene were generated in an exposure chamber (24 ± 1 °C and 50 ± 5% RH). The challenge atmosphere was directly sampled and analyzed with protoGC while for the conventional method it was sampled on a sorbent tube and analyzed with a laboratory GC/FID. The results of protoGC correlated well with the conventional method (r = 0.991–0.999), indicating that protoGC has comparable performance with the conventional method within the test conditions. Although two-way ANOVA showed significant differences in mean concentrations between the methods, the differences were small. protoGC would be useful to monitor VOCs in air with high temporal resolution or to quickly determine the safety of the environment of interest due to the substantial time savings in sampling and analysis. Further examinations at various environmental conditions and other analytes will be necessary to thoroughly evaluate its performance.
... Furthermore, many customers also consider shearing animals as crucial. While regenerated fibers like bamboo, birch, and other woods are from natural resources, they involve the use of chemicals that might be health-adverse to the workers and toxic [76] [77] [78]. On the other hand, there is an increased demand for thermo-physiological comfort wear. ...
... However, there are few studies on the cardiotoxicity of thiram. Hence, considering the metabolites of thiram as a severe pathogenic precursor for the cardiovascular system increases its importance (Gelbke et al., 2009). This study investigated the toxicity of thiram to broilers' heart. ...
Thiram is a dithiocarbamate pesticide extensively used as a fungicide to preserve crops and seeds. Long-term exposure to thiram causes potential harm to the health of human beings and animals. So far, most of the researches on thiram focused on erythrocyte toxicity, immune system, kidney damage, and tibial dyschondroplasia; however, there is less data on cardiac toxicity. In this study, we examined cardiac histopathology, inflammatory factors, oxidative stress indicators, and apoptosis markers in the heart of broilers that were exposed to thiram. According to our findings, the continuous exposure to thiram caused pathological changes and abnormal function of myocardial tissues with increased level of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), inflammatory factors (IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α and NF-κB), and decreased level of anti-inflammatory factor (IL-10). In addition, thiram significantly upregulated the protein expression of cleaved-caspase 3, cleaved-PARP, and caused cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Meanwhile, the expression of heat shock proteins (HSP60, HSP70, HSP90) markedly decreased in the thiram-treated groups. An excessive accumulation of peroxidation products (MDA, H 2 O 2), a decrease in T-AOC, and antioxidant activity enzymes (T-SOD, GST and GPX) were also noticed, all of which led to oxidative stress and activation of Nrf2 signal pathway by up-regulating key target genes (HO-1 and SODs). Thiram-induced metabolites were further identified via non-targeted metabonomic analysis. Correlation analysis revealed eighteen differentially expressed metabolites, closely related to cardiac injury. Importantly, thiram primarily affected the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, pyrimidine metabolism as well as glycerol metabolism. Collectively, our study suggests that thiram could cause cardiotoxicity by interfering with taurine and hypotaurine metabolism , pyrimidine metabolism, and glycerolipid metabolism, which further induce oxidative stress via triggering Nrf2 signal pathway. This study may provide new evidence for the molecular mechanism of cardiotoxicity caused by thiram and resonate the alarm for animals and workers who have been exposed to thiram for a long time.
... Many are hazardous when inhaled or if they come into contact with the skin. The viscose process often uses carbon disulphide which has been linked to numerous severe health conditions (Gelbke et al. 2009: Changing Markets Foundation 2020). †, Hazardous pesticides, for instance; mirex, endosulfan, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). ...
It is hard to imagine living in a world without textiles. Nearly everyone, everywhere comes into contact with these nearly all the time, at home, work or in recreation. This is especially true of clothing, the focus of this report.
Clothes provide comfort and protection, and for many, fashion represents an important expression of individuality. The textiles industry is also a significant sector in the global economy, providing employment for hundreds of millions around the world.
These benefits notwithstanding, the ways we design, produce, and use clothes have major drawbacks that are becoming increasingly clear. The textiles system has mainly operated in an almost completely linear way: large amounts of non-renewable resources are extracted to produce clothes that are often used for only a short time, after which the vast volumes of materials are mostly sent to landfill or incinerated. Globally, we are making more clothing than we need, along with increased impacts of textile waste on the environment.
In this report I outlines a vision for a system that is economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable, delivering long-term benefits, from a new textile circular economy based on the principles of a circular economy. I also discuss what you can individually do to significantly help improve sustainability of the clothing industry.
... In the cellulose production, solvents are used to extract the cellulose from the fibers. Especially in viscose production, carbon disulfide is used, which already caused many severe health problems for humans [54]. Many of these solvents are hazardous when inhaled or when they come in touch with the skin. ...
Smart nanotextiles are an enabler for a variety of technological advances—industry 4.0, the Internet of things or a more sustainable fashion industry, for instance. The market for nanomaterials is expected to grow from US14.8 billion by 2024. Due to the massive and ubiquitous use of nanomaterials, humans come in close contact with the materials and are exposed to a variety of chemicals and nanomaterials. The materials leak into nature, in every step of the life cycle of the product and accumulate in nature, the food chain, and in humans. The growing market is a chance for companies to deliver innovative products. However, long-term effects are not sufficiently investigated yet, which could lead to a backlash and pose a critical financial and reputational risk for companies and founders. That is why it is of great importance to design products with human health and environmental impacts in mind and implement an appropriate risk assessment in the product development process. To transform the linear fast fashion industry into a more sustainable and circular one, different concepts, tools, and design approaches along the life cycle are investigated and described in this chapter. Finally real life examples are provided to emphasize the practicability of phasing out substances of concern, using new design approaches and producing cost-effective sustainable textiles.
... Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a colorless volatile chemical solvent, widely used in industry as viscose fiber, glass paper, vulcanized rubber, carbon tetrachloride, and pesticide. CS2 is highly toxic and can lead to acute or chronic poisoning [1]. Inhalation is the major route of exposure to CD followed by skin/eye contact and ingestion. ...
Background:
To investigate the clinicopathological characteristics of renal damage caused by long-term exposure to carbon disulfide (CS2) in nine patients.
Methods:
All the patients underwent ultrasound-guided renal biopsy. All specimens were examined by light microscopy and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Samples form one patient were further analyzed using transmission electron microscopy.
Results:
Similar pathological changes were observed in all patients, but the degrees of lesions were different. All cases had moderate to severe nodular mesangial hyperplasia; among these, type "Kimme1stie1-Wi1son" (K-W nodule for short) was observed in four cases, type "K - W nodule" refer to nodular hyperplasia of mesangial membrane like letter K or W. four cases had proliferative extracapillary glomerulonephritis (GN), while there were no concomitant changes in one patient. Besides, six cases had diffuse basement membrane thickening, focal segmental sclerosis or bulbar sclerosis; two cases had diffuse glomerular sclerosis, and one case had focal segmental capillary hyperplasia. Moreover, all patients had renal tubular atrophy/interstitial fibrosis with less to moderate chronic inflammatory cell infiltration, as well as renal arteriosclerosis. IHC showed that the depositions of IgA, IgM, C3d, C4d, C1q and Fib were not specific; while IgG, type III collagen, Fibronectin, Amyloid A, Igκ, Igλ, HBsAg and HBcAg were all negative.
Conclusion:
Diffuse nodular mesangial hyperplasia/sclerosing glomerular nephropathy is characterized by nodular mesangial hyperplasia with type "K-W nodules" formation, which we speculate is a special pathological manifestation of renal damage caused by carbon disulfide (CS2).
... Abundant gaseous pollutants, such as SO 2 , NO, NO 2 , CO, and CS 2 , caused by coal combustion and industrial emissions, are released into the air [1][2][3][4]. Among these, sulfur dioxide and carbon disulfide, acting as major sulfurous gaseous pollutants, pose a substantial threat to the environment, are harmful to human health, and are responsible for causing multiple diseases [5][6][7]. Considering the serious harmfulness of these compounds, strict controls on the level of both components in ambient air have been legislated by various countries [6][7][8][9]. Detection of the atmospheric environment is of great importance to pollution control. ...
In this study, a sensitive system for simultaneous sensing of sulfur dioxide and carbon disulfide was developed based on absorption spectroscopy in the deep ultraviolet. An effective spectrum-unfolding approach is proposed to examine the overlapping spectral characteristics. Direct proportional relations with determination coefficients of 0.999 were obtained. The detection limit of sulfur dioxide was determined to be 42 ppb, and a detection limit of 5 ppb for carbon disulfide was achieved with an optical length of 20 cm. The interplay between the measurement results of the two components was investigated. Interference close to the detection limits was confirmed for both sulfur dioxide and carbon disulfide measurements. An automatic and reliable simultaneous sensing system for sulfur dioxide and carbon disulfide was constructed.
... Carbon disulfide (CS 2 ), a homolog of CO 2 , originates naturally from volcanoes and biomass burning and from biological production from cysteine, cystine, homocysteine, lanthionine, isothiocyanates and thiosulfate; it has a 7-12 day lifetime in the atmosphere [88]. CS 2 also has anthropogenic origins, most notably in the viscose rayon industry and much of the biology of this compound has focused on its toxicological properties especially neuro and cardiovascular risks [89]. ...
It is now well established that hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an effector of a wide variety of physiological processes. It is also clear that many of the effects of H2S are mediated through reactions with cysteine sulfur on regulatory proteins and most of these are not mediated directly by H2S but require prior oxidation of H2S and the formation of per-and polysulfides (H2Sn, n=2-8). Attendant with understanding the regulatory functions of H2S and H2Sn is an appreciation of the mechanisms that control, ie., both increase and decrease, their production and catabolism. Although number of standard "conventional" pathways have been described and well characterized, novel "unconventional" pathways are continuously being identified. This review summarizes our current knowledge of both the conventional and unconventional.
... 2 Similarly, CS 2 is a nonpolar, readily diffusible molecule considered to be an environmental toxin. 3 In addition, there are indications that CS 2 is formed endogenously or in the associated gut microbiome of mammals. 4 Biological sulfhydryls (R−SH) would be likely targets, and the dynamics of the "on" and "off" reactions of this electrophile with such nucleophiles should be crucial to any physiological roles. ...
Carbon disulfide is an environmental toxin, but there are suggestions in the literature that it may also have regulatory and/or therapeutic roles in mammalian physiology. Thiols or thiolates would be likely biological targets for an electrophile, such as CS2, and in this context, the present study examines the dynamics of CS2 reactions with various thiols (RSH) in physiologically relevant near-neutral aqueous media to form the respective trithiocarbonate anions (TTC–, also known as “thioxanthate anions”). The rates of TTC– formation are markedly pH-dependent, indicating that the reactive form of RSH is the conjugate base RS–. The rates of the reverse reaction, that is, decay of TTC– anions to release CS2, is pH-independent, with rates roughly antiparallel to the basicities of the RS– conjugate base. These observations indicate that the rate-limiting step of decay is simple CS2 dissociation from RS–, and according to microscopic reversibility, the transition state of TTC– formation would be simple addition of the RS– nucleophile to the CS2 electrophile. At pH 7.4 and 37 °C, cysteine and glutathione react with CS2 at a similar rate but the trithiocarbonate product undergoes a slow cyclization to give 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid. The potential biological relevance of these observations is briefly discussed.
... In these contexts, carbon disulde (CS 2 ) is a small, nonpolar, readily diffusible molecule for which the biological literature has largely focused on its toxicity. 11,12 However, there is some evidence that CS 2 is formed endogenously by mammals and/or by the associated gut microbiome. [13][14][15] Indeed, CS 2 -specic hydrolases that facilitate the conversion to H 2 S and CO 2 have been identied in certain bacteria. ...
We describe the kinetics of the formation and decay of a series of dithiocarbamates under physiological conditions. The goal is to provide a toolbox of compounds that release CS2 by well-defined kinetics in such media. Carbon disulfide is a known environmental toxin, but there is fragmentary evidence suggesting that CS2 may have bioregulatory and/or therapeutic roles in mammalian biology. Further investigation of such roles will require methodologies for controlled delivery of this bioactive small molecule to specific targets. Reported here are mechanistic and computational studies of CS2 release from a series of dithiocarbamate anions (DTCs), where R2N represents several different secondary amido groups. The various DTCs under physiologically relevant conditions show a tremendous range of reactivities toward CS2 dissociation with decay lifetimes ranging from ~2 s for imidazolidyldithiocarbamate (ImDTC–) to ~300 s for diisopropyldithiocarbamate (DIDTC–) to > 24 h for pyrrolidinyldithiocarbamate (PDTC–) in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer solution at 37 oC. Thus, by making the correct choice of these tools, one can adjust the flux of CS2 in a biological experiment, while the least reactive DTCs could serve as controls for evaluating the potential effects of the dithiocarbamate functionality itself. Kinetics studies and density functional calculations are used to probe the mechanism of DTC– decay. In each case, the rate of CS2 dissociation is acid dependent; however, the DFT studies point to a mechanistic pathway for ImDTC– that is different than those for DIDTC–. The role of general acid catalysis is also briefly probed.
... Carbon disulphide is known to be a neurotoxicant and in some previous studies the effects on the auditory system in workers have been interpreted as a consequence of the known central nervous system (CNS) toxicity of the substance. Gelbke et al. (2009), in a review of literature on CS 2 health effects, suggest that hearing deficits will only occur at relatively high carbon disulfide exposures, and there may be an interaction between CS 2 exposure and ambient noise levels. The authors concluded that the studies with highest utility support that an Occupational Exposure Limits (OEL) of 10 ppm "may be low enough to protect workers from significant aggravated hearing impairment due to CS 2 exposure in a noisy working condition" (Chang et al., 2003). ...
There is a growing awareness that a variety of different chemical substances can cause hearing damage in humans. The literature of the last decade on the effect of different chemical compounds on the human auditory system has been reviewed with reference to the exposure in the workplace. Scientific evidence has emerged that the exposure to styrene, p-xylene, solvent mixtures and lead may be a cause of hearing loss. For these substances the number of studies is relatively large and a variety of approaches have been undertaken to test their effect on the auditory system. For other chemical substances, for example certain metals such as mercury, cadmium and arsenic, and some neurotoxic pesticides, the available data indicate a possible ototoxic action, although in some cases only when in combination with noise. A number of critical aspects have been noticed: firstly, this review highlights the need to consider the possible synergistic effect of the interactions between different ototoxic agents, primarily the co-exposure to noise. These interactions are complex and difficult to predict, since synergistic, additive and sub-additive effects have to be contemplated. Then, the individual variability of exposed subjects, due to genetic differences, personal clinical histories, and occupational/environmental exposures cannot be disregarded. Finally, there are conceptual differences among the studies in the definition of hearing loss, which may partly account for the different prevalence values found in the examined documents. In conclusion, it is suggested to adopt the precautionary principle, while awaiting, on one hand, a stronger evidence on the ototoxicity of some classes of chemicals, particularly for exposures at low doses, and, on the other hand, new scientific studies on the effects of the interaction between physical and chemical agents on the hearing loss that are a priority in future research needs.
... UOG workers exposed to CS 2 may experience similar health effects, as seen in viscose rayon industry workers. 10 Recent research has associated exposure to CS 2 to other health effects involving endocrine regulation, bone metabolism, cardiovascular function, and neurodegenerative disease, including Alzheimer's disease and aging. 11,12 As energy extraction expands across the United States, atmospheric levels of CS 2 and associated sulfides may increase, along with a rise in CS 2 -related health effects. ...
Carbon disulfide (CS2) has been historically associated with the manufacturing of rayon, cellophane, and carbon tetrachloride production. This study is one of the first to identify elevated atmospheric levels of CS2 above national background levels and its mechanisms to dysregulate normal glucose metabolism. Interference in glucose metabolism can indirectly cause other complications (diabetes, neurodegenerative disease, and retinopathy), which may be preventable if proper precautions are taken. Rich et al found CS2 and 12 associated sulfide compounds present in the atmosphere in residential areas where unconventional shale oil and gas extraction and processing operations were occurring. Ambient atmospheric concentrations of CS2 ranged from 0.7 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) to 103 ppbv over a continuous 24-hour monitoring period. One-hour ambient atmospheric concentrations ranged from 3.4 ppbv to 504.6 ppbv. Using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Urban Air Toxic Monitoring Program study as a baseline comparison for atmospheric CS2 concentrations found in this study, it was determined that CS2 atmospheric levels were consistently elevated in areas where unconventional oil and gas extraction and processing occurred. The mechanisms by which CS2 interferes in normal glucose metabolism by dysregulation of the tryptophan metabolism pathway are presented in this study. The literature review found an increased potential for alteration of normal glucose metabolism in viscose rayon occupational workers exposed to CS2. Occupational workers in the energy extraction industry exposed to CS2 and other sulfide compounds may have an increased potential for glucose metabolism interference, which has been an indicator for diabetogenic effect and other related health impacts. The recommendation of this study is for implementation of regular monitoring of blood glucose levels in CS2-exposed populations as a preventative health measure.
Electrochemistry has been widely used in energy storage, metallurgy, chemical synthesis and other fields since its birth using electricity as one of the cheapest reagents. However, compared with the revival of electrochemical synthesis of small molecules, the electrochemical polymerization for preparing macromolecules is still rudimentary due to formidable challenges. Herein, A unique electrochemical polymerization is disclosed between CS 2 and diamines at room temperature in an electrolyte‐free manner to access poly thioureas. Polythioureas have high selectivity for four metal ions, including Au ³⁺ , Ag ⁺ , Pt ⁴⁺ , and Hg ²⁺ , and can be used as an efficient adsorbent for recovering gold from metal waste.
Carbon disulfide (CS2) is an environmental pollutant, which is deadly hazardous to the workers under chronic or acute exposure. However, the toxicity mechanisms of CS2 are still unclear due to the scarcity of biocompatible donors, which can release CS2 in cells. Here we developed the first bioorthogonal CS2 delivery system based on the “click‐and‐release” reactions between mesoionic 1,3‐thiazolium‐5‐thiolates (TATs) and strained cyclooctyne exo‐BCN‐OH. We successfully realized intracellular CS2 releasing and investigated the causes of CS2‐induced hepatotoxicity, including oxidative stress, proteotoxic stress and copper‐dependent cell death. It is found that CS2 can be copper vehicles bypassing copper transporters after reacting with nucleophiles in cytoplasm, and extra copper supplementation will exacerbate the loss of homeostasis of cells and ultimately cell death. These findings inspired us to explore the anticancer activity of CS2 in combination with copper by introducing a copper chelating group in our CS2 delivery system.
Carbon disulfide (CS2) is an environmental contaminant, which is deadly hazardous to the workers under chronic or acute exposure. However, the toxicity mechanisms of CS2 are still unclear due to the scarcity of biocompatible donors, which can release CS2 in cells. Here we developed the first bioorthogonal CS2 delivery system based on the “click‐and‐release” reactions between mesoionic 1,3‐thiazolium‐5‐thiolates (TATs) and strained cyclooctyne exo‐BCN‐OH. We successfully realized intracellular CS2 release and investigated the causes of CS2‐induced hepatotoxicity, including oxidative stress, proteotoxic stress and copper‐dependent cell death. It is found that CS2 can be copper vehicles bypassing copper transporters after reacting with nucleophiles in cytoplasm, and extra copper supplementation will exacerbate the loss of homeostasis of cells and ultimately cell death. These findings inspired us to explore the anticancer activity of CS2 in combination with copper by introducing a copper chelating group in our CS2 delivery system.
Objective:
To understand how chronic exposure to industrial air pollution is associated with male fertility through semen parameters.
Design:
Retrospective cohort study.
Subjects:
Men in the Subfertility, Health and Assisted Reproduction cohort who underwent a semen analysis 2005-2017 with ≥1 measured semen parameter (N=21,563).
Exposure:
Residential histories for each man were constructed using locations from administrative records linked through the Utah Population Database. Industrial facilities with air emissions of nine endocrine disrupting compound chemical classes were identified from the Environmental Protection Agency Risk-Screening Environmental Indicators microdata. Chemical levels were linked with residential histories for the 5 years prior to each semen analysis.
Main outcome measures:
Semen analyses were classified as azoospermic or oligozoospermic (<15M/ml) using World Health Organization cutoffs for concentration. Bulk semen parameters: concentration, total count, ejaculate volume, total motility, total motile count, and total progressive motile count were also measured. Multivariable regression models with robust standard errors were used to associate exposure quartile for each of the nine chemical classes with each semen parameter, adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, and neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage.
Results:
Following adjustment for demographic covariates, several chemical classes were associated with azoospermia and decreased total motility and volume. For exposure in the 4th relative to 1st quartile, significant associations were observed for acrylonitrile (βtotal motility=-0.87pp), aromatic hydrocarbons (ORazoospermia=1.53; βvolume=-0.14mL), dioxins (odds ratio [OR]azoospermia=1.31; βvolume=-0.09mL; βtotal motility=-2.65pp), heavy metals (βtotal motility=-2.78pp), organic solvents (ORazoospermia=1.75; βvolume=-0.10mL), organochlorines (ORazoospermia=2.09; βvolume=-0.12mL), phthalates (ORazoospermia=1.44; βvolume=-0.09mL; βtotal motility=-1.21pp), and silver particles (ORazoospermia=1.64; βvolume=-0.11mL). All semen parameters significantly decreased with increasing socioeconomic disadvantage. Men who lived in the most disadvantaged areas had concentration, volume, and total motility 6.70M/mL, 0.13mL, and 1.79pp lower, respectively. Count, motile count, and total progressive motile count all decreased by 30-34M.
Conclusion:
Several significant associations between chronic low-level environmental exposure to endocrine disrupting compound air pollution from industrial sources and semen parameters were observed. The strongest associations were seen for increased odds of azoospermia and declines in total motility and volume. More research is needed to further explore additional social and exposure factors as well as to expand on the risk posed to male reproductive health by the studied chemicals.
Wprowadzenie. Kwas gammahydroksymasłowy, nazywany również GHB jest
anestetykiem dysocjacyjnym oraz narkotykiem klubowym. Substancja ta nie posiada smaku ani zapachu, bardzo dobrze rozpuszcza się w wodzie, sokach a także wszelkich napojach alkoholowych. W wyniku nieświadomego spożycia u potencjalnej ofiary rozwija się amnezja wsteczną, dzięki czemu GHB chętnie wykorzystywany jest przez napastników m.in. do ułatwienia napaści na tle seksualnym.
Cel pracy. Celem pracy jest przedstawienie współczesnych problemów związanych
z analizą toksykologiczną kwasu gammahydroksymasłowego.
Przedmiot badań literaturowych. GHB jest popularnym narkotykiem ze względu
na niskie koszty produkcji oraz łatwą dostępność jego prekursorów. Po podaniu
doustnym jest szybko metabolizowany i usuwany z organizmu, dlatego materiał
do badań toksykologicznych powinien być dostarczony i poddany analizie w jak
najkrótszym czasie od zażycia. Złożoność interpretacji wyników a także wpływ wielu czynników zewnętrznych może stwarzać pewne bariery w dokładnej analizie
toksykologicznej.
Wnioski. Ze względu na szybki proces eliminacji GHB z organizmu zatrzymanie
sprawcy oraz udowodnienie przestępstwa jest niezwykle trudnym procesem.
Ustalenie czy GHB w pobranych próbkach ma pochodzenie egzogenne czy endogenne stwarza niekiedy trudności co bezpośrednio wpływa na czas oraz przebieg prowadzonego dochodzenia. Stosowanie włosów jako jedynego materiału do analizy toksykologicznej w kierunku GHB może prowadzić do uzyskania fałszywych wyników. Sama obecność substancji we włosach jest ponadto niewystarczająca aby potwierdzić jej spożycie.
Słowa kluczowe: kwas gammahydroksymasłowy, GHB, tabletka gwałtu, analiza
toksykologiczna
Background
Textile industry has been widely implicated in environmental pollution. The health effects of residing near manufacturing industries are not well documented in India, especially in central India. Hence, a cross-sectional environmental monitoring and health assessment study was initiated as per directions of the local authorities.
Methods
Comprehensive exposure data about the concentrations of relevant pollutants in the ambient air and ground water samples in the study area will be collected over one year. Using stratified random sampling, 3003 apparently healthy adults will be selected from the study area. Sociodemographic and anthropometric information, relevant medical and family history, and investigations including spirometry, electrocardiogram, neurobehavioral tests, and laboratory investigations (complete blood count, lipid profile and random blood glucose) will be conducted. Finally Iodine azide test and heavy metal level detection in urine and blood samples respectively will be conducted in a subset of selected participants to assess individual pollution exposure. Ethics approval has been obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee of the National Institute for Research in Environmental Health (No: NIREH/IEC-7-II/1027, dated 07/01/2021).
Discussion
This manuscript describes the protocol for a multi-disciplinary study that aims to conduct environmental monitoring and health assessment in residential areas near viscose rayon and associated chemical manufacturing industries. Although India is the second largest manufacturer of rayon, next only to China, and viscose rayon manufacturing has been documented to be a source of multiple toxic pollutants, there is a lack of comprehensive information about the health effects of residing near such manufacturing units in India. Therefore implementing this study protocol will aid in filling in this knowledge gap.
Wprowadzenie: Zabezpieczone płyny ustrojowe mogą mieć kluczowe znaczenie
dla rekonstrukcji domniemanych incydentów przemocy fizycznej, morderstw, napaści
na tle seksualnym a ponadto dostarczają informacji o potencjalnym spożyciu nielegalnych substancji przez osobę prowadzącą samochód lub biorącą udział
w zawodach sportowych. Suche plamy krwi (Dry- Blood-Spots; DBS) mogą zatem
znaleźć szerokie zastosowanie w toksykologii stanowiąc niezwykle cenny dowód
podczas procedury śledczej.
Cel pracy: Niniejsza praca skupia się na przedstawieniu potencjalnych zdarzeń,
w których analiza toksykologiczna DBS miałaby uzasadnione znaczenie.
Przedmiot badań literaturowych: Doniesienia dotyczące wykrywania narkotyków
w suchych plamach krwi, nie są tak liczne jak te o ich zastosowaniu do celów
klinicznych. Omawiany materiał diagnostyczny nie jest jednak aż tak wrażliwy
na upływ czasu między pobraniem krwi a analizą, co czyni go przydatnym w kontroli
antydopingowej podczas zawodów sportowych lub w przypadku kierujących
pojazdem podejrzanych o wcześniejsze spożycie narkotyku.
Wnioski: Całkowity potencjał suchych plam krwi do analiz toksykologicznych nie
został jeszcze wykorzystany a użycie DBS do kontroli kierowców zostało zbadane
tylko w ograniczonym zakresie. Suche plamy krwi do analizy pod kątem substancji
psychoaktywnych mogą okazać się pomocne w przypadku pobierania materiału poza
laboratorium oraz badań przesiewowych ze względu na minimalizację praktycznych
trudności związanych z pobieraniem krwi pełnej w terenie. Rozmiar zabezpieczonej
plamy, stopień hemolizy oraz poziom hematokrytu osoby, od której została pobrana
próbka, mają jednak istotny wpływ na jakość materiału co bezpośrednio wpływa
na dokładne oznaczenie analitu.
Background
Textile industry has been widely implicated in environmental pollution. The health effects of residing near manufacturing industries are not well documented in India, especially in central India. Hence, a cross-sectional environmental monitoring and health assessment study was initiated as per directions of the local authorities.
Methods
Comprehensive exposure data about the concentrations of relevant pollutants in the ambient air and ground water samples in the study area will be collected over 1 year. Using stratified random sampling, 3003 apparently healthy adults will be selected from the study area. Sociodemographic and anthropometric information, relevant medical and family history, and investigations including spirometry, electrocardiogram, neurobehavioral tests, and laboratory investigations (complete blood count, lipid profile and random blood glucose) will be conducted. Finally Iodine azide test and heavy metal level detection in urine and blood samples respectively will be conducted in a subset of selected participants to assess individual pollution exposure. Ethics approval has been obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee of the National Institute for Research in Environmental Health (No: NIREH/IEC-7-II/1027, dated 07/01/2021).
Discussion
This manuscript describes the protocol for a multi-disciplinary study that aims to conduct environmental monitoring and health assessment in residential areas near viscose rayon and associated chemical manufacturing industries. Although India is the second largest manufacturer of rayon, next only to China, and viscose rayon manufacturing has been documented to be a source of multiple toxic pollutants, there is a lack of comprehensive information about the health effects of residing near such manufacturing units in India. Therefore implementing this study protocol will aid in filling in this knowledge gap.
The fashion industry is known to have various detrimental environmental and social impacts. While these are especially prevalent in 'fast fashion' production, the 'slow fashion' countermovement aims to encourage more sustainable fashion purchasing behaviours. To date, little is known about fashion purchasing preferences in Malta. The aim of this project is therefore to explore the knowledge and perceptions of young fashion consumers in the Maltese Islands. Data was collected using an explanatory mixed methods design, via a combination of online surveys (n = 207) and focus groups. Data was analysed through SPSS and NVIVO software. Despite considering themselves to be generally environmentally conscious, respondents were found to prioritise price and aesthetics, as opposed to the environmental impact of garments, when purchasing clothing. Some participants linked this to their dependence on local (fast fashion) clothing shops for reasons of convenience and accessibility. Furthermore, only a few participants use all clothing items in their wardrobe. Nevertheless, younger age groups possess greater awareness of slow fashion and are aware of sustainable purchasing options (second-hand, vintage, and charity shop purchases) as an alternative to sustainably-made clothing. Moreover, most consider disposal of clothing to landfill as a last resort. These results suggest that, although there is evidence of an attitude-behaviour gap, there is also potential for sustainable fashion options in Malta to be better developed.
In the rubber industry, there is a lack of a low-cost and high-efficiency CS2 waste gas treatment method. In this study, the effect and feasibility of removing CS2 waste gas by gas cyclone-liquid jet separator were studied, and the application of the device in this field was expanded. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method was used to study the flow field characteristics of gas cyclone-liquid jet separator, so as to guide the selection of experimental conditions. The removal efficiency of CS2 was verified by experiments, and a mathematical model of KLa=10-3EReG1.25ReL0.41DG1/3 for predicting the mass transfer coefficient was proposed. The calculated KLa by the model is consistent with the experimental data, with a deviation of ±3%. On the basis of experimental verification, the industrial side line test was carried out to study the application of the purifier in industry. The results showed that due to the increase of the mass transfer coefficient, lower temperature of absorption solution and higher liquid phase velocity are beneficial to enhance the removal effect of CS2. However, merely increasing the mass transfer coefficient cannot ensure a higher absorption efficiency. This is also the reason why the highest efficiency of 94.05% is obtained when the intake air flow is 18 l/min, rather than the higher intake air flow rate. The gas cyclone-liquid jet separator has been successfully applied to remove CS2 from waste gas from rubber industry for the first time, which greatly reduces the treatment cost and has an excellent application prospect.
Sensitivity of graphyne CS2 gas was investigated. As CS2 approaches the graphyne, its adsorption releases 0.19 to 0.29 eV of energy, indicating a weak adsorption. Electronic analysis showed that the CS2 adsorption reduces the HOMO-LUMO energy gap (Eg) of the pure graphyne from 2.57 to 2.40 eV (∼ -6.6%), which can be concluded that the electrical conductivity of the nanosheet do not change significantly. Al doping makes graphyne more reactive and sensitive to CS2, the adsorption energy of CS2 on the Al-doped graphyne was predicted to be 1.53 to 1.75 eV. The CS2 adsorption reduces the Eg of Al-doped sheet from 2.12 to 1.45 eV (∼ -31.6%), which can be concluded that the sheet's electrical conductivity has increased. Thus, the Al-doped sheet can generate electrical signals when the CS2 molecules approach, which can be said that it may be a good choice for the production of CS2 chemical sensors.
Sensitive real-time detection of vapors produced by toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) represents a stringent priority nowadays. Carbon disulfide (CS2) is such a chemical, being widely used in manufacturing synthetic textile fibers and as a solvent. CS2 is simultaneously a very reactive, highly flammable, irritant, corrosive, and highly toxic compound, affecting the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, eyes, kidneys, liver, skin, and reproductive system. This study was directed towards quick detection and quantification of CS2 in air, using time-of-flight ion mobility spectrometry (IMS); photoionization detection (PID) was also used as confirmatory technique. Results obtained indicated that IMS can detect CS2 at trace levels in air. The ion mobility spectrometric response was in the negative ion mode and presented one product ion, at a reduced ion mobility (K0) of 2.25 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹. Our study demonstrated that by using a portable, commercial IMS system (model Mini IMS, I.U.T. GmbH Berlin Germany) one can easily measure CS2 at concentrations of 0.1 ppmv (0.3 mg m⁻³) in the negative ion mode, which is below the lowest threshold value of 1 ppmv given for industrial hygiene. A limit of detection (LOD) of ca. 30 ppbv (0.1 mg m⁻³) was also estimated.
Carbon disulfide, an important sulfur-containing species, has strong absorption lines in the wavelength range of 188 nm to 215 nm. It is difficult to accurately measure the absorption cross sections of carbon disulfide because carbon disulfide will be easily converted into carbon sulfide when it is exposed to ultraviolet light. In this study, the absorption cross sections of carbon disulfide were measured by reducing carbon disulfide conversion. The factors affecting carbon disulfide conversion, including gas flow rate, ultraviolet light intensity, and duration of illumination, were studied to reduce the conversion of carbon disulfide by controlling experimental conditions in the experiment. Finally, the absorption cross sections of carbon disulfide at room temperature and atmospheric pressure were calculated using the absorption spectrum and the carbon disulfide concentration in the absence of carbon disulfide conversion. The wavelengths of 16 absorption peaks on the carbon disulfide absorption cross sections of the vibration change were marked. Carbon disulfide has the maximum absorption cross section of 4.5 × 10-16 cm2/molecule at a wavelength of 198.10 nm.
In recent decades in high industrialised countries the occupational risks and energy costs of labour have decreased while the subjective nutritional and metabolic risk of workers has increased because they often follow an incorrect lifestyle. This article addresses the multidisciplinary assessment and management of these risks in order to define a Nutrient Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point at Work (NACCPW), specifically dedicated to proper nutrition, which workers must take over before or during the work schedule. It describes the various steps that the professionals concerned will need to develop to define the work-related and subjective metabolic and nutritional critical points and their corrective actions. NACCPW allows to balance work-related metabolic risk with subjective nutritional risk of workers and gives indications to reduce both. The further improvement in working conditions and lifestyle, with a focus on the nutrition of workers, will help to prevent cardio-vascular, metabolic and cancer diseases still very common in Western countries. The effectiveness of NACCPW is ensured by the possibility of including it in periodic health surveillance, which is required by law, for the entire working life.
This chapter deals with the introduction to sustainability and reviews the entire supply chain for textiles and the clothing sector in terms of various processes from fibre to finished products and their environmental impacts. It also investigates the environmental impacts of different stages in the life cycle of textile products from the cradle to the grave.
An efficient and practical thiocarbonyl surrogate via combination of potassium sulfide and chloroform was established. A variety of dithiocarbamates were afforded along with four new chemical bond formations in a one-pot reaction in which the thiocarbonyl motif was generated in situ. Furthermore, these readily accessed molecules showed promising activity against HDAC8, opening a potential gateway to discover a new type of nonhydroxamate and isoenzyme-selective HDAC inhibitors.
The goal of this study was to assess the environmental impact of cellulose carbamate fiber production, using discarded cotton textiles as raw material, and compare the results to reference cotton and viscose fibers. Life cycle inventory and assessment was conducted for two production process scenarios within a cradle-to-gate system. Carbon footprint, water use, and water scarcity footprint were assessed. The results show that the carbon footprint of a cellulose carbamate factory integrated with a pulp mill, and that recycles water and chemicals in energy-intensive operations, is comparable to viscose production in Europe. Cellulose carbamate fiber production consumes less than 2% and 25% of the water consumed by cotton and viscose fiber production, respectively. For a factory located in Äänekoski in Finland, the water scarcity footprint was 15 m ³ water eq. per 1000 kg carbamate fiber. For Augsburg, Germany, a likely alternative location, the water scarcity footprint was 18 m ³ water eq. per 1000 kg carbamate fiber. Carbon footprint and local impact of water use give information that can be utilized to determine optimal locations for a carbamate factory. The study also indicated that discarded cotton textiles can be used as a cellulosic feedstock without increasing the carbon footprint and water use compared to the commercial viscose process. Additionally, by using cellulose carbamate technology, occupational health risks and the environmental burden of carbon disulfide and hydrogen sulfide emissions from viscose process vents can be avoided.
Low-viscous coagulating agents are tradionally used to precipitate polymers from their solutions
and obtain films and fibers from them; they represent, as a rule, the combinations of solvent and nonsolvent
of the polymer used. At the same time, since the structure of the precipitated polymer is formed under nonequilibrium conditions, the influence of the coagulant viscosity can be quite substantial. The influence of the
viscosity of the medium on the formation of structure, morphology, and transport characteristics of the precipitated polymer is studied by example of forming of the cellulose membranes from solution in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide using some proton-donor coagulants. In this regard, the interdiffusion processes proceeding at the contact of cellulose solutions and coagulating agents (water, propylene glycol, glycerin) are
explored using the laser interferometry method. Varying the precipitator viscosity allows one to change the
rate of formation and correspondingly the morphology of the cellulose films. In turn, the membrane structure
determines its transport characteristics, which were assessed by the filtration of aprotic media with
anionic dyes—Orange II and Remazol Brilliant Blue R. The application of the low-viscous precipitator provides
the formation of a uniform film structure in the bulk, but leads to development of defects close to the
surface, while a viscous medium promotes the formation of a relatively thin dense shell on the films.
Exposures to toxicants in the workplace can cause severe illness and death similar to intentional poisonings and overdoses. In some cases, without a careful occupational history, the relationship between the job and the illness may be missed. Prolonged exposure to an insoluble gas, such as nitrogen dioxide after arc welding in a confined space, can cause a delayed pulmonary injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that occurs one day later, when the link may go unnoticed. Careful questioning about the particular sequence of events is important when an illness occurs after performance of a common task. An example is exposure to phosgene gas after torch-cutting or welding metal that had been recently degreased with a chlorinated hydrocarbon solvent. Alternatively, a worker may experience a delayed illness such as metal fume fever (MFF) if he or she is welding on galvanized metal or had been working in close proximity to someone doing so. It is important to ask not only about the job of the ill worker but also about the nature of the workplace and the other processes being performed there.
Materials with nanometric dimensions “Nanomaterials” (NMs) possess unique chemical, physical, thermal and electrical properties which make them useful for a wide range of applications in several fields such as energy, automotive, the environment, medicine and food. The growing production and use of engineered NMs and the inadequacy of available data on health risks associated with such compounds make it necessary to implement the knowledge regarding the potential health effects. To date there are no reliable epidemiological studies and information on NMs toxicity on workers, due to the relatively recent production, dissemination and use of engineered NMs and to the complexity of exposure assessment, whereas the available studies have been mainly conducted in vitro or on animals. Such studies have highlighted the potential cytotoxic, genotoxic-oxidative and inflammatory effects on different cell lines and the induction of pulmonary fibrosis and granuloma in animals. Uncertainty, however, still exists and the results remain contradictory. In fact, although great progress has been made to understand NM toxicity, further reliable studies and a description of the mechanism of NM toxicity are challenging due to the wide variety of the data, the complex interaction involved, the broad range of engineered NMs, and the interference of NMs with in vitro tests. The first section of this chapter will describe and discuss the results of the recent and reliable studies on health effects of some NMs. In particular, we will show the main findings regarding the potential toxicity of NMs already on the market or about to enter it, which are included in the priority list of manufactured NMs provided in 2010 by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The very few studies evaluating health effects on workers exposed to NMs will be also described. The second section will report the available strategies and methods for monitoring NM exposure in the workplace, giving particular emphasis to airborne-engineered NMs and their induced pulmonary effects, since respiratory tract represent the main target of NMs. The growing scientific interest in measurements of airborne NMs is demonstrated by the number of published studies aimed at the monitoring of occupational exposure to nano-objects and by the efforts, at the international level, for a harmonization of approaches to measure and assess the potential exposure to NMs in the workplace. Finally, quantitative measurements could be integrated in risk assessment and management procedures as a useful tool to improve risk mitigation strategies.
The overview presented here has the goal of examining whether carbon disulfide (CS2) may play a role as an endogenously generated bioregulator and/or has therapeutic value. The neuro- and reproductive system toxicity of CS2 has been documented from its long-term use in the viscose rayon industry. CS2 is also used in the production of dithiocarbamates (DTCs), which are potent fungicides and pesticides, thus raising concern that CS2 may be an environmental toxin. However, DTCs also have recognized medicinal use in the treatment of heavy metal poisonings as well as having potency for reducing inflammation. Three known small molecule bioregulators (SMBs) nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide were initially viewed as environmental toxins. Yet each is now recognized as having intricate, though not fully elucidated, biological functions at concentration regimes far lower than the toxic doses. The literature also implies that the mammalian chemical biology of CS2 has broader implications from inflammatory states to the gut microbiome. On these bases, we suggest that the very nature of CS2 poisoning may be related to interrupting or overwhelming relevant regulatory or signaling process(es), much like other SMBs.
Background:
Carbon disulfide (CS2 ) is widely used as an organic solvent. However, there is little information available regarding the clinical manifestations and the pathological features of kidney injury caused by CS2 . The current study aimed to describe the renal manifestations of a group of patients with long-term occupational exposure to CS2 .
Methods:
10 patients with long-term exposure to CS2 and visiting a single center were enrolled, with their clinical features recorded. Renal biopsies were taken from all patients and their pathological findings were documented.
Results:
All patients came from the same chemical fiber factory. Their mean age at enrollment was 36.9 ± 2.4 years, and each patient had a CS2 exposure duration exceeding 10 years. 8 patients (80%) presented with proteinuria and none had hematuria. 2 patients (20%) had underlying hypertension and 5 (50%) had increased serum creatinine levels. Light microscopic examination of their renal biopsy specimens revealed diffuse mesangial cell proliferation and mesangial hyperplasia in all patients. Moreover, 3 patients (30%) had nodular hyperplasia, resembling the lesions of diabetic nephropathy. Variable degrees of tubular atrophy and interstitial infiltrations of lymphocytes and monocytes were observed in all patients. Similarly, Electron microscopic examination showed glomerular mesangial cell proliferation and mesangial hyperplasia. Immunopathological staining for IgA and IgG, complements, or hepatitis B markers (hepatitis B surface antigen and e antigen-antibody) are negative in all patients.
Conclusions:
Long-term occupational exposure to CS2 may be associated with renal injury, although the renal pathological features are often nonspecific.
This chapter reviews the entire supply chain for textiles and the clothing sector in terms of various processes from fibre to finished products and their environmental impacts. It also investigates the environmental impacts of different stages in the life cycle of textile products from the cradle to the grave.
Many chemicals and agents found in occupational and industrial settings as well as detected in the environment are discussed in relationship to their effects on mother and embryo/fetus during pregnancy. Recommendations are offered in terms of monitoring of such exposures and what actions should be taken to modify exposures to such agents during the pregnancy. Of special note are discussions of exposures to solvents, pesticides, phenoxyacetic acid derivatives, polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, chlorinated drinking water by-products, metals, substances in toxic waste landfill sites, in photography, in nuclear sites, in electromagnetic radiation, in cell phones, and following electric shocks/lightning strikes.
Combined use of platinized titania and light emitting diode (LED) ultraviolet (UV) illumination was explored for photocatalytic odor abatement with carbon disulfide (CS2) as model odorant. Noble metal deposition on anatase titanium dioxide (TiO2) surface was achieved by UV assisted photoreduction of platinum (Pt). Solid-state and elemental analyses show that surface platinized (Pt/TiO2) and bare (TiO2) titania, while of comparable bulk structural properties, differ in light absorption and surface characteristics as a result of the photodeposited Pt. The effect of distance and collimation was modeled to predict the impact of position of UV source and collimation on UV radiation intensity and distribution on photocatalyst surface. Increased radiation intensity due to minimized divergence with collimated LED-UV has improved output beam intensity, resulting in enhanced photoreaction rates regardless of photocatalyst used. Fitting of batch experimental data into classical Langmuir-Hinshelwood (L-H) kinetic model yielded higher model parameter values with Pt/TiO2 than TiO2 as well as the calcined counterparts. Lower number of surface OH groups and better charge carrier separation in calcined and/or Pt surface treated titania were proposed as main factors underpinning enhanced reaction rates and photonic efficiencies. Data fitting into a pseudo-steady-state L-H kinetic model has returned higher optimized fit parameter values with Pt/TiO2 than TiO2 while showing a nonlinear power law relationship between irradiation intensity and reaction rate. Results of fluorescence excitation-emission (EEM) spectroscopy and infrared (IR) thermography corroborate the occurrence of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects such as subdued fluorescence and localized heating. By employing plasmonic photocatalysts and innovative delivery of photoradiation, this study has presented a case of a straightforward approach to environmental odor abatement based on affordable and widely available UV-LEDs and titania support.
Carbon disulphide (CS2) is known to accelerate atherosclerosis and to increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases. To assess the effect of CS2 on the functional (distensibility and compliance) and the structural (intima media thickness) properties of the common carotid artery, and blood pressure and lipid metabolism parameters, a cross-sectional study on 85 workers from a viscose rayon factory and 37 controls was carried out. Exposure to CS 2 was assessed by personal monitoring and was well below the threshold limit value-time weighted average. Carotid arterial wall properties were determined using a non-invasive ultrasound wall movement detector system. No significant effect of CS 2 on blood pressure, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol or triglycerides was found. Among the vascular parameters studied, only distensibility was significantly lower and heart rate was significantly higher in exposed subjects compared with the controls. In conclusion, occupational exposure to CS2 may cause early alterations in arterial elastic properties in young individuals, and even before lipid and clinical findings have occurred, important functional changes in the vessel wall are present.
The aim of this study was to examine neuropsychological function in patients with carbon disul- fide intoxication. Eight patients with carbon disulfide-induced polyneuropathy participated in the study of neuropsychological function. Each subject received a comprehensive neuropsychological examination. The patients' performance on the tests were compared with a group of healthy control subjects matched for age and education. The results revealed that the patients with carbon disulfide-induced polyneuropathy had deficits in visual perception of irregularly geometric figures, auditory sustained attention, visually selective attention, cognitive flexibility and concept formation, and manual dexterity of the nondominant hand, and depression. Our findings in Taiwanese patients, thus, were partially commensurate with the previous obser- vations of defective neuropsychological function in individuals with carbon disulfide intoxication. Despite that our findings were based on such small sample of the patients, it appears that carbon disulfide-induced polyneuropathy had clinical implications.
In 1967, two cohorts of 343 men each were formed, and matched with respect to age, birth district, and similarity of work. One cohort comprised viscose rayon workers with at least five years' exposure to carbon disulfide (CS 2) during any period between 1942 and 1967, and the other of workers from a paper mill with no such exposure. It was confirmed that all the relevant coronary risk factors had been controlled, except for blood pressure, which was slightly higher in the exposed group. However, this finding was interpreted as a result of exposure, rather than an independent risk factor. A 5.5 yr followup showed that 16 men had died from CHD in the exposed cohort, against 3 in the control cohort. Other causes of death were evenly distributed (7 and 6). The difference between the risk ratios was statistically significant. Similar results were obtained on comparison of the coronary mortality of the exposed cohort with the national death statistics, although the difference was less. Discriminant function analysis enabled accurate prediction of the deaths or survivals in 88.7% of the exposed group when not only exposure, but also age, smoking habits, diastolic blood pressure, and the serum cholesterol level were taken into account. The risk of death rose with increasing exposure. The results agree with earlier mortality studies, and strongly support the hypothesis of a causal relation between CS 2 exposure and CHD.
A study based on the monitoring of 343 males exposed for at least five years in a viscose spinning plant is reported.
A long term study on the relationship between ischemic heart disease (IHD) and exposure to carbon-disulfide (CS 2) in the viscose rayon industry in Finland was reappraised. The study had been conducted in three phases between the years 1942 and 1981, and included a five year prospective mortality study. The formulation of the problem and the scope of the study were discussed. Factors relating to the study design, such as the study protocol, time frame, acquisition of relevant exposure data, criteria of admissibility, choice of referents, handling of confounded variables, selection processes and project organization, were described in detail. Efficiency aspects of the project design were discussed with reference to the sampling procedure, feasibility of matching and determination of sample size. The methods used for data management and collection were considered. Data analysis and the estimation of effect parameters with particular reference to the study years 1967, 1972, 1975, 1979 and 1980 were discussed. The use of multivariate approaches to identify the extent to which CS 2 exposure was a contributing factor in the development of IHD was described. Inferences derived from each stage of the study were listed, and several sources of bias which may have undermined the validity of the study were considered. The impact on the rayon industry of publication of the results of the five year mortality study was discussed. The author concludes that although a causal relationship between IHD and CS 2 exposure had been demonstrated by the study, more data is needed on the exposure effect relationship, the no effect level of CS 2 with respect to IHD is yet to be determined, and new studies are required to examine the effects of low level exposures to CS 2 .
A neuro-ophthalmological examination, including fluorescein angiography, has been made of 100 male viscose rayon workers occupationally exposed to carbon disulfide (CS2), and 97 control males (paper-mill workers). Corrected visual acuity, visual field, eye motility, pupillary reactions and biomicroscopy, were found to be normal in all the eyes examined. Fluorescein angiography revealed the filling of retinal vasculature before choroid in 76% of the exposed subjects, and in 70% of the controls. Delayed peripapillary filling, either circumferential or segmental, or both, occurred in 68 exposed and 38 nonexposed; the difference was highly significant (p<0.01). This phenomenon was not correlated with ageing, smoking habits,serum cholesterol level, or glucose tolerance. The intraocular pressures in these eyes were normal. General narrowing and irregularity of vessel calibre were almost equally common findings in both groups. The mean widths of eight arteriolesand the narrowest vein were significantly wider in the exposed group (p<0.01, and p<0.05, respectively). No evidence was found for retinopathy attributable tocarbon disulfide exposure.
Published also as a conference proceedings paper, Micocirculation of ocular fundus in viscose rayon workers exposed to CS2 by C. Raitta, M.Tolonen, M. Nurminen, in:
Egyptian journal of occupational medicine. 01/1977; 5(1):199-210.
In 1980 the Directorate-General of Labor, Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, the Netherlands, requested the Coronel Laboratory for Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Amsterdam, to carry out "a critical study of literature on health risks to women from industrial and occupational exposure to chemical agents which are different from risks to male workers, or which have only been observed in female workers. " The principal investigator was Mrs. A. Stijkel, medical biologist; a part of the study was carried out by R. L. Zielhuis, physician. M. M. Verberk, physician, and Mrs. M. v. d. Poel-Bot, librarian, provided continuous assistance. The final report (in Dutch) covering the literature up to and including 1981, was submitted to the government in October 1982. A somewhat abridged and modified English text, updated to include 1982, was prepared. The Editorial Board and the publisher of the International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health kindly made possible the publishing of this text in a special issue of the journal. The authors express their thanks to the Directorate-General of Labor, the Editorial Board and the publisher for making this publication possible. We sincerely hope that this report will be of assistance in making the industrial and occupational environment safer. Prof. Dr. R. L. Zie1huis Table of Contents Introduction 1 1 1. 1 Objective 1 Theoretical Possibilities for Extra Health Risks in Female 1. 2 Workers. 2 1. 2. 1 Differences Between Women and Men Apart from Reproduction .
It is strange but true that while many cases of retinopathy due to chronic carbon disulfide poisoning have been reported in Japan, few cases have been found in other countries. As no detailled angiographic pattern of this retinopathy is known for sure, at present, the author would like to discuss it in this report.
Carbon disulfide (CS2) is used particularly in the half-synthetic fiber (rayon) industry; in addition it may be used as a solvent. Its main effects on health are neurotoxicity with (sub)acute and long-term exposure, and vascular diseases (heart, brain, kidney, eyes) with long-term exposure. In addition, it may have adverse effects on the endocrine and reproductive systems. The present TLV is 30 mg/m3 (10 ppm) — TWA 8 h.
Carbon disulfide (CS2) is a man-made Product utilized primarily in the manufacture of viscose rayon. Overexposure to CS2 has been associated with an increase in coronary heart disease. The aims of this study were to examine the dose-response relationship of CS2 exposure and elevated lipid profile tests among CS2-exposed workers in Taiwan. A total of 132 workers were recruited from two viscose rayon plants. Air sampling was performed to determine the CS2 exposure of workers. Demographic data and work history were gathered by a standard self-administered questionnaire. Lipid profile tests were also performed by routine methods. The average CS2 exposure concentration was 50.6 +/- 25.6 ppm (range: 24 -127 ppm) in the high-exposure group, 12.9 +/- 5 ppm (range: 5.2-22.3 ppm) in the mid-exposure group, and 3.5 +/- 1.2 ppm (range 0.97- 5.2 ppm) in the low-exposure group. There were 21 out of 33 (63.7%) elevated triglyceride levels among high-CS2-exposure workers, 27 out of 64 (42.2%) among the middle-CS2-exposure, and 14 out of 35 (40%) among low-CS2-exposure workers, respectively. Compared to the low-CS2-exposure workers, the age- and weight-adjusted odds ratios (and 95% confidence intervals) of the prevalence of elevated triglycende value were 1.12 (0.5, 2.7) for middle-CS2-exposure workers, and 2.81 (1.02, 7.8) for high-CS2-exposure workers. There was a significant linear trend between CS2 exposure and the prevalence of elevated triglyceride value (P = 0. 046) after adjusting for other factors. There was also a lower prevalence of elevated HDL level in high-CS2-exposure workers than low-CS2-exposure workers (15.2% versus 31.4%). Compared to the low-CS2-exposure workers, the age- and weight-adjusted odds ratio (and 95% confidence intervals) of elevated HDL level were 0.34 (0.1, 1.18) for high-CS2-exposure workers, which was borderline significant. In conclusion, this study suggests that elevated triglyceride level and decreased HDL Level are associated with CS2 exposure. The study also suggests that exposure to CS2 (concentration > 23.2 ppm, which was above the current TLV-TWA of 10 ppm) are significantly associated with increased risk and decreased protective effect for coronary heart disease.
Atherosclerotic vascular disease in workers chronically exposed to carbon disulfide (CS 2) was frequently found. Modifications of coagulation factors, fibrinolysis and platelet function have been recently considered risk factors. We have analysed β-thromboglobulin, platelet factor IV, firbinogen, α 2-antiplasmin, antithrombin III and factor VIII-R antigen in 70 men exposed to CS 2 air pollution ranging from 5 to 35 mg/m 3 and in 70 men as controls. Our results don't show a significant difference between exposed subjects and controls.
351 operatives had worked in a viscose spinning factory between January 1957 and December 1968. Individuals with less than one year's service were not taken into account. Death certificates giving the recorded causes of death were obtained through the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. At 31 December 1978, 308 of the original 351 were known to be alive, 31 had died and the whereabouts of 12 were unknown, 11 of these having emigrated from the UK. The expected mortality for a population of this age structure and size among the general UK community over the same period was 32.25. In comparison with the national figures no specific cause of death occurred significantly more frequently among the population studied. 7 of the 224 who were regularly exposed to CS2 in air (process men and spinners) and 5 of the 115 whose exposure was negligible died from ischaemic heart disease (ICO 410-414). Median values of CS2 in air in the spinning, traction, cutting and washing areas for the years 1957-1974 ranged from 6 ppm to 35 ppm. Exposure for periods of one year or more to these levels of CS2 did not appear to have increased the mortality from ischaemic heart disease during the period of observation.
This study was designed in order to evaluate the health conditions and in particular the significance of the abnormal findings in 50 workers of the same factory involved in one of the three main phases of rayon production (yarn washing) and from the same well-ventilated department. All had a working history from the beginning in transformed environment and modified work places, with a CS2 pollution always below 30 mg/m3. The exposure period ranged between 3 and 12 years and during this time the mean average CS2 concentrations at work places varied between 10 and 25 mg/m3. The referent group was selected, by pair-matching method, in the workers of the same factory, but surely never exposed to CS2 for their task. These subjects belonged to leandepartments, excepting textile rooms, where a noise risk was recorded. The pairmates had in common sex, age, district residence, general diet, work-shift alternation, smoking and alcohol habits. Every subject was evaluated by symptoms registration on standarized medical questionnaire, by clinical examination and by functional and laboratory assessment. The pattern of the investigation included: central and peripheral nervous system (psychological test battery, electromyography, clinical evaluation), cardiac/vascular system (arterial blood pressure, ECG at rest and after exercise, ophthalmoscopy), endocrinological functions (glycemia, thyroxine, FSH, LH, Testosterone), blood coagulation function, serum lipids content, and blood urea. Data, instrumental findings and subjective symptoms were compared in both exposed and control groups and verified by statistical analysis. No cases of CS2 poisoning were elicted. In the exposed group only minor changes and small disturbances were identified. For many of the parameters considered no differences of statistical significance were demonstrated. For others, in particular for neuro-vegatative disturbances, some differences were enhanced and their importance is discussed also in regard to ergonomics aspects. On the basis of this study it can be concluded that occupational exposure to CS2 below 30 mg/m3 and up to 12 years has not caused considerable health damage directly associated to acute or chronic toxic effects. Therefore a good safety standard seems to be reached in health status of CS2 exposed workers if the environmental pollution is maintained within the above limits. The most people can be considered protected; however, the problem of individual susceptibility must be always inquired and monitored for preventive purposes.
The review and re-fixing of an exposure limit value for carbon disulphide (CS2) faced problems, because several methods used in the past for the determination of carbon disulphide in the air gave only low reliabilities and systematic errors. The aim of a concerted action of the institution for statutory accident insurance and prevention in the chemical industry, the BG Institute for occupational safety - BIA, the German and Austrian viscose industry and scientific experts was the improvement of the CS2 analysis in the air. One of the activities was the improvement of the desorption process of carbon disulphide from activated charcoal. The improved sample preparation was combined especially with high resolution gaschromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry. Furthermore new methods were developed and validated for personal sampling of CS2. Several methods were compared in a proficiency test under real conditions. This led to higher reliabilities and a high comparability of the methods which use GC-procedures. It was shown that the reliabilities of photometric techniques were too low for the assessment of current exposure limits.
Subclinical carbon disulfide (CS2) poisoning was delinated by analyzing the results obtained in a cross sectional study on coronary heart disease (CHD), subclinical polyneuropathy (PN), microcirculation of ocular fundus (EYE), and behavioral symptoms (BS) among 97 male rayon viscose workers exposed to CS2 and 96 male controls. Symptoms and signs of ill health were all distinctly more prevalent among exposed workers than among unexposed ones. Symptomatic CHD (infarction or typical angina) occurred in 13 exposed and 3 unexposed subjects. 'Coronary' ECG changes were equally distributed between the groups (16 in each). Polyneuropathy was observed in 49 exposed and 23 controls, and disturbed ocular circulation appeared in 67 exposed and 38 unexposed subjects. Thirty nine exposed and 24 unexposed workers showed poor performance on psychological tests. Only 5% of the exposed and 31% of the unexposed were free from the disorders examined. 59% of the exposed and 29% of the unexposed were affected by more than one disorder, and the combinations of the disorders differed distinctly between the groups. Excess morbidity from these disorders was due to the occurrence of a syndrome of EYE combined with PN or BS or both and additionally with CHD. Excess CHD associated always with PN or BS or both but only in those exposed subjects with EYE. Solitary disorders or a combination of CHD + EYE did not cause excess morbidity. It is concluded that in chronic subclinical CS2 intoxication EYE is the primary finding and it is essential for the diagnosis. The probability that the syndrome is caused by CS2 exposure could be estimated for all the various combinations of the disorders studied. For example the estimated probabilities for combinations of CHD + PN + EYE and CHD + PN + EYE + BS were 100%.
The authors examined 118 male viscose rayon workers exposed for several years (median 15 yr) to carbon disulfide and 100 male paper mill workers with no such exposure by measuring the maximal motor conduction velocity (MCV) of the median, ulnar, deep peroneal, and posterior tibial nerves; conduction velocity of the slower motor fibers (CVSF) of the ulnar and deep peroneal nerves; maximal sensory conduction velocity; and motor and sensory distal latencies of the median and ulnar nerves. Conduction velocities of the nerves in the exposed men were generally slower than those of the controls. The clearest differences (P < 0.01) were obtained as regards CVSF of the ulnar and deep peroneal nerves, MCV of the deep peroneal and posterior tibial nerves, and motor distal latency of both the median and ulnar nerves. MCV of the ulnar nerve was slightly slower among the exposed than among the controls (P < 0.05). 48% of the exposed and 24% of the unexposed men had polyneuropathy, i.e. pathologically reduced conduction velocities in two or more nerves (P < 0.001), 28 and 20% were borderline cases, and 24 and 56% were free from the disease, respectively. It was concluded that subclinical polyneuropathy caused by CS2 may be irreversible, as cessation of exposure did not amend the reduced conduction velocities. In addition an EEG was recorded for 54 exposed and 50 controls. Of these EEGs 21 of the exposed group were abnormal and 6 of the control group. Thus the EEGs displayed the mild brain dysfunctions that are atributable to CS2 exposure.
In the framework of an extensive health survey 123 male viscose rayon workers exposed to hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and/or carbon disulphide (CS2) and 67 referents not exposed to either of these chemicals answered questions on eye irritation complaints in a self-administered questionnaire. Personal exposure varied from 4 to 112 mg m−3 for CS2 and from 0.2 to 8.9 mg m−3 for H2S. A combined exposure measure was calculated using principal component analysis. The exposed subjects had a significantly higher prevalence of eye pain, burning and photophobia. Adjustment for age and smoking in logistic regression revealed significantly more eye complaints for all workers that were highly exposed. In a postal survey one-third of the ex-workers of the same viscose rayon factory reported having left the factory because of eye complaints, indicating that their occurrence may be underestimated in the cross-sectional study.
The level of serum total and esterified cholesterol was estimated and the ratio of esterified to total cholesterol was calculated in the total of 134 CS2 workers and 48 controls in four representative viscose rayon plants in a rural district of Japan. The four plants were grouped into two categories according to CS2 concentration in the air of working places: the A group consisted of two plants where CS2 concentration was ranging from 5 to 19 ppm and the number of subjects was 64, and the B group comprised two plants where CS2 concentration was from 15 to 65 ppm and 70 subjects were selected randomly.In the A group the average values of total cholesterol, esterified cholesterol and ratio of esterified to total cholesterol in the serum were 157.5 mg percent, 95.0 mg percent and 60.4 percent, respectively. There was no statistical sig-nificant difference between these average values in the CS2 exposed workers and the controls, whose total cholesterol, esterified cholesterol and ester ratio were measured as 154.0 mg percent, 96.1 mg percent and 62.2 percent re-spectively.In the B group the average values of total cholesterol, esterified cholesterol and ester ratio were 212.6 mg percent, 111.4 mg percent and 52.8 percent respectively. The significant differences were ascertained statistically in total cholesterol, esterified cholesterol and ratio of esterified to total cholesterol of the CS2 workers from the controls. The serum total and esterified cholesterol appeared to be higher and the ester ratio was lower in the subjects of the B group which was exposed to a relatively high concentration of CS2 than in the A group which was exposed to a lower concentration. Among 70 subjects of the B group, 12 persons had a slight headache, 5 fatigue during their shift, 6 irritability, 8 impaired appetite, 10 sleeplessness and 5 pains in legs.The blood change of the same type was assured by an experiment of rabbits which were exposed to 150 to 180 ppm of CS, for 200 days.We would like to conclude that the change of the serum cholesterol level can be taken for one of the early signs of chronic CS2 poisoning.
This article presents the results of carbon disulfide exposure
measurements in a Chinese viscose rayon factory. The objectives of the study
were to identify the external exposure levels at a large factory and to investigate
the 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (TTCA) concentrations
in the urine of the subjects who were exposed to carbon disulfide in the working
place atmosphere. The metabolism of carbon disulfide in the exposed subjects
was also studied in order to demonstrate the best points in time for the internal
exposure sampling. The measurement of the amount of personal exposure to carbon
disulfide in the air of the workplace was performed by GC-FPD; the presence
of TTCA in the workers urine was analyzed by use of a modified HPLC method.
The kinetics of TTCA excretion was studied by analyses at different time-points
both during and after exposure to carbon disulfide in the subjects. A total
of 155 personal samples were obtained. The carbon disulfide concentration
in the staple viscose hall was 13.72 ± 1.12 mg m−3
in terms of the geometric mean ± geometric standard deviation,
and was 20.05 ± 1.33 mg m−3
in the filament spinning hall. The TTCA values in the subjects who worked
in the staple spinning hall were 1.18 ± 0.43 mg g−1
creatinine and 1.07 ± 0.38 mg g−1
creatinine for subjects working in the filament spinning hall. The best time
for TTCA sampling is at the end of the working shift, the TTCA excretion was
stable for a period of 4–12 h after exposure of the subjects
to the carbon disulfide. It might be that the Chinese have different anthropometric
characteristics; a sampling bias may therefore appear among different races.
Carbon disulfide has been assessed as a Priority Substance under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act. Based on the results of epidemiological studies of workers exposed to carbon disulfide and supporting data from experiments conducted on animals, the nervous system appears to be the critical target for carbon disulfide-induced toxicity, manifested most often as reduced conduction velocity in the peripheral nerves and impaired performance in psychomotor testing. Other effects for which there is considerable weight of evidence in humans exposed to carbon disulfide include alterations in serum lipids and blood pressure that are associated with increased risk of heart disease, damage to the blood vessels of the retina and (with higher exposures) increased mortality from heart disease. A tolerable concentration of 100 μg/m has been derived, based upon the benchmark concentration associated with a 5% adverse response for the most sensitive response variable (i.e., peroneal motor nerve conduction velocity at 20 mg/m) in an epidemiological study of an occupationally exposed population.
Mikroaneurysmen sind von besonderem Interesse für die Diagnostik von Gefäßveränderungen nach Vergiftung mit Schwefelkohlenstoff. Sie lassen sich ophthalmoskopisch, angiographisch oder angioskopisch diagnostizieren. - Wir sind der Auffassung, dass Mikroaneurysmen mit einer sorgfältigen ophthalmoskopischen Untersuchung ebenso gut festgestellt werden können, so dass bei Reihenuntersuchungen eine Angiographie nicht notwendig ist. Das Auftreten von Mikroaneurysmen ist mit der Dauer (insgesamt und täglich) und der Intensität der Schwefelkohlenstoff-Exposition korreliert. Zwischen der Anzahl der Mikroaneurysmen und der Intensität der Exposition besteht ein enger Zusammenhang. Die Häufigkeit der Mikroaneurysmen ist nicht korreliert mit dem Alter, aber man findet sie bei den Arbeitern der Zellwollfaserabteilung am häufigsten in der Altersgruppe von 40-50 Jahren, und bei den Arbeitern aus der Spinnerei in der Altersgruppe von 50-55 Jahren. Mikroaneurysmen treten bei Arbeitern und Invaliden gleich häufig auf. Hinsichtlich der degenerativen Veränderungen der Makula besteht zwischen den beiden Abteilungen kein Unterschied. Stärker ausgeprägte Veränderungen findet man etwas häufiger bei den Arbeitern aus der Abteilung Zellwollfaser, als bei denen aus der Spinnerei.
Summary
Microaneurysms are important in the diagnosis of vascular changes caused by carbon disulfide. They can be diagnosed by ophtholmoscopy, angiography or angioscopy. In our opinion even a careful ophthalmoscopic investigation is sufficient for diagnosis, so that angiography is not absolutely necessary for any mass survey. The incidence of microaneurysms correlates with the duration (both daily and total) as well as with the intensity of exposure to carbon disulfide. The quantity correlates closely with the intensity of exposure. The incidence of microaneurysms is not correlated to age; however it was found to be highest in 40-50-year-old men working with staple fibers, whereas in the spinning department it occurred in 50-55-old men. Microaneurysms are found equally frequently in active workers and invalids. There was no difference between the two groups with regard to degenerative changes of the macula. However, the changes found in the eyes of men from the staple fiber department were more pronounced than in those from the spinning department.
In Korea, carbon disulfide was used mostly in a viscose rayon factory which was established in 1962 and was closed in 1993. About 550 workers were diagnosed and compensated for CS2 poisoning from 1987, to June 1995, and more workers will be diagnosed and compensated. There was no pertinent environmental monitoring or periodic medical examination for the workers exposed to CS2 until 1986. The first cases of CS2 poisoning reported in May, 1987 were 4 retired workers who were very sick. It became possible for them to be diagnosed and compensated because a democratic movements pervaded all the country after the end of military rule in Korea. After they were compensated, many other retired workers also requested to be diagnosed and compensated for CS2 poisoning. Many radicals and radical doctors joined them against the government and company. The government promised that retired workers could be diagnosed by Compensation Insurance organization for Worker's Injury managed by the Ministry of Labor. The rayon company also promised reparation for retired workers who had CS2 poisoning. The diagnosis of CS2 poisoning for retired workers was carried out by the commitee of doctors half of whom were appointed by the company and the remaining half by the workers. There were conflicts between conservative doctors and radical doctors in the diagnosis of CS2 poisoning even after the establishment of legal diagnostic criteria for CS2 poisoning. Workers pressured doctors and the goverment to bring about a change in the diagnostic criteria, and they succeeded. The important findings of CS2 poisoning among Korean workers were as follows: retinal microaneurysm, polyneuropathy, cerebrovascular infarction and intercapillary glomerulosclerosis.
Trans-Cranial Doppler and Peripheral Sensory Threshold Tests for Carbon Disulfide Poisoning: Eunil LEE, et al. Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Korea University— Trans-cranial doppler (TCD) and sensory threshold (vibration, pain and discrimination) tests, which are safe and inexpensive techniques, were applied to detect cerebral vasoreactivity or neuropathic changes between carbon disulfide (CS2) poisoning cases and two control groups respectively. The cases were 31 male CS2 poisoning workers, and the first control group for the TCD test consisted of eight healthy men, and the second group for the threshold test were 21 healthy male workers. In the TCD test, the blood flow velocity in both middle cerebral arteries and the CO2 content of expired air were measured to evaluate CO2 reactivity. The vibration and pain perception threshold were measured on both the 2nd and 5th fingers. The CS2 poisoning cases showed higher rates of abnormal CO2 reactivity above the cut-off value than healthy controls (80.0- 81.8% vs 0%). Among the threshold tests, the proportions of abnormal pain threshold of both the 2nd and 5th fingers were higher in poisoning cases than in the controls (77.8%-88.9% vs 11.1-33.3%) among over 45 yr old subjects. CO2 reactivity and pain threshold test showed the possibility to detect changes in cerebral vessels and the sensory threshold in CS2 exposure cases, but there should be further study to apply these tests to workers exposed to CS2 before the development of CS2 poisoning, with large number of control subjects. (J Occup Health 2001; 43: 307-313)
Studies of workers in the chemical industry and/or chemical laboratories which do not specify exposure are discussed in this chapter. Studies of women employed in specific branches are reported in other chapters: metal industry (8), exposure to solvents (2), exposure to pesticides (4), health care (12 and 13), pharmaceutical industry (14), rubber industry (16), beauticians (17).
In a view of the literature on the incidence of cardiovascular diseases in connection with the occurrence of carbon disulphide, an investigation was made in a rayon plant to find out wether:1.
there are marked differences in cardiovascular diseases between different departments of the plant;
2.
a special examination for cardiovascular diseases shows differences between persons exposed to CS2 and the total personnel of the plant.
Re 1.
Neither from the individual diagnoses nor from the combination of the different diagnoses into the main group of cardiovascular diseases by means of a modified method in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries on Causes of Death, was it possible to establish any significant difference between the individual departments.
Re 2.
In an examination for cardiovascular diseases performed by various industrial medical departments in the Netherlands using a standardized method, “the risk factors” were compared. For this purpose, the personnel were divided into the following 3 groups:
a)
shift workers exposed to CS2,
b)
shift workers not exposed to CS2,
c)
day crew workers.
On the basis of statistical considerations, a significant difference was found between shift workers exposed to CS2 and crew workers, the number of risk factors being higher for shift workers than for day crew workers. The same result was obtained for shift workers not exposed to CS2 and day crew workers.
Between shift workers exposed to CS2 and shift workers not exposed to CS2, no significant difference in respect of risk factors could be established.
In order to clarify the influence of carbon disulfide exposure level on the progress of retinopathy, direct ophthalmoscopy and color fundus photography were performed on 338 randomly-selected workers of a viscose rayon staple plant.
Retinal abnormalities characterized by microaneurysms were found in 89 of 289 workers exposed to carbon disulfide (30.8%) and in 2 of 49 control workers not exposed to carbon disulfide (4.1%). The prevalence of retinopathy among 124 high exposure group members was significantly higher than that among 127 low exposure group members. Results clearly showed that the prevalence of retinopathy increased with both increasing carbon disulfide exposure duration and increasing concentration.
Finally, the onset and progress of retinal changes due to carbon disulfide are compared to those occuring with diabetes mellitus.
Oculosphygmography (OSG), combined with electrocardiography, was performed on 38 male workers exposed occupationally to carbon disulfide (CS2) and 40 unexposed male paper mill workers. A statistical analysis of the results showed that the ocular pulse wave of the exposed group showed a significantly lower pattern than that of the unexposed group. A comparison between workers currently exposed to CS2 and those no longer exposed indicated that the hemodynamic alterations caused by CS2 exposure lead to a permanent condition. It is concluded that CS2 exposure increases the rigidity of the vascular bed of the eye. The data indicate that primarily chronic, subclinical CS2 poisoning causes capillary damage. Oculosphygmography seems to be one objective examination useful in diagnosing the subtle syndrome of chronic CS2 poisoning.Oculosphygmographie und gleichzeitige Elektrokardiographie wurde bei 38 Arbeitern einer Viscose-Industrie mit Schwefelkohlenstoffaussetzung (CS2) und 40 Arbeitern einer Papierindustrie als Kontrollen durchgefhrt. Die statistische Analyse der Resultate zeigte bei der CS2 ausgesetzten Gruppe eine signifikant niedrigere Pulswelle als bei den Kontrollen. Bei Vergleich der Pulswelle von Arbeitern, die noch unter CS2-Aussetzung standen mit Arbeitern, die nicht mehr ausgesetzt waren, konnte eine permanente Vernderung festgestellt werden. Es wurde angenommen, da CS2 die Rigiditt des Gefbettes des Auges erhht. Die Resultate weisen auf eine primre Schdigung der Kapillaren hin. Oculosphygmographie bietet eine zustzliche Methode zum Feststellen von frhen Schdigungen durch CS2.
A total of 250 workers employed in the production of rayon staple were followed up for a long period of time and their 344 EEG records analyzed and compared with those of a control group of 61 healthy controls and with EEG records of a group of 47 patients suffering from cerebral arteriosclerosis. CS2 is considered to cause vascular encephalopathy.
In workers exposed to CS2 a high incidence of abnormal EEGs was found (33.2%) vs. healthy control group (6.60) (P<0.01). As for the type of EEG abnormality, in exposed workers episodic activity predominated (33.6%); diffuse abnormality was present in 29.6%. On the other hand, in patients with cerebral vascular disease focal abnormality was most frequent (46.8%); diffuse abnormality occurred in 29.8% and episodic activity in only 14.9%. Frequency of alpha activity was found to be lower in exposed workers than in healthy controls. Exposed workers tended to frequencies up to 10 c/s.
The relation between EEG and neurological findings was analyzed. A direct dependence was not found but there were more cases with EEG abnormality than cases with a pathological clinical picture.
The series of EEG specimens is presented demonstrating the development of EEG abnormalities in exposed workers.
The episodic activity in exposed workers must account for the effect on mesodiencephalic structures, in all probability by the direct toxic (or pathological-metabolic) effect of CS2. The diffuse abnormality could be the manifestation of the toxic cerebral changes or of the effect of the smallest diameter's vessels in CS2 vasculoencephalopathy or of a combination of the two mechanisms. Slowing of alpha activity is considered to indicate a cerebral metabolic disorder due to CS2.
Electroencephalography is regarded to have a great importance not only in early diagnosis of the CS2 effect on the central nervous system but also for further research.
The objective of the study was to evaluate viscose plant workers for electrocardiographic manifestations resulting from exposure
to carbon disulfide (CS2). A total of 162 workers (118 in an exposure group and 44 in a reference group) were evaluated using a health questionnaire,
physical check-up, biochemical analysis of blood samples and electrocardiograms (ECG). The exposure group consisted of workers
in the following areas: viscose manufacturing, cellophane processing, ripening, and filament spinning. Reference group workers
were from the administrative office, rolling area, pulp processing, and testing office. Only slight differences were found
in the biochemical analyses of the two groups, with the exception of sodium (Na) levels. Personal and area sampling results
were found to have a high variation due to different locations within the plant and a wide range of manufacturing processes.
Highest CS2 concentrations were found in the ripening area (54.60 ppm) and the filament spinning area (19.60 ppm). Using a multiple logistic
regression model to control variables (age, gender, body mass index, duration of employment, cholesterol, smoking, and alcohol),
we found a relative risk for ECG abnormalities 4.18 times significantly higher for the exposure group. The authors feel that
the installation of an adequate ventilation system could greatly reduce the risk of workers developing CS2-induced cardiovascular abnormalities.
Using color fundus photography, the occurrence of retinopathy was studied in Japanese and Finnish viscose rayon workers and unexposed control subjects. Interobserver error was avoided by strict method control. Retinopathy (microaneurysms/small dot hemorrhages) was detected in 103 of 419 Japanese exposed (24.6%) and in 7 of 188 Finnish exposed subjects (3.79% (P < 0.05).="" the="" respective="" prevalences="" for="" the="" unexposed="" subjects="" were="" 3.8%="" and="" 2.6%.="" the="" retinopathy="" due="" to="" carbon="" disulfide,="">retinopathia sulfocarbonica, seen in Japanese viscose rayon workers did not occur in Finnish workers.
In our previous paper (1967) it was asserted that the pathological and clinical features of chronic carbon disulfide poisoning are microangiopathy (microangiopathia sulfocarbonica) characterized by retinal microaneurysm or nephropathy, which may develop into glomerulosclerosis. This postulation first poses a question, whether or not pathogenesis of the microangiopathy has a similar history to that seen in diabetes mellitus.
To elucidate the pathogenesis of microangiopathy due to carbon disulfide, prednisolone augmented glucose tolerance test and fluorescein angiography were carried out in 214 carbon disulfide workers and 45 control workers.
Both the one- and two-hour postglucose blood sugar levels during prednisolone GTT were higher in carbon disulfide workers than in controls, and it was certified that these blood sugar levels increased with lengthening of duration of exposure to carbon disulfide. Abnormal prednisolone GTT was found in 21 % of the carbon disulfide workers and in 4.4 % of the controls. Retinal microaneurysm was found in 55.9 % of the former and in 15.4 % of the latter. There was a clear trend toward higher incidence of microaneurysm with increasing duration of exposure to carbon disulfide. In 26 cases out of 109 carbon disulfide workers with retinal microaneurysm, abnormal prednisolone GTT was found (23.9 %). On the other hand, in the controls with microaneurysm, there were no cases with abnormal prednisolone GTT.
The results permit the statement that carbon disulfide has a mild diabetogenic action and pathogenesis of retinal microaneurysm due to carbon disulfide is closely related to that seen in diabetes mellitus.
Direct ophthalmoscopic/color fundus photographic examinations and the Prednisolone Glucose Tolerance Test (PGTT) were performed in 214 male carbon disulfide workers, three times in 5 years. The purpose of the follow-up study was to determine the following: (1) the effects of exposure cessation on the course of retinopathy; (2) a prognosis for retinopathy in workers continuously exposed for years; (3) a reasonable maximum length of service at exposure sites, for which equal or shorter exposure duration would not cause retinopathy under present Japanese working conditions; (4) the relationship between changes in glucose tolerance and the course of retinopathy.
During the five-year period of study, 56 workers were transferred from exposure to non-exposure work and 31 were not examined. Thus, the subjects completely followed-up numbered 183(85.5%) and fell into two groups: “still-exposed” and “removed from exposure”.
Results can be summarized as follows: (1) Progression to a more developed stage of retinopathy occurred in 23.1% of the 134 still-exposed group members. (2) Among the 80 removed group members, the prevalence of progression was 13.7%, but no progressed case was found in workers with a short duration of past exposure (10 years or less). (3) Disappearance or improvement to a milder stage of retinopathy occurred in 1.5% of the still-exposed and in 11.3% of the removed group members. In the latter, these changes occurred much sooner after exposure cessation. Even in workers exposed for a long duration, retinopathy either disappeared or improved after cessation. (4) Mean blood-glucose values at both one and two hours (during PGTT) were higher in workers with retinopathy than in those without retinopathy. However, data regarding any relationship between changes of glucose tolerance and the course of retinopathy were not obtained during the study.
Finally, similarities in the clinical pictures of chronic carbon disulfide poisoning and diabetes are discussed.