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TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 22 April 2024
DOI 10.3389/feart.2024.1330217
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EDITED BY
Elizabeth Steyn,
Western University, Canada
REVIEWED BY
Ying Zhu,
Xi’an University of Architecture and
Technology, China
Francis Pavloudakis,
University of Western Macedonia, Greece
*CORRESPONDENCE
Siddhartha Agarwal,
sagarwal@iitism.ac.in
RECEIVED 30 October 2023
ACCEPTED 19 March 2024
PUBLISHED 22 April 2024
CITATION
Singh A, Agarwal S and Prabhat A (2024), A
multi-criteria decision framework to evaluate
sustainable alternatives for repurposing of
abandoned or closed surface coal mines.
Front. Earth Sci. 12:1330217.
doi: 10.3389/feart.2024.1330217
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these terms.
A multi-criteria decision
framework to evaluate
sustainable alternatives for
repurposing of abandoned or
closed surface coal mines
Atul Singh, Siddhartha Agarwal* and Aniket Prabhat
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, India
Surface coal mines, when abandoned or closed, pose signicant environmental
and socioeconomic challenges. Repurposing these sites is crucial for sustainable
land use and responsible resource management. This study presents a
comprehensive decision framework tailored to the Indian mining context,
utilizing a hybrid approach combining the analytic hierarchy process (AHP)
and technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution
(TOPSIS) methodology. The proposed framework assesses and ranks alternative
repurposing options by considering a multi-criteria evaluation, including
ecological, economic, social, and regulatory factors. AHP is employed to
determine the relative importance of these criteria, reecting the unique
priorities and perspectives of stakeholders involved in the repurposing
process. TOPSIS then identies the optimal alternatives based on their
overall performance against the established criteria. This hybrid methodology
contributes to informed decision-making in the sustainable repurposing of
abandoned surface coal mines in India. It aids in identifying the most viable
and environmentally responsible alternatives, promoting ecient land use
and resource conservation while addressing the challenges associated with
abandoned mine sites. The methodology’s applicability extends globally to
industries facing similar repurposing challenges, facilitating the transition
toward a more sustainable and responsible land reclamation and resource
management approach. The methodology is implemented using real mine data
and demonstrates the analysis for evaluation among multiple alternatives such as
solar parks, sh farming, eco-resorts, forestry, and museums. In our study, eco-
resorts show more promise based on the signicant potential for local economic
development, provision of local employment, long-term revenue generation,
potential for upskilling local youth in management, gardening, construction, and
animal husbandry, and serving as a site for exhibitions of various arts and crafts.
KEYWORDS
mine repurposing, AHP-TOPSIS, abandoned surface coal mine, net-zero emission,
sustainable mining
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1 Introduction
e coal mining industry faces various challenges, such as
depletion of resources, protability issues, and safety concerns that
may lead to the closure of some mines over time (Laurence, 2006).
e closure of coal mines has a signicant impact on the social,
physical, and environmental aspects of the aected regions and
the communities that depend on the mines for their livelihoods
(Bainton,N.,&Holcombe, 2018). us, it is essential to plan and
implement closures eectively to ensure sustainability and wellbeing
in these areas.
In November 2021, during COP26 (Conference of the Parties)
in Glasgow, India announced ve key elements for its climate action,
referred to as the “Panchamrit” goals (Mishra and Srivastava, 2022):
1. Non-fossil fuel capacity to reach 500GW by 2030 (currently
179.3GW).
2. 50% of energy requirements to be met through RE by 2030
(currently 43%).
3. Carbon emissions to be reduced by one billion tonnes by 2030.
4. Emissions intensity of GDP to reduce by 45% by 2030
(vs. 2005).
5. Net-zero emissions by 2070 (Dasetal., 2023).
Mine closure supports the goal of moving toward net-zero
emissions (Jones, 2023). It also creates an opportunity for regional
transformation and economic diversication by releasing land that
can be used for alternative purposes (Laurence, 2006). e impact
of mine closure on the local community and the environment is a
complex and multifaceted issue that requires careful planning and
management (Bainton and Holcombe, 2018). e main objectives of
mine closure are to ensure the long-term safety and stability of the
site, to minimize the environmental and social impacts of mining
activities (Bothaetal., 2018), and to maximize the opportunities for
sustainable development and alternative livelihoods for the nearby
community. A good mine closure plan should begin early in the
development process and be updated regularly. e company should
plan the mine closure in a way that ensures the quality of the aected
area is restored or enhanced while maintaining and increasing the
benets generated by the operation (Demirkan etal., 2022). Mine
closure is usually applicable to closed, abandoned, or discontinued
mines, as shown in Figure1. Re-operationalization is applicable to
a sub-category of mines currently not operational due to global
market conditions, technology advancements, and variations in
commodity prices (Muldoon,J.A., 2015). e reclamation and
rehabilitation type of mine closure is the conversion of wasteland
into land suitable for use as a site of habitation or cultivation
and the restoration of degraded ecosystems to their natural state
(Cuietal., 2020a). Repurposing is an alternative to the reclamation
process where non-operationalmines can be us ed forenergy storage,
renewable energy, water disposal, ood protection, tourism, wildlife
habitat, pisciculture, horticulture, etc. (Keenan and Holcombe,
2021).
India has a total estimated coal reserve of 344 billion metric
tons as of 1 April 2020, and it ranks fourth among all nations
(Agarwaletal., 2024). e opening of the coal sector to foreign
direct investment and a signicant increase in power demand have
led to a surge in coal production in the country (Anitha, 2012).
Private players are actively participating in mining operations,
FIGURE 1
Three dierent targets for mine closure.
FIGURE 2
Distribution of all coal mines in India categorized as open-cast,
underground, and mixed types.
FIGURE 3
Distribution of non-operational coal mines in India.
contributing to this growth. is has led to the quick abandonment
of several coal mines pending reclamation or nearly abandoned
in coming years. A pie chart depicted in Figure2 illustrates
the distribution of three types of coal mines in India: open-
cast, underground, and mixed-type. (CoalIndiaLimited, 2022-
23). Open-cast and underground mines lead the count for mines
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TABLE 1 Saaty’s scales of relative importance for criterion pairs.
Intensity of importance Denition
1 Equal importance
3 Weak importance of one over the other
5 Essential or strong importance
7 Demonstrated importance
9 Absolute importance
2, 4, 6, 8 Intermediate values between the two adjacent judgments
FIGURE 4
Research framework for the studies.
in India. As of February 2023, 1,610ha of land in India could
be converted into green cover by various means of eco-parks,
forests, horticulture, pit lake base tourism parks, etc. Data on the
number of non-operational coal mines from various coal companies
in India are presented in Figure3 (PressInformationBureau-
MinistryofCoal, 2023). e “Just-transition from coal” committee
constituted in July 2021 under the India–US strategic Clean Energy
Partnership (NitiAayog, 2022) aims to make a transition from coal
to fuel the power sector (Joshi and Dsouza, 2023). For a clean energy
transition and net-zero emissions pledge by 2070, the Ministry
of Coal is already working with the World Bank to close mines
based on Just-transition principles (Laletal., 2022;Guliyeva, 2022).
Intermediate milestones include peaking coal demand between 2040
and 45, phasing out coal-based electricity by 2050–60 and achieving
an ∼80% reduction in coal consumption by 2050, with a complete
transition by 2060–70 (Bhushanetal., 2020). e global view now
stands that mining itself should be visualized as a temporary
land use that can be followed by other uses like agriculture,
conservation, recreation, urban development, or renewable energy
production (Keenan and Holcombe, 2021). e mining sector and
the government are responsible for ensuring that the extraction
and processing of mineral resources are done in a sustainable way.
is means balancing the economic, environmental, and social
impacts of their activities while respecting the rights and interests of
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TABLE 2 Indicators for closed mine repurposing.
Indicators Sub-category Explanation
Environmental indicators
Land rehabilitation Measure the progress in restoring mined land to its
natural state, including re-vegetation, soil stability, and
water quality improvements
Biodiversity Assess changes in local ora and fauna populations to
gauge the ecological recovery of the site
Air and water Quality Monitor air and water quality to ensure that the
repurposed site does not pose environmental risks
Economic indicators
Job creation Evaluate the number of jobs generated by the
repurposing project, particularly in the local
community
Economic growth Assess the impact on the local and regional economy,
including increased tourism or new industries
Property values Analyze changes in property values in the vicinity of
the repurposed mine site
Safety and health indicators
Safety records Track safety incidents and accidents related to the
repurposing project, ensuring that hazards are
minimized
Health outcomes Monitor the health of workers and local residents to
ensure that there are no adverse health eects
Community and social indicators
Community engagement Measure the level of involvement and satisfaction of
the local community in the repurposing process
Quality of life Assess improvements in the quality of life for nearby
residents, including access to amenities and services
Social cohesion Evaluate whether the repurposing project has
contributed to stronger community bonds
Infrastructure and accessibility indicators
Infrastructure development Assess the progress in upgrading and developing
necessary infrastructure such as roads, utilities, and
transportation networks
Accessibility Measure the ease of access to the repurposed site for
both workers and visitors
Regulatory compliance indicators Compliance with regulations Ensure that the project complies with all relevant local,
state, and federal regulations and permits
Financial sustainability indicators
Budget adherence Monitor the project’s nancial performance to ensure
it stays within budget.
Revenue generation Evaluate the project’s ability to generate revenue to
support ongoing maintenance and sustainability
Long-term monitoring and maintenance indicators
Maintenance plan adherence Ensure that the site is being maintained according to
the established plan
Environmental monitoring Continue to monitor environmental conditions to
detect any long-term issues
aected communities (Luetal., 2020). Addressing these challenges
requires collaboration between the government, mining sector,
local communities, academia, international organizations, and other
relevant actors to nd innovative and eective solutions (Siontorou,
2023).
Numerous examples exist of how abandoned mines can be
utilized for benecial purposes such as creating habitats for
wildlife (Litumaetal., 2021), eco-tourism opportunities (Gandah
and Atiyat, 2016), recreational parks (Wanhill, 2000;Ballesteros
and Ramírez, 2007), solid waste management (Dengetal., 2020;
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FIGURE 5
Classication of the closed surface coal mine repurposing alternative.
Holcombe and Keenan, 2020), and restoration methods for pit
lakes that can be used for aquaculture and sport shing (Miller,
2008). To mitigate the environmental impact of the open pit acidic
lakes, some potential measures are to cover the lakes with alkaline
materials such as recycled waste lime and to plant vegetation
along the riverbanks (Lund and Blanchette, 2021). ese actions
could enhance the aquatic biodiversity that is essential for the
ecosystem. Other end uses that oer multiple, mutually reinforcing,
and lasting benets are electricity system planning and renewable
energy storage (Menéndezetal., 2019).
In a closed lignite mine in Kardia, North Greece, the
possibility of energy generation using solar photovoltaic (PV)
panels in combination with pumped hydro storage (PHS)
technology is explored using time series and neural networks
analysis (Louloudisetal., 2022). Other examples of energy storage
and generation in closed mines include the potential benets
and limitations of compressed air energy storage (Lutyński,
2017;Schmidtetal., 2020) and using solar and wind energy
(Choi,Y.,&Song, 2017). According to Bódisetal. (2019), the
European Union’s coal areas have a large amount of post-mining
landscape space that is suitable for the installation of photovoltaic
systems. ere are suggestions for using abandoned coal mines as
sources of renewable energy and carbon sinks Lyuetal. (2022).
Research on repurposing abandoned mines oen only briey
touches on the subject without providing a thorough explanation
of how to choose reutilization strategies. Numerous case studies
and research methodologies have been discussed and implemented
in both China and European countries. In India, some energy-
based repurposing alternatives have been studied, such as a hybrid
system that combines solar photovoltaic (PV) panels, a grid
connection, and a pumped storage hydropower (PSH) system using
the abandoned open-cast coal mine as a reservoir (Bhimarajuetal.,
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TABLE 3 Factors inuencing repurposing alternatives for closed mines.
Criteria Attributes Abbreviation
Economic
Capital costaCC
Revenue R
MaintenanceaM
Job opportunity JO
Technical
Repurposing techniques RT
Size S
Depth D
Hydrogeological
Permeability P
Pit water quality PWQ
Natural
Heat energy HE
Annual rainfall ANF
Social
Public participation PP
Surroundings S
Distance from settlements DS
aCost attribute.
2023). However, there has been a lack of mathematical modeling
based on Indian conditions for evaluating various alternatives
simultaneously. Multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) is one
such powerful approach used in various elds to make informed
choices when confronted with complex decisions that involve
multiple conicting criteria (Tzeng and Huang, 2011). In MCDM,
decision makers consider a range of factors or criteria and assess
and compare dierent alternatives based on these criteria. e
goal is to identify the most suitable option that best aligns
with the desired outcomes and objectives. Numerous MCDM
methods and techniques are available, including the weighted sum
model (Odu, 2019), the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) (Saaty,
2008), the technique for order preference by similarity to ideal
solution (TOPSIS) (Behzadianetal., 2012), the analytic network
process (ANP) (Saaty, 2005), the preference ranking organization
method for enrichment evaluations (PROMETHEE) (Brans and
Mareschal, 2005), and many more. Using multi-attribute utility
theory (MAUT), researchers at the Henderson Mill and Mine
(Colorado, United States) determined which alternative best reects
stakeholder preferences and results in the most sustainable outcome
out of glass manufacturing of tailings, organic shrimp farming,
and hemp production (Demirkan etal., 2022). A mined land
suitability analysis (MLSA) by Soltanmohammadietal. (2010) used
a combination of AHP and TOPSIS to rank dierent land-use
alternatives based on multiple criteria for a hypothetical mined land.
e concept of cloud theory, a mathematical tool for dealing with
uncertainty and fuzziness, was introduced by Cuietal. (2020b),
who applied it to the evaluation of mine closure risks for a coal
mine in China. A three-dimensional risk model was utilized by
Amirshenava and Osanloo (2018) to identify, assess, and prioritize
risks based on their likelihood, impact, and detectability. Recently,
SWOT-AHP was chosen as the framework for developing strategies
for coal mine transformation by Spanidisetal. (2023), where the
AHP and its eigenvalue calculation framework are integrated with
SWOT analysis. AHP and TOPSIS have been applied to rank
states and districts based on criteria such as solar radiation,
land availability, grid connectivity, and socioeconomic factors by
Sindhuetal. (2017). A comprehensive review of major methods
for using multi-criteria decision analysis and risk management
in post-coal mining land-use selection can be accessed from
(Ronyastraetal., 2023).
e main focus of this study is to develop a well-structured
framework for repurposing closed coal mines and identifying
the most appropriate repurposing solutions for Indian mining
conditions. ese eorts aim to eectively address critical issues
associated with closed mines, including environmental, social,
and economic concerns, with the ultimate goal of beneting the
local community. To derive a preference order of alternatives for
the optimum aer-use of a hypothetical mined land, especially
when inuenced by multiple stakeholders, a combination of AHP
and TOPSIS procedures is recommended within the proposed
approach. AHP helps to break down complex decision problems
into a hierarchy of criteria and alternatives, which enables decision
makers to systematically analyze and prioritize factors based on
their relative importance. At the same time, TOPSIS provides a
quantitative method for comparing alternatives against ideal and
anti-ideal solutions. It considers the proximity to the ideal and
the distance from the anti-ideal while evaluating the alternatives.
AHP and TOPSIS are two decision-making methodologies that
can be customized to suit various contexts and preferences of
decision makers.
e rest of the study is arranged as follows: Section2 details
the methodology used and the selection of alternatives, criteria,
and attributes derived from our sustainability indicator concept.
Sections3 extensively discusses the evaluation result obtained, and
the article concludes in Section4.
2 Methodologies
2.1 Research frame
Our proposed decision-making process framework involves
integrating expert opinion to identify relevant indicators.
Identication of these indicators is discussed in a later sub-section.
However, an important aspect of this approach revolves around the
active participation of stakeholders and experts in the decision-
making process. ese stakeholders, which include government
agencies, environmental organizations, and local communities
and groups of individuals, aptly called decision makers, play an
important role in shaping the direction of the eorts (Kuipa,
2023). To facilitate this evaluation, decision makers have been
empowered to contribute to a scaling process dened by Saaty
based on a 9-point scale where 1 indicates the lowest and 9 is
the highest condition of each indicator (Table1). is scaling
mechanism enables decision makers to assign importance and value
to various criteria and constraints associated with mine revival.
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TABLE 4 Categorization and dening attributes.
Attribute I II III IV V
Capital cost in cr.
(according to MSME
India)
<50 <10 <1
Revenue cr. (according
to MSME India)
<250 <50 <5
Maintenance Continuous monitoring
and maintenance
required
Continuous
maintenance required
Eventually maintenance
required
Sparsely required Not required
Job opportunity (No.) >1,000 1,000–500 500–100 100–50 <20
Availability of
repurposing techniques
Accessible by
collaboration with others
expert
Accessible with
experienced and skilled
personnel
Accessible Easily Not required
Size of the mine (Ha) >4,000 4,000–2000 2000–1,000 1,000–500 <500
Depth of mine (m) >300m 300–150 <150
Permeability (lugeon) >25 5–25 1–5 <1
Pit water quality
(According to Central
Pollution Control Board
of India)
Drinking water source
without conventional
treatment but aer
disinfection
Outdoor bathing Drinking water source
aer conventional
treatment and
disinfection
D Propagation of wildlife
and sheries
Irrigation, industrial
cooling, and controlled
waste disposal
Solar radiation
(kWh/m2/day)
>6 6–5 5–4 4–3 >2
Annual rainfall (mm) >2000 1,150–2000 750–1,150 0–750
Public participation Only local people
involved
Some outsiders required Half local, half outsiders More outside people
required
Only with outsiders
Surroundings Near cities Near a town Near a village Remote
Distance from
settlements
<1Km 1–2Km 2–5Km 5–10km >10km
Next, criteria and attributes are meticulously dened to evaluate
alternatives, covering environmental, social, and economic aspects.
Utilizing AHP, the attribute’s relative importance is established
through input from all decision makers, ensuring a consensus
on their signicance. Subsequently, data are normalized for
each attribute to enable the application of the TOPSIS method.
Alternatives are then evaluated against the weighted attribute
by stakeholders, leading to the application of TOPSIS to rank
the options based on their proximity to the ideal solution. is
culminates in the generation of a preference order that reects
collective stakeholder preferences and criteria priorities. In cases of
divergent rankings, a consensus-building process may be initiated to
reconcile dierences. By integrating group AHP and TOPSIS results
in this manner, the approach ensures the inclusion of multiple
stakeholders’ input and preferences, fostering a more robust and
equitable decision-making process in determining the optimal
use of mined land. e framework and the mutual relationships
between individual processes in the study are shown schematically
in Figure4.
2.2 Identication of indicators
Indicators in mine repurposing are specic metrics or criteria
used to assess the progress, success, and sustainability of the
process of converting an abandoned or exhausted mine site into a
new, productive, and oen sustainable use (Marnikaetal., 2015).
ese indicators help stakeholders, including government agencies,
environmental organizations, and local communities, evaluate the
outcomes and impacts of mine repurposing eorts. Table2 depicts
some key indicators commonly used in the assessment of mine
repurposing.
2.3 Selection of repurposing alternatives
and attributes
e process of selecting repurposing alternatives for closed
or abandoned surface coal mines is a critical undertaking that
requires a thoughtful and holistic approach. e priorities for
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TABLE 5 Attribute weights.
Attributes Weights
Capital cost 0.155
Revenue 0.123
Maintenance 0.075
Job opportunity 0.129
Repurposing techniques 0.123
Size 0.033
Depth 0.014
Permeability 0.023
Pit water quality 0.155
Heat energy 0.042
Annual rainfall 0.025
Public participation 0.051
Surroundings 0.027
Distance from settlements 0.026
selecting these alternatives are established through a thorough
review of various repurposing options and extensive consultations
with stakeholders who hold a vested interest in the outcome. A
comprehensive assessment is conducted to determine the initial
repurposing alternatives, taking into account several indicators
(Table2). ese indicators encompass an in-depth evaluation of the
existing mine conditions, the natural and geological attributes of the
site, and the socioeconomic considerations specic to the region in
question. It is important to note that the decision-making process
is focused not on all closed coal mines in general but specically
on the coaleld under consideration, where two or three coal mines
have been closed or abandoned. In the pursuit of a well-balanced
and informed decision, a diverse range of re-habitation options
is presented to the decision makers. ese options span various
forms of land use, each with its own merits and implications for the
environment, economy, and community.
Repurposing abandoned mines is a complex task inuenced by
a range of factors, including local conditions, the state of the mine,
and natural surroundings. However, when constructing an indicator
system for this purpose, it is crucial to adhere to certain guidelines.
Specically, the framework should aim to encompass as many key
factors as possible while considering the availability of essential data.
Based on feasible post-mining land uses addressed in
the literature and expert consultation, nine distinct categories
containing 16 alternatives were selected and are shown in Figure5.
While all 16 repurposing options are technically feasible for closed
mines, our focus here is directed toward eight alternatives. e
eight repurposing alternatives are solar park, pumped storage
hydropower (PSH), sh farming, eco-resort, eco-park, museum,
forestry, and warehouse. All these eight alternatives are particularly
excelling in terms of their alignment with critical factors, including
environmental sustainability, social impact, and economic viability.
One additional factor is that these eight alternatives could t in a
closed open-cast mine.
e selection of an optimal repurposing of a closed mine
involves various internal and external restricted conditions. It is
worth noting that evaluating the reclamation suitability of mining
land shares many common economic, social, and environmental
factors with the entire life cycle of closed mines. Various factors
come into play when analyzing repurposing options. Economic
factors like capital cost, maintenance costs, and revenue generation
possibilities are crucial. While evolution was taking place, assistance
from some government tender documents was also used, such
as when rating solar parks and PSH (Pavloudakisetal., 2023;
Tender document of Coal India Limited (CIL); Report CER, 2021;
Report CSTEP, 2021). Technical factors address constraints; the
availability of some repurposing techniques may inuence the
selection of reutilization modes. Mine-specic factors pertain to the
characteristics of the individual mine, including size, depth, and
storage volume. Hydrogeological conditions like water quality and
permeability ensure the repurposing is t for the local situation.
Natural factors like the availability of sunny days and annual
rainfall decide the viability of water-based options and renewable
energy alternates. Consideration of social factors, such as the
target audience (urban dwellers; villagers); proximity to urban
areas, villages, or remote locations; and their positive impact
on public acceptance, is essential when evaluating alternative
options (Schneider and Greenberg, 2023). In this study, we identify
14 such attributes that fall well within the most viable criteria
for a closed mine repurposing in Table3. In order to facilitate
the scoring of attributes in accordance with our AHP-TOPSIS
methodology, it is advisable to categorize these attributes. is
categorization will provide decision makers with a more streamlined
and convenient approach to the scoring process. Attribute denition
and classication are presented in Table4. e above attributes
may act as a constraint and can be either permanent or temporary,
depending on factors such as the type of mine (e.g., open-cast
or underground). As a result, the diverse conditions of dierent
mines may give rise to unique repurposing options beyond the
primary indicators. For instance, underground mines are generally
unsuitable for repurposing as solar parks, eco-parks, eco-resorts,
or for agriculture or sh farming. Permanent constraints may
also include variables like the number of sunny days in a year,
annual rainfall, and the mine’s location in relation to urban
areas, villages, or remote regions. In contrast, some constraints
may not be permanent but can still signicantly impact the
repurposing process. For instance, altering the depth of a mine
through landlling is possible but costly, leading stakeholders
to explore alternatives like creating a pit lake through various
means (Cuietal., 2020b). Within this framework, criteria are
used to dene the technical attributes that guide the decision-
making process. Each of these criteria plays a pivotal role in
inuencing the preferences of individual decision makers as they
seek repurposing alternatives that best align with the technological
requirements associated with these criteria. is methodology
ensures that the chosen alternatives not only maximize the potential
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TABLE 6 Scores assigned by decision makers to nd ideal and non-ideal solutions.
Alternative CC R M JO RT SM DM P PWQ HE ARF PP SR DS
Solar park 7 8 4 2 8 9 1 1 1 9 1 2 2 2
PSH 6 9 2 9 6 9 9 5 1 3 9 6 3 3
Fish farming 2 4 9 5 5 8 9 4 9 4 7 7 4 5
Eco-resort 7 6 5 8 7 7 1 1 7 3 4 8 7 4
Eco-park 9 7 7 5 9 8 1 3 8 3 5 4 8 6
Museum 6 3 4 3 4 6 1 1 4 2 2 2 5 5
Forestry 8 2 8 1 3 7 1 4 8 7 7 3 7 7
Warehouse 5 1 6 6 8 6 1 1 3 3 1 5 9 6
TABLE 7 Priorities alternatives for closed mine repurposing by the
AHP-TOPSIS method.
Alternatives Si+Si−Pi Rank
Solar park 0.1076 0.0734 0.4055 6
PSH 0.0865 0.1031 0.5438 4
Fish farming 0.0673 0.1066 0.6128 2
Eco-resort 0.0555 0.1002 0.6436 1
Eco-park 0.0783 0.0962 0.5512 3
Museum 0.1014 0.0500 0.3302 8
Forestry 0.1124 0.0695 0.3819 7
Warehouse 0.0959 0.0690 0.4187 5
of the land but also meet the needs and expectations of all
involved parties.
2.4 Attribute weighting using AHP
e AHP approach was used to determine the weights of
the criteria. e seven decision makers selected included a
research scientist from IIT-ISM, Dhanbad, who is an expert in
data analysis techniques and methodologies, which is crucial for
eectively applying AHP principles in decision-making processes. A
member of the legislative assembly from the mine constituency was
interviewed. As a representative of the community, they provided
a valuable insight into socioeconomic factors, public opinion, and
policy implications, which are important considerations in AHP.
e third was an environmentalist who was asked to be a part
of the panel because their input is essential for evaluating the
ecological impact of proposed actions. e mine’s general manager,
due to their rsthand experience managing mining projects,
FIGURE 6
Preference order of repurposing alternatives.
can assess the feasibility, risks, and benets of various mining-
related options. An energy expert weighted the criteria based
on specialized knowledge of energy technologies, market trends,
and regulatory frameworks. A pisciculturist assessed the proposed
activities’ impacts on aquatic habitats, biodiversity, and sheries
resources through weighting. Finally, a geologist provided insights
into geological formations, mineral resources, and land-use hazards.
Together, these diverse experts bring together multidisciplinary
perspectives and specialized knowledge essential for conducting
a thorough AHP-based decision analysis, ensuring that holistic
considerations of environmental, socioeconomic, technical, and
geological factors are included in the decision-making process.
e AHP weighting process can be summed up as follows. In
the rst step, decision makers are asked to compare the importance
of one attribute relative to another. Pairwise comparisons are made
for all attributes, and a numerical value is assigned to express the
preference or importance. e comparisons are typically done on a
scale from 1 to 9, with 1 indicating equal importance and 9 indicating
extreme importance (Table1). e comparisons are organized into a
pairwise comparison matrix c, where cij representst he importance of
attribute irelative to j.
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FIGURE 7
A view of an eco-park built by Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL), over 10ha of mined-out land in NT-ST-Jeenagora Project of Lodna Area. Source:
https://www.bcclweb.in/les/2022/08/ECO-PARKS.pdf.
FIGURE 8
Water sports center and oating restaurant developed at abandoned quarry no. 6 of the Bishrampur OC mine at Kenpara by South Eastern Coalelds
Limited. Source: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1900977.
C
1c12 c13 c1n
1
c12
1c23 c2n
1
c13
1
c23 1c3n
1
c1n
1
c2n
1
c3n1
(1)
In this matrix, the main diagonal elements (e.g., 1, 1, 1, … ,
1) represent the relative importance of an element compared to
itself, which is always considered equal (cij = 1). e elements above
the main diagonal (cij where i < j) are the values that should be
lled by decision makers to represent their preferences. ese values
represent the preference of element “j” compared to element “i”.
Conversely, the elements below the main diagonal (cij where i > j)
are derived as the reciprocal values of the elements above the main
diagonal to ensure that the matrix is consistent and satises the
reciprocal relationship, that is, cij ∗cji = 1 for all i ≠ j.
Second, the pairwise comparison matrix is normalized by
dividing each element in a column by the column’s sum. is creates
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FIGURE 9
Solar power panels at Block-4, Neyveli, Neyveli Lignite Corporation, Ltd., India.
a normalized matrix N. en, the average of the columns in the
normalized matrix is calculated to obtain the weight vector W.
e weight vector represents the relative importance or weight of
each criterion.
Finally, to ensure the reliability of the judgments made during
pairwise comparisons, a consistency check is performed using the
consistency index (CI) and the random index (RI).
CI λmax n
n1(2)
e CI is calculated by comparing the actual consistency of the
matrix to what would be expected by chance. If CI is greater than 0,
it indicates some inconsistency. To evaluate this inconsistency, the
consistency ratio (CR) is calculated by dividing CI by the RI. If CR
is less than 0.10 (a commonly used threshold), the judgments are
considered suciently consistent.
2.5 Alternative evaluation using TOPSIS
Aer determining the criteria weights using AHP, we can
proceed with evaluating the alternatives using TOPSIS, following
these steps of the method:
Step 1: As shown in a general m by n matrix Dof alternative An
criterion Cn, assign numerical values or scores from the 1–9 scale
dened by Saaty (Table1) to each alternative for each criterion. D
shows the decision matrix according to a subjective decision maker.
D
d11 d12 d13 d1m
d21 d22 d23 d2m
d31 d32 d33 d3m
dn1dn2dn3dnm
(3)
Step 2: Create the normalized decision matrix to ensure that
the elements of the matrix are on a common scale so that dierent
criteria with dierent measurement units can be compared. e
steps involve creating a normalized matrix N whose elements are
obtained by using Equations4,5.
Nij dij
j
idij2for cost attribute(4)
Nij 1
dij
j
i1
dij 2forbenefit attribute(5)
where N (dij) is the normalized value for the cost attribute Cij.
dij is the raw (original) value for the cost attribute for an alternative
Aiover criterion Cj. dmaxj is the maximum value of the cost attribute
across all alternatives for criterion Cj. dminj is the minimum value of
the cost attribute across all alternatives for criterion Cj. In our study,
the capital cost and maintenance are cost attributes, while the rest
are all benets.
Step 3: Multiply the normalized scores of each alternative by
the corresponding criteria weights determined in the AHP step.
is step emphasizes the importance of each criterion. e weighted
decision matrix Rij is obtained by Equation(5)
Rij Dij Wj(6)
Step 4: Determine the positive ideal solution and the negative
ideal solution. For benet criteria (where higher values are better),
R+ is the maximum value in the corresponding column and R−is the
minimum value. For cost criteria (where lower values are better), R+
is the minimum value in the corresponding column and R−is the
maximum value.
Step 5: Establish the ideal and anti-ideal solutions for each
criterion. e best performance for each criterion is represented
by the ideal solution, while the lowest performance is represented
by the anti-ideal solution. is determination is achieved through
calculations utilizing the following equation:
S+
im
jRij R+2(7)
S−
im
jRij R−2(8)
Step 5: Rank the alternative based on the following equation:
PiS−
i
S+
iS−
i(9)
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3 Result
It is important to highlight that the calculation process should
involve a team of decision makers comprising relevant experts. e
aggregation of individual judgments can be accomplished through
methods such as the weighted geometric mean. Calculating the
value of CI for our AHP matrix using Equation1, we obtain
a value of 0.150,049, where λmax is the highest eigenvalue of
the pairwise comparison matrix, which is 15.950,634. It is worth
noting that the random index (RI), as proposed by Saaty, is
established at a value of 1.58. e CR value, which assesses the
consistency of our calculations, is found to be 0.094967. e weight
criteria obtained by the AHP pairwise comparison matrix are
given in Table5.
e decision makers were requested to provide ratings for
criteria for each alternative in the TOPSIS analysis (Table6).
Subsequently, the criteria weights were applied to the normalized
scores within the TOPSIS framework. is multiplication
process emphasized the signicance of criteria identied as
more critical in the AHP analysis. e determination of ideal
and non-ideal solutions, along with the ranking of alternatives
based on their relative proximity to the ideal solution, is
illustrated in Table7. e order of eight alternatives is also
depicted through a graph in Figure6, which shows that eco-
resort was considered the best repurposing alternative for a
closed/abandoned surface coal mine in India. is choice is driven
by a holistic evaluation of both economic and environmental
sustainability, as well as the potential positive impact on the
local community.
4 Discussion
An eco-resort was deemed the optimal choice due to its
signicant potential for local economic development. When a
closed mine is repurposed into an eco-resort, the local economy
can experience a revitalization, as a resort provides a means to
increase income and mitigate unemployment issues stemming
from job losses resulting from mine closures. is is achieved
by aligning the repurposing eorts with the existing skill
sets of the local workforce, such as gardening, construction,
culinary arts, and hospitality, which are highly transferrable
to the operation of an eco-resort in comparison to solar park
or PSH. Furthermore, the versatility of eco-resorts in terms of
scalability and budgetary feasibility makes them an attractive
option for stakeholders. Eco-resorts have the unique ability to
be developed incrementally based on the revenue and income
generated from their services. is adaptability ensures that
the project can remain nancially sustainable, catering to the
stakeholders’ nancial capacities while gradually expanding
and improving over time. While the maintenance of resorts
does incur costs, it is notably lower compared to alternative
repurposing options like solar parks and pumped storage
hydropower (PSH). Additionally, the maintenance services required
can be viewed as a valuable source of employment for the
local population, further addressing the issue of unemployment
and ensuring the nancial viability of the eco-resort. Another
signicant advantage of repurposing mines into eco-resorts is
the positive impact on the valuation of surrounding land and
properties. is appreciation in property values can yield long-
term benets for local residents, as it enhances their overall
asset value and economic prospects. Basu and Mishra (2023)
reviewed 112 studies and suggested that tourism-based reclamation
techniques are the solutions implemented most oen for closed
or abandoned mines.
5 Conclusion
In conclusion, this study introduces a comprehensive decision
framework tailored to the Indian mining context that oers a
novel and practical approach to repurposing abandoned surface
coal mines. is approach represents a signicant step for India
to progress toward achieving net-zero coal mining by facilitating
the transition toward sustainable and responsible land reclamation
and resource management. It promotes ecient land use, resource
conservation, and addresses the multifaceted challenges associated
with abandoned mine sites. e hybrid methodology, combining
AHP and TOPSIS, enables informed decision-making by assessing
and ranking alternative repurposingoptions. e research highlights
the importance of considering a multi-criteria-criteria evaluation,
encompassing ecological, economic, social, and regulatory
factors, in the decision-making process. AHP is instrumental in
determining the relative importance of these criteria, reecting
the diverse perspectives and priorities of stakeholders engaged
in the repurposing endeavor. TOPSIS then identies optimal
alternatives, ensuring a comprehensive assessment of their overall
performance against the established criteria. e suitability of the
mine site for an eco-resort is also an important consideration,
oering signicant potential for local economic development,
employment opportunities, long-term revenue generation, and
skill development for local youth. Factors such as the size of the
mine and the availability of space for the construction of facilities,
including pools or lakes, within the resort, can be pivotal in
ensuring a successful transformation. Moreover, if water quality
within the mine pit presents a challenge, it can be addressed by
converting the water area into a oating solar park, thus enhancing
the resort’s sustainability credentials. Working within the resort’s
operations, residents can acquire valuable skills and knowledge
about sustainable practices, further empowering the community in
terms of environmental awareness and job opportunities. Resorts
can be located anywhere there is space, whether in remote villages or
near urban centres, thus relaxing the constraints on their location.
Overall, this study provides a valuable tool for stakeholders involved
in repurposing abandoned mine sites and supports sustainable land
use and responsible resource management.
Coal India Limited (CIL) is actively engaged in the
transformation of its disused mines into ecological parks, which
have gained popularity as eco-tourism destinations. ese ecological
parks and tourist sites are also proving to be a means of sustenance
for the local population. Currently, 30 such ecological parks are
experiencing a consistent inux of visitors, and there are ongoing
plans to establish additional ecological parks and ecological
restoration sites within CIL’s mining regions. Glimpses of such
habitational work are shown in Figure7–9. e company has
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Singh etal. 10.3389/feart.2024.1330217
successfully planted over three million saplings in the current
nancial year. Over the 5 scal years ending in FY ‘22, CIL has
greened 4,392ha within the mining lease area, creating a carbon sink
potential of 2.2 lakh tonnes per year.
e initiative is particularly applicable in developing countries
with high population density. e MCDM techniques can be
adapted and implemented in other regions with abandoned
mine sites, especially in countries undergoing transitions in their
energy sectors.
Data availability statement
e original contributions presented in the study are included in
the article/Supplementary Material,f urther inquiries can be directed
to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
AS: methodology and writing–original dra. SA: supervision,
visualization, and writing–review and editing. AP: data curation,
investigation, validation, and writing–review and editing.
Funding
e author(s) declare that no nancial support was received for
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Coal India
Limited (CIL) and its subsidiary for their valuable support and
cooperation in providing data and insights that greatly contributed
to the success of this research. eir collaboration was instrumental
in the completion of this study, and we acknowledge their assistance
with appreciation.
Conict of interest
e authors declare that the research was conducted in
the absence of any commercial or nancial relationships
that could be construed as a potential conict
of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those
of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of
their aliated organizations, or those of the publisher,
the editors, and the reviewers. Any product that may
be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made
by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by
the publisher.
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