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Welcome to Japan, Mr. Bond: Assessing Authenticity in You Only Live Twice

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Abstract

You Only Live Twice (1967) saw James Bond team up with the Japanese Secret Service to navigate the choppy waters of Cold War tensions between the USA and Russia, both of which had been pitted against each other by a nefarious criminal mastermind. Bond embraces Japanese culture, to the point of taking not only a Japanese wife, but a Japanese identity. This article will examine the authenticity of the depiction of 1960's Japan, from customs and manners, to the actual Cold War tensions that were bubbling under the surface of contemporary Japan, which would result in the Japanese university protests the following year.
Welcome to Japan, Mr. Bond
Assessing Authenticity in
You Only Live Twice
ADAM MILL ER
Hollywood has a long history of Caucasian actors impersonating Asian charac-
ters, from Richard Barthelmess’s “Yellow Man” in Broken Blossoms (1919) to
Mickey Rooney’s Mr. Yunioshi in Breakfast at Tiany’s (1961), both of which are as
subtle as they are accurate. This article will examine the extent to which the lm-
makers behind the h James Bond lm adventure You Only Live Twice (1967)
aimed to mix the exoticism of Japan with a genuine concern for tradition and
authenticity. While the lm may now be viewed with the ever-present undercur-
rent of “casual racism and sexism” (Jeries 2020, n.p.) and has been spoilt by the
laser-focused parodying in the Austin Powers lms of “Dr. Evil mock[ing]
Blofeld’s business model” (ibid.), there are some aspects of the lm that pro-
moted the rapid modernisation of Japan, while also celebrating the rich and his-
torical traditions that run throughout its culture. This is especially true if the lm
is viewed through the lens of 1960’s Japanese society and culture. Therefore, this
article will discuss the historical context of 1967 Japan, that country’s tangential
relationship to the Cold War, and the largescale, domestic political upheavals
during the period of this lm’s release.
Volume 7 · Issue 1 · Spring 2024
ISSN 2514-2178
DOI: 10.24877/jbs.115
Distributed under CC BY 4.0 UK
Adam Miller is a doctoral candidate majoring in Instruc-
tional Technology with the Open University Malaysia and
a full-time teacher at Nanzan University, Japan.
COLD WAR TENS ION S AN D ST UDEN T RI OTS
Firstly, a word on the lm’s plot. The Soviet Union and the United States are on
an almost inevitable collision course with one another and nuclear warfare is
only a hasty misstep away. The principal antagonist, Ernst Stavro Blofeld (Don-
ald Pleasence), aims to capitalise on these tensions by pitting the two superpow-
ers against each other, while allowing another country (unspecied in the lm) to
usurp their positions as a superpower. Blofeld creates this perfect storm by using
a spacecra that is capable of swallowing the space capsules of both the Ameri-
can and Soviet space programmes whole, and bringing the kidnapped astronauts
back to his base of operations; a hollowed-out volcano located in Japan. Bond
must team up with colleagues in Japan to thwart this evil plan, and the lm
shows the aptitude of the Japanese Secret Service and their eectiveness in avert-
ing international nuclear war. Why, precisely, Japan has an army of highly-
trained soldiers with no particular enemy to ght is a juxtaposition that speaks to
the complex relationship the country has with its armed forces. Following World
War II, Japan was made to sign a constitution draed by the Allied forces, of
which Article 9 states that “land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential,
will never be maintained” in Japan (The Constitution of Japan 1946, n.p.). This
forced adoption of pacism seemingly conicts with the presence of Tanaka’s
deadly ninja armed with rocket-propelled bullets. However, this is somewhat re-
ective of the complex history Japan has with its own Self-Defence Forces,
formed in 1954. While Japan is constitutionally bound to not have armed forces,
the funding for the Self-Defence Force has steadily increased over the years, and
they recently secured their biggest nancial budget in history (Johnson 2022,
n.p.). This is a delicate fact that is noticed by many, but contested by few:
Although the establishment of the Self Defense Forces in 1954 seemingly
contradicts the constitutional prohibition on armament, the Japanese gov-
ernment has avoided confronting this issue by claiming that the permissi-
bility of such forces is a matter of interpretation. (Murakami 2005, 8)
In the 1960s, Japan began relying on the ambiguity of this situation to become a
more active member in the Cold War. Its political and geographical location
very much contributed to this: Japan became a port of call for Western troops or
assets, and while they supported international conicts, they never actively in-
volved themselves in them. While this may not have directly violated their con-
stitution, it was a point of controversy for many, including a vocal student
2 International Journal of James Bond Studies · Volume 7 · Issue 1 · Spring 2024
movement colloquially known as Zengakuren”, a term which “has generally
been accepted as a synonym for the Japanese student movement and its radi-
cals” (Sunada 1969, 457). These young protesters were driven to take action on
numerous occasions, including a large-scale protests just six months aer the Ja-
panese release of You Only Live Twice. As Kokobun Yutaka notes,
The U.S. Navy had applied for and received permission to send the nuclear
aircra carrier ‘Enterprise’ and its escort to Japan on January 19, 1968 while
en route to Vietnam. The Sampa Zengakuren decided to try and stop the
visit on the grounds that this would constitute a rst step towards the cre-
ation of nuclear bases in Japan. (1970, 130)
Political tensions in Japan had been simmering to near-boiling point since 1960,
when on 18 June, “hundreds of thousands of demonstrators, protesting the Japa-
nese Diet’s approval of the United States-Japan security treaty, surrounded the
Diet building in the center of Tokyo” (Krauss 1974, 1). Police clashed with these
student protesters, leading to the death of one student named Kamba Michiko,
which in turn led to the cancellation of President Dwight Eisenhower’s planned
state visit to Japan, as well as the resignation of Prime Minister Kishi Nobusuke.
The event was a clash of youths and adults, le and right wings, and activists and
the establishment. As Japan continued to align itself more and more with Ameri-
can capitalist ideals, and adopted a more bullish outlook towards international
conicts, these violent protests became evermore common.
It was within this climate that You Only Live Twice was released, which
seemed to suit the franchise’s style perfectly, as the lm’s setting had the multi-
faceted benet of being both prescient and engaging while maintaining an exotic
and titillating appeal to viewers. This combination had the potential to appease
Japanese audiences and entice wider, global audiences who were fascinated by Ja-
panese culture a combination that has been argued to be at the center of the
franchise’s success. As José Arroyo argues,
The Bond lms are a fantasy bred from the Cold War […] Part of the fantasy
was that the appearance of the Iron Curtain created new sites of conict as
well as new types of heroism. Since the battle was international and covert,
the hero’s manhood could be tested in luxury hotels and resorts all over the
world rather than in grimy battleelds. The skills required were no longer
A. Miller · Assessing Authenticity in You Only Live Twice 3
merely physical and moral but also social, intellectual and sexual. (2000,
237)
While the lm may speak to the capability of Japan’s armed forces, it does not
show them acting on an international stage; it instead indicates that Japan is well-
armed, well-trained, and well-disciplined; but the ght against Blofeld takes
place within the borders of Japan, and not against any specic or named nation.
This means the rules outlined by the Japanese Constitution are not violated, and
the grey zone in which Japan’s politics are nestled remains undisturbed.
LOCATIONS, LOCATIONS, LO CATIO NS
It is not uncommon for lms set in Japan to be lmed elsewhere, such as the de-
piction of Okinawa in Karate Kid 2 (1986), which was actually lmed in Hawaii,
USA; or the ever-looming presence of Mount Fuji in The Last Samurai (2003),
which was lmed on Mount Taranaki in New Zealand. While many of the inte-
rior shots of You Only Live Twice, including the gargantuan set of the volcano lair,
were lmed in Pinewood Studios in the UK, and some of the sequences of Little
Nellie ring missiles and rockets were lmed over the hills of Spain due to
Japan’s reluctance to have such scenes lmed over a national park, there are ex-
tended scenes set in actual Japanese locations. The production traversed almost
the full length of the country starting in the neon-lit capital city, Tokyo, and
ending on the peaceful coastline of Kyushu – looking for interesting destinations
that would serve the story. As production designer Ken Adams stated, “we cov-
ered literally two thirds of Japan in about three weeks. Flying seven hours every
day” (qtd. in Inside “You Only Live Twice” 2000). The locations became so impor-
tant to the lm that the lmmakers ended up altering the narrative to accommo-
date the lming sites they found: in the literary You Only Live Twice (1964),
Blofeld was based in a coastal castle nestled behind a gigantic sea wall and rows
of trees. However, his counterpart on celluloid was hidden underneath a retract-
ing metal roof that mimicked the turquoise pool within a volcanic crater. As
Martijn Mulder recounts,
Unable to nd any castles in the coastal area […] the [lmmakers] went look-
ing for other storyline options. It wasn’t until they ew over the Kirishima
National Park and saw the green crater lake of Mount Shinmoe […] that the
idea of the volcano base began to emerge. (2017, 23)
4 International Journal of James Bond Studies · Volume 7 · Issue 1 · Spring 2024
But while the volcanic base of an international criminal mastermind may not
have been reective of contemporary Japan, many of the other scenes were.
Bond’s arrival in Japan is compounded with a montage of neon signs that deco-
rate the Tokyo nightscape; this fascination with the rapid modernisation of
Japan may well have been appreciated by both domestic and international audi-
ences, as a very similar scene can be found in Suzuki Seijun’s colourfully manic
Tokyo Drier (1966). From here Bond strolls down real Tokyo alleyways, and is
led into the bowels of a sumo stable, before being led out into a crowd watching
the national sport. Director Lewis Gilbert noted that the ghting in the sumo
ring could not be staged; authenticity was stubbornly insisted upon, as the
wrestlers would “not do it unless it’s real. You can’t do like wrestling and just
shout ‘fall down’; they have to do it for real” (qtd. in Inside “You Only Live Twice”).
This adherence to tradition and authenticity makes the scene much more eec-
tive, and is arguably the lm’s pinnacle in showing what a very specic aspect of
Japanese life is really like. This authenticity is further augmented by the thou-
sands of extras that were used to ll the seats. The lm’s dubbing editor, Norman
Wanstall, explains that “[a]ll those wonderful crowd sounds used were original
soundtracks. The actual falls were very dramatic; the cries [the wrestler’s] made
and the slapping of bodies” (qtd. in ibid.). Not only were the wrestlers themselves
true to the sport, the Japanese audience members also added to the sense of
faithfulness.
While Bond is shown to speak Japanese in his successful rendezvous with
Aki, he is clearly a sh out of water in this scene, and his coded greeting of “I love
you” is spoken uncharacteristically coyly. But the obvious nature in which Bond
stands out from the crowd does not actually alienate him from the Japanese
viewing audience; in fact, it could be argued that his social isolation is a trope
that was oen relied upon in 1960’s Japanese cinema. As Isolde Standish asserts,
“[H]istorically in Japanese cinema one of the dominant forms of idealized
masculinity has been encoded within a discourse of untamed nature and a
naïve innocence […] This image of masculinity is at odds with a society
founded on a utilitarian system of restraint – the subordination of individ-
ual desires and needs for the greater good of the group and/or the avoid-
ance of shame. (2000, 172)
Japanese lms of the 1960s were oen centered around a male “wanderer” or so-
cial outcast who is at odds with the world around them; the aforementioned
A. Miller · Assessing Authenticity in You Only Live Twice 5
Tokyo Drier is just one such example. While Bond’s wide-eyed observations of
Japanese culture acts as a helpful excuse to showcase dierent aspects of modern
Japan to the audience, this facet may, in fact, have made him all the more ap-
pealing to Japanese viewers, who had a tendency to root for a gure battling
against the grain of social norms (oen to no avail), as within “a society that ad-
vocates adherence to the norm [such as Japan], displays of dierence can be lib-
erating” (Standish, 172). This may explain why the Japanese populace were so in-
trigued by the arrival of the lm’s production crew and its leading man, Sean
Connery. Not only was Connery “sophisticated, polished, clever, and sexually
appealing in a ruggedly masculine way” (Sikov 2020, 132), he was a literal out-
sider, a gaikokujin, which is the polite term to describe foreigners in Japan. (The
kanji can also be rather clumsily translated to “outside country person” [外国人], a
fact which further stresses Connery/Bond’s disconnection from Japan).
THE BOND GIRLS
The lm opens with Bond being betrayed by a seductress in Hong Kong (Tsai
Chin), who traps him in a retractable bed, slamming it into a wall with Bond still
laying under the covers. Gunmen then rush in and the bed is decimated with
gun re, supposedly killing the secret agent in the opening scene. While only a
ruse, this is just one example of a female character playing a key role in the nar-
rative of the lm. It could be argued that there are three “Bond girls” in the lm,
Mia Hama’s Kissy Suzuki (who is unnamed throughout), Akiko Wakabayashi’s
Aki, (who works for the Japanese Secret Service and assists Bond with his mis-
sion), and Karin Dor’s Helga Brandt (an agent of Blofeld’s acting as a secretary for
the Osato Chemical company). At a glance, a cynical view of these characters can
be drawn, showing them to be disposable (two of them die) and inconsequential
– an opinion shared by Roger Ebert at the time:
The girls (breathtaking Japanese lovelies) are beautiful and sexy as always,
but they don't really emerge as characters the way Pussy Galore did. They're
just there, decorating the place, running around in bikinis and, worst of all,
not presenting much of a threat to old 007 most of the time. (“You Only
Live Twice” 1967, n.p.)
However, the women in You Only Live Twice are actually far more interesting
than Bond. Aki, Helga Brandt, and Kissy are the advance guard of the new Bond
girl; in other words, they hold their own with Bond and help him out of more
than a few scrapes with death (Rubin 1995, 464). Focusing on the two Japanese
6 International Journal of James Bond Studies · Volume 7 · Issue 1 · Spring 2024
characters – Aki and Kissy – it could be argued that they each represent a dier-
ent side of the same coin. Aki can be read as a representation of the contempo-
rary and cosmopolitan Japanese woman in the 1960s “gradually breaking away
from traditional restraints” (ibid., 8). She wears modern clothes, speaks English
very competently, is strong, driven, and independent, and is the inverse of a
damsel in distress, having to rescue Bond on several occasions. She is also sexu-
ally condent and self-assured, pursuing Bond instead of being the reluctant tar-
get of Bond’s attention. Kissy, on the other hand, could be seen as Aki’s antithe-
sis: visually she is only shown to wear wear traditional Japanese clothing, be that
a wedding kimono, a summer yukata (a cloth robe), or a white bikini (a functional
costume for a sherwoman). While Kissy assists Bond in his raid against Blofeld’s
volcano lair, she does not actively rescue Bond herself, but instead runs to get
help from Tanaka and his highly trained ninja soldiers. And although she begins
her “married” life with Bond by refusing his advances, it is not long before she is
won over by his guile and becomes his fourth sexual conquest in the lm. Aki
has clearly embraced Japanese modernity, whereas Kissy actively rejects it. Aer
their “wedding” ceremony, Kissy takes Bond back to her home and prepares
food for him; she serves him and him alone. She is very much representative of
a more archaic, and largely patriarchal model of an ie (-household). As Michael
Ashkenazi and Jeanne Jacob note,
Throughout much of Japanese history, ie (“house”, as in “House of”) consti-
tuted, a corporate, indissoluble unit, which has had statutory existence and
rights until the end of World War II. Individuals were recognised solely as
members of a particular ie, and the head of the ie, normally an adult male,
had rights to punish and reward as he saw t. (2000, 52)
As part of his cover, Bond must take on the role of a husband in a rural area,
which makes him the new head of the household, allowing him an inated sta-
tus. While this may not have been the norm in all households in 1960’s Japan, es-
pecially in the bustling streets of Tokyo, it is a fairly representative picture of
what life in a small Japanese shing village was life, where “[m]any rural house-
holds […] still maintain an ie form” within which patriarchs “rarely participate in
housework, and women do almost all shopping, cooking, and much of the child-
raising chores” (ibid., 52).
Neither Aki or Kissy is seen as a preferred “ideal” and both seem to win
the heart of Bond on some level and at various stages throughout the lm. The
A. Miller · Assessing Authenticity in You Only Live Twice 7
lm is not deriding either reading of contemporary Japanese women, but clearly
shows that both of these gures exist, each recognisable to domestic audiences of
the time.
FO OD AN D MA NNERS
Not only is the lmic Bond of You Only Live Twice unphased by the predicaments
in which he nds himself, he also seems far more versed with the Japanese lan-
guage and the culture than his literary counterpart, who oen acts as a cipher for
the reader’s own ignorance of Japan. Connery’s Bond is condent in his knowl-
edge and gains the admiration of all around him; as he informs Moneypenny,
“[y]ou forget I tool a rst in Oriental Languages at Cambridge”. In the opening
pages of the novel, Bond is far more perplexed by the language, as he can only
guess the meaning of the in-ight announcements (Fleming 1979, 17-18).
It is not only the Japanese language that confuses the literary Bond, but
also Japanese customs, including the serving style of sake; on asking for large
glasses he is gently teased by Tanaka: “You do not know much of these things.
And you seem to know as little about sake. It is stronger than you think!” (ibid., 5).
In the lm, Bond is well versed in the custom of sake and Tanaka praises Bond’s
knowledge instead of ridiculing his ignorance.
TANAKA
Do you like Japanese sake Mr. Bond? Or would you prefer a Vodka Martini?
BOND
No, no. I like sake. Especially when it’s served at the correct temperature;
98.4°F, like this is.
TANAKA
For a European, you are exceptionally cultivated.
It is not only Bond’s understanding of Japanese culture that is note-worthy here,
but the authenticity that is prescribed to what would otherwise be a throw-away
scene, which has the dual purpose of dumping exposition and pushing the nar-
rative forward. The sake is served in small cups, known as ochoko, and is accom-
panied with a serving pitcher, known as a tokkuri. While sake is usually drunk
with two hands (held in the right and supported by the le), Bond drinks with
only his right hand; this could well be an indication of recognition of his lower
8 International Journal of James Bond Studies · Volume 7 · Issue 1 · Spring 2024
status in comparison to Tanaka, but this is confused by the fact that Tanaka
holds his glass slightly below the table, showing that he sees himself as of lower
rank than Bond, as those with a notable lower status would keep their drink at a
lower level (“Basic Sake Etiquettes”, n.p.). This could be read as each of them
recognising the superiority of their counterpart, and both of them respectfully
taking on the role of the kohai or less senior person; or it could more cynically be
seen as the lm not examining the minutiae of Japanese table manners. Either
way, the scene shows a mutual respect between the two agents, and a frankness
with each other that skirts the borders of politeness and friendliness. This deli-
cate balance is an important aspect of drinking culture in Japan, which allows
people freedom to speak their minds, so long as social and culture norms are
largely maintained, as such events “are important to Japanese social customs:
they allow an important informal channel of communication in a society that
formalizes practically all aspects of life” (Ashkenzai and Jacob, 195). While it may
seem that Tiger and Bond are relaxing while discussing the points central to the
lm’s narrative, even “acts of drinking and eating, in themselves presumably
pleasurable, are subjugated to the needs of the social event” (ibid., 52) in Japan;
despite the bond forming between the two agents, the “rules” of the occasion
must still be followed, and Bond navigates these potentially dangerous waters ex-
ceedingly well.
A TRADIT ION AL” W EDDING
Another extended scene which aims to encapsulate a traditional aspect of Japa-
nese life is Bond’s traditional wedding to Kissy. The wedding is held on Mount
Nachi on the famous Kumano walking route. While the scene does jump around
a little, as “the wedding party nds its way to the front of the main temple […]
[and] moves on to the neighboring Kumano Shrine, where the actual wedding
ceremony was lmed” (Mulder, 87), this is undoubtedly a very sacred and well-re-
garded location for the wedding, and one which may not be as instantly recog-
nizable for international viewers. Situated in Wakayama prefecture, it may well
have been recognised by some Japanese viewers for being one of the three Grand
Shrines of Kumano (Kumano Sanzan), which also include Kumano Hongu Taisha
and Kumano Hayatama Taisha, or for being located next to Nachi Falls, which
are the highest falls in Japan. But perhaps it was chosen as a location as it is an
extremely beautiful area that is located a commutable distance from Kobe City,
for ease of production. While this setting is exceptional in its beauty and rich
history, holding a wedding ceremony in such a shrine is far from inaccurate, as
A. Miller · Assessing Authenticity in You Only Live Twice 9
“[m]ost Japanese hold a traditional Shinto shinzen-kekkonshiki wedding ceremony,
attended by a kannushi priest, miko shrine maidens, and close family members
and friends” (Varnam-Atkin 2014, 68). Not only are the formalities of the wed-
ding ceremony honored, but so are the uses of traditional clothing, as Bond
wears “a kimono with gray split-trousers (hakama) and a long loose black jacket
(haori) bearing his family crest (mon)” (ibid.). The mon that Bond wears appears to
be a representation of a shamrock or oxalis leaf, a motif that has a long standing
and importance in Japanese culture: as a symbol of vitality. This crest may well
have been chosen for Bond to further bolster his undercover identity, tying him
to a family with longevity. It could also be seen as an apt reading of the character
of Bond himself, a person who is constantly knocked down and threatened, but
refuses to give in. Kissy’s kimono is also decorated in telling motifs; namely
golden cranes, which represent longevity (proverbially, cranes live for one thou-
sand years) and, when seen as a pair, they also foresee a long and successful mar-
riage. Kissy’s clothing is as authentic as Bond’s and the clothing for traditional Ja-
panese weddings are strongly connected to the aforementioned ie or household
mentality, and the bride’s willing submission to her new husband’s patriarchal
role. Kissy’s kimono is white, a colour traditionally associated with death in
Japan. In this case, the kimono’s whiteness symbolises both the death of the
bride’s natural ties to her parents and a willingness to dye the garment in the
colours of her husband’s family. (ibid, 69). Once again, this shows Kissy’s more
archaic relationship to Bond.
There are no “rules” in regards to how a Shinto ceremony will be con-
ducted, as “Shinto ethics are relative. There is no absolute word handed down
from a transcendent source of authority” (Ross 1965, 108), so the production
could not refer to any scripture or singular text to ensure points of authenticity
were met. It is clear, however, that some pains were taken to ensure a scene ap-
proaching an accurate depiction was created, with the wedding procession, the
sharing of sake, and the bride and groom’s clothing all ringing true for a tradi-
tional wedding in Japan.
WH Y PU RS UE AUTHE NTIC ITY?
The lm franchise and Sean Connery were both at the height of their fame
when You Only Live Twice was lmed, as “Sean Connery’s arrival at Tokyo airport
was heralded by a fanfare from an all-girl brass band. He stayed at the Hilton
Hotel and was hounded by both the fans and the press” (Wanstall qtd. in Inside
“You Only Live Twice”). Paired with this, the franchise had, by 1967, perfected the
10 International Journal of James Bond Studies · Volume 7 · Issue 1 · Spring 2024
recipe for a perfect Bond lm that was in line with audience and genre expecta-
tions. Richard Maltby notes that
[t]he auteurist cinema of the 1970s addressed a young, well-educated target
audience, but in the main those movies failed to capture the less-educated
younger audience. In many respects, the prototype for the type of movie
that would reliably appeal to this audience was the most consistently suc-
cessful movie series of the 1960s, the James Bond pictures produced by
Cubby Broccoli and Harry Saltzman for UA. By the third Bond movie,
Goldnger (1964), the producers had fully developed both the conventions
and the nancial regime of the series. Financed at relatively low budgets by
UA and using their British production base to access lm subsidies, the
Bond movies were action adventure stories designed to appeal to interna-
tional audiences through their multiple-nationality casts and exotic locales.
(2003, 180)
Following this successful formula, You Only Live Twice also relied both on its
British production base, as well as the “exotic locale” of Japan, which of “all the
locations in the Bond lms, […] stands rmly as the most exotic ever used” (Mul-
der, 19). Not only did Japan tick the box of being exotic, it was also in keeping
with Fleming’s writings, as his nal Bond novel was written only aer his own
eye-opening trip to Japan, his experience of which was mirrored in his writings
most notably with the immortalisation of his friends and travel companions
Richard Hughes and the writer Toaro Saito as the characters Dikko Henderson
and Tiger Tanaka, respectively (ibid., 21). Fleming’s love of Japan comes through
in the novel, and so does the extensive research of the lm’s production team in
the lm. This curiosity about Japanese culture was no doubt embraced by the Ja-
panese people working with the production, and they clearly did their utmost to
instill an air of authenticity, while allowing for some creative freedom to ensure
the exoticism which the lmmakers desired was ever-present. From cheering
crowds and enthusiastic wrestlers, to stoic customs and long traditions, the lm
does represent a version of Japan; perhaps not one that was entirely accurate, but
one that was authentic enough to both please Japanese people and interest inter-
national viewers, while also being fantastic enough to garner the audience’s at-
tention without bending reality to breaking point.
A. Miller · Assessing Authenticity in You Only Live Twice 11
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