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Factors Influencing Engagement of Private Tutoring at Cambodian Upper Secondary Schools
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Public education is not just a way to organise and fund education. It is also the expression of a particular ideal about education and of a par- ticular way to conceive of the relationship between education and soci- ety. The ideal of public education sees education as an important dimension of the common good and as an important institution in securing the common good. The common good is never what individu- als or particular groups want or desire, but always reaches beyond such particular desires towards that which societies as a whole should con- sider as desirable. This does, of course, put the common good in ten- sion with the desires of individuals and groups. Neo-liberal modes of governance have, over the past decades, put this particular educational set up under pressure and have, according to some, eroded the very idea of the common good. This set of contributions reflects on this state of affairs, partly through an exploration of the idea of publicness itself – how it can be rearticulated and regained – and partly through reflec- tions on the current state of education in the ‘north’ and the ‘south.’
This chapter recounts the development strategies employed by the Cambodian Government and its development partners to raise educational quality and efficiency in the secondary education sector during the period from 1999 to 2020. The chapter describes two reform cycles in this regard, where their focus lies, and how they fared in terms of success rates. The first cycle, from 2000 to 2014, focused primarily on access issues. Though achieving some success, educational reforms had stalled within a decade, and growth in net enrolment rates had reached a plateau. This stalling out process may be explained by structural changes within the education system, as well as by an acceleration of social and economic changes in Cambodian society. The second reform cycle, from 2014 to 2020, was catalysed by the 2013 national election and focused more on educational quality and school governance issues. It culminated in a radical experiment to promote charter schools known as New Generation Schools.
This limited topical life history study aims to gain insights into COVID-19's impacts on teaching at upper secondary schools through Cambodian teachers' perceptions of online teaching. It presents teachers' current challenges and needs as well as future impacts on their teaching practices. Online semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data from twenty-nine subject teachers and their school directors. This study concluded that the COVID-19 pandemic reduced the quality of teaching and learning due to the limited functions of monitoring students rather than limited digital knowledge and skills. Classroom management is still required although the learning is online. The empirical evidence suggests this effect in science disciplines; especially for calculation-related subjects. However, COVID-19 was viewed as providing secondary education with a great deal for implementing the digital revolution of education 4.0 and created some practical issues for policymakers and implementers. Although the findings concur with previous literature on online teaching during the pandemic, they also draw context-specific features of the issue.
The purposes of this study are to explore learning pathways when students transit from high school to higher education among Cambodian students and examine the probable causes behind their decision to switch academic majors. The study found that about half of surveyed students switched their academic majors. Virtually all the switchers are science-track female students. Personal interests and labour markets seem to be reasons behind the students’ major switch decisions, while performance in Mathematics in high school play a much less important role.
Private supplementary tutoring is a widespread phenomenon. However, evidence that private tutoring has positive effects on academic achievement or about the specific conditions of successful private tutoring is rare. Adapting Carroll's (1963) model for school learning to private tutoring, we expected to find positive effects of tutoring duration, tutoring intensity, and students' motivation to attend private tutoring. In a sample of eighth-grade students in German secondary schools (N = 8510, 18.6% currently being tutored), we conducted regression analyses with multiple covariates and did not find a positive main effect of private tutoring attendance in any of the school subjects examined. Moreover, within the subsamples of tutored students, we were not able to identify positive effects of tutoring duration, tutoring intensity, tutoring content (such as a focus on homework completion, test preparation, or study behavior), or students' motivation to attend private tutoring. Given these disillusioning findings, we primarily derive suggestions for future research.
Cambodia uses a ‘discouragement’ strategy to manage teachers’ engagement in supplying private tutoring (PT). However, previous studies have criticised teachers’ professional misconduct in terms of promoting tutoring classes to ensure supplementary income. Currently, examination reforms alongside economic growth propose a new understanding of professional misconduct. Based on descriptive data from 93 students and in-depth interviews with 24 informants, who were tutees and their parents, tutors and school administrators respectively, this study found uncaring pedagogies to be a primary motivator for tutoring demand. This tended to have an association with the inadequate instructional time given to core examination subjects and implementation of the learner-based approach. Additionally, the examination reform brought positive changes in the teacher’s behaviour. Although this study’s findings are largely aligned with previous studies, it still sheds light on new perspectives regarding teachers’ professional misconduct in Cambodia
Private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education, has become a global phenomenon. It has a range of providers, including commercial companies, university students desiring extra pocket money, and regular school teachers who provide tutoring as a sideline activity. This paper focuses on the last category.
Governments are commonly ambivalent about the existence of shadow education, and may especially disapprove of regular teachers providing private supplementary tutoring in part because they fear that the teachers will neglect their main duties. With such matters in mind, some governments have attempted to prohibit teachers from providing private tutoring. However, such prohibitions are difficult to implement. This paper analyses situations in Korea, Mauritius, Kenya and England in order to derive comparative lessons from experience. It demonstrates the importance of wider contextual factors including alignment of macro-level aspirations with the micro-level perspectives of families finding themselves in increasingly competitive environments.
Educational institutes across the world have closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic jeopardizing the academic calendars. Most educational institutes have shifted to online learning platforms to keep the academic activities going. However, the questions about the preparedness, designing and effectiveness of e-learning is still not clearly understood, particularly for a developing country like India, where the technical constraints like suitability of devices and bandwidth availability poses a serious challenge. In this study, we focus on understanding Agricultural Student’s perception and preference towards the online learning through an online survey of 307 students. We also explored the student’s preferences for various attributes of online classes, which will be helpful to design effective online learning environment. The results indicated that majority of the respondents (70%) are ready to opt for online classes to manage the curriculum during this pandemic. Majority of the students preferred to use smart phone for online learning. Using content analysis, we found that students prefer recorded classes with quiz at the end of each class to improve the effectiveness of learning. The students opined that flexibility and convenience of online classes makes it attractive option, whereas broadband connectivity issues in rural areas makes it a challenge for students to make use of online learning initiatives. However, in agricultural education system where many courses are practical oriented, shifting completely to online mode may not be possible and need to device a hybrid mode, the insights from this article can be helpful in designing the curriculum for the new normal.
This article examines the cross-national differences in socioeconomic accessibility to shadow education (SE) across 63 societies. Drawing on arguments from two competing theoretical models either emphasizing cross-national cultural, economic, and institutional differences (e.g., model of secondary schooling, scale of SE) or universally working social reproduction mechanisms (e.g., enrichment features of SE), this study provides a novel approach to understanding the role of SE for social inequality. More specifically, while the first model explicitly allows equality in access to SE, the latter suggests that SE fosters inequality under all circumstances. Using data from the 2012 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and official sources, first the difference in the probability of top in comparison to bottom socioeconomic strata to use SE is predicted separately for all societies, before analyzing what causes the found considerable cross-national variation in the socioeconomic gap in access to SE at the country-level. Results indicate that differences in SE access are linked to incentives for high performing students to use SE. These incentives are especially common in societies with higher educational institutional differentiation (e.g., early or mixed tracking schooling models). In societies with less stratified education systems, access to SE is more equal, wherefore the potential effect of SE to social inequality is dampened. Overall, findings suggest that simple generalizations based on existing theoretical models provide no comprehensive explanation for the connection between SE and inequality. Instead, prominent beliefs about the relationship between SE and inequality are questioned.
Private tutoring is a globally widespread phenomenon which can be associated with marketization and privatization. After the breakdown of the Soviet Union, the transition to a free-market economy in Uzbekistan facilitated the rise of informal private sector in public education. This in turn has affected mainstream schooling in many ways and changed the face of education. Considering socio-economic transformations in the country, the theory of Hidden Privatisation by Ball and Youdell (2007) is employed to analyze different facets of informal privatization in the form of shadow education. Drawing on 24 face-to-face interviews with teachers, (vice) principals and students and student questionnaires, this article examines the nature and scale of private tutoring as well as teachers’ perspectives on the influence of tutoring on teaching and learning process. The findings demonstrated that teachers’ overall attitudes towards private tutoring were positive and teachers mostly considered tutoring as an indispensable part of teaching and learning process. The most significant finding was that the scale of tutoring was exceptionally high (95%) in academic lyceums. The pervasiveness of the phenomenon is associated with entrance examinations, which increased the dependency of teachers and students on tutoring. The article concludes by elucidating how the emergence of shadow education in academic lyceums resulted in the change of the nature of mainstream schooling and the transformation of teacher identities.
Private tutoring is not a new phenomenon for education in both developed and developing countries. However, English private tutoring (EPT) attracted a limited number of studies, although English is viewed as the key to success in non-English speaking countries like Cambodia. By observing EPT as a choice, this mixed-method study, using the convergent design, aimed to explore factors affecting Cambodian 12th graders towards quitting or not quitting EPT during the year of the national examination. Quantitative data were collected from 639 twelfth graders in Cambodia via a self-rated questionnaire, while qualitative data were obtained from 8 respondents. Findings reveal that the decision of leaving EPT is more influenced by their parents, while that of continuing EPT is stirred by educational aspirations, internal motivation as well as part-time employment during their university life. Surprisingly, unlike private tutoring of other core exam subjects, this study found that students from better income families in Cambodia do not seem interested in investing in EPT. It is proposed that an 'exam-career balance' syllabus be developed and implemented in both mainstream schools and EPT classes to boost the success probability of Cambodian 12th graders in their exams as well as their future.
Offering private tutoring (PT) to their students is legal in Cambodia. However, teachers are banned from engaging in PT during official hours and holidays. Literature has proven common root causes across contexts such as low salaries, class size, insufficient instructional times and high-stakes examinations. With a new attempt, this narrative paper aims to discuss PT and its effects from the different stakeholders' perspectives and to reflect PT functions towards mainstream education. On the one hand, symbiosis generates a 'dependency system,' divided into two relationships such as 'commensalism' between PT and the mainstream system, and 'mutualism' between supply and demand-side including the mainstream system. On the other hand, parasitism (professional misconduct) exists owing to policy implementers' laissez-faire approach in exercising the approved codes of conduct. Hence, the parasitism remains in the public classrooms owing to the lack of accountability and monitoring system of the in-charge stakeholders. Its presence enlarges the capacity of the dependency system to cast a shadow over the incomplete shape and size of the mainstream system. Thus, it should be alerted that when it is oversized, this symbiotic function may downplay the mainstream system and moves it away from the core attention of the demand side.
Upper secondary school years have been considered as a critical period for attracting students into future science-related majors and careers; yet, Cambodia is facing a worrisome decline trend in the students’ choice of science track. Through the lens of the making of engineers and scientists conceptual framework, the study aims to investigate the factors affecting Cambodian upper secondary school students’ choice of science track. With self-rating questionnaire survey, which randomly covered 751 11th graders in nine upper secondary schools in three provinces of Cambodia, the researcher collected data on three significant factors namely individual ability and personality, family background and encouragement, and upper secondary school experience and support. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that performance in science and mathematics subjects, attitude towards science, plan to major in STEM, time spent self-studying in science and mathematics subjects, family encouragement, mother’s education, and school location significantly predicted students’ choice of science track. Some important implications for pedagogical orientation were also discussed.
In the academic literature, private supplementary tutoring is widely known as shadow education, in part because it is commonly indistinct and because much of its content mimics that in mainstream schooling. Around the world, shadow education has become an important part of students' lives and in some places it diminishes the body that it mimics. This paper builds on studies that have focused on relationships between schooling and shadow education. The paper uses the conceptual lens of privatisation‐by‐default, and employs qualitative methods to understand the roles of both government and private schools in promoting tutoring in West Bengal, India. It finds that substantial proportions of shadow education emanate from and are fostered by school systems. On the one hand private tutoring as a form of privatisation‐by‐default gives freedom of choice, but on the other hand it limits choice. Further, school‐bred tutoring can have a negative backwash on school systems. As such, private supplementary tutoring is not just a neutral shadow but affects the body that it imitates. The study recommends researchers to look back at schools to gain a deeper understanding of private supplementary tutoring.
Private tutoring is one of the unintended outcomes of high-stakes testing and has become a widespread global phenomenon. It is called shadow education because it mimics the mainstream curriculum. From the critical perspective, this study investigated the role of private tutoring in a context of high-stakes testing through Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. It explored 18 Secondary Six (Grade 12) students' reflections on their learning experiences in private tutoring in Hong Kong for one year. Conceptualized with Freire's Pedagogy of the oppressed, the findings reveal that while students are being oppressed in the washback of high-stakes testing under neoliberalism, shadow education further oppresses the students by (1) intensifying the "banking" concept of education, (2) teaching as the "authority", (3) emphasizing performativity and (4) offering "false generos-ity". The findings provide implications for potential educational change in contexts where education systems increasingly rely on accountability and selection through high-stakes testing. By problematizing the role of private tutoring through the conceptual lens of oppression, the study calls for research to take a closer look at the impact of shadow education on learners' experiences in the current neoliberal era.
Purpose
Private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education, has long been visible in East Asia, and now has spread to other parts of the world including Europe. This article maps the phenomenon, showing variations within Europe and analyzing its growth, underlying forces, and policy implications.
Design/Approach/Methods
The article assembles a regional picture from available national sources. It focuses on the 28 members of the European Union.
Findings
Within Europe, four subregions may be identified. Most prominent for the longest duration has been Southern Europe, pushed by political forces and cultural factors. In Eastern Europe, shadow education became prominent following the collapse of the Soviet Union and accompanying economic and social structures during which teachers and others had to earn extra incomes. In Western Europe, the advent of marketization alongside government schooling has fueled the growth of shadow education. Only in Northern Europe does shadow education remain modest in scale, but it is growing there too.
Originality/Value
The article identifies forces underlying the growth of shadow education in Europe and highlights policy implications. By contributing this regional perspective to the wider literature on shadow education, the article permits juxtaposition with patterns in East Asia and elsewhere.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to compare two UNESCO reports on educational development in Cambodia, one from 1955 and the other from 2010, in order to understand how the global education development agenda has impacted shadow education.
Design/methodology/approach
The study is conducted through a textual comparison of two UNESCO reports written 50 years apart.
Findings
Although the educational problems facing Cambodia were similar in both reports, the recommendations differed in important ways. The 1955 report advised the country to expand slowly access to education in order to maintain quality, while the 2010 recommended quickly expanding access. A major difference found in the reports regarded the issue of fees in schooling, which did not appear in 1955. School fees in Cambodia are typically extracted through the system of private tutoring, known in the academic literature as shadow education. Such an insight, this paper argues, suggests that the difference in development approach between the two reports is one of the reasons shadow education has flourished in the country.
Originality/value
Through a historical comparison of development efforts in one country, it becomes clear that the education development agenda is partly to blame for the rise of shadow education.
Across the globe, recent decades have brought huge growth of private supplementary education delivered alongside regular schooling. Some types of supplementary education are widely called shadow education because their curricula mimic those of mainstream classes. In Cambodia, supplementary parallel classes are commonly taught by the same teachers as in regular schooling, to some of the same students, and in their own schools. When recruiting students for the private lessons, the teachers use the authority conferred on them as teachers. This can damage trust in the school system, but most families lack power to challenge the arrangements. While Cambodia may be an extreme case, the chapter suggests that basic patterns have relevance to many countries.
This study examines Cambodian students’ exam cheating practices throughout their schooling. Based on a thorough analysis of interviews with 19 university students, the study found that, although cheating was more prevalent at the secondary level, individual students’ cheating experiences varied in frequency and timing (i.e. when they started, stopped, increased, or decreased such practices). Curricula, parents’ attitudes, peer behaviour, institutional policies, and – most significantly – relationships with teachers were identified as influencing factors for students’ cheating practices. These findings largely echo academic dishonesty literature, but they also indicate the context-specific features of these factors.
This study analyzes private tutoring (or extra class) participation and provision in Cambodia using nationally representative data from 138 lower secondary schools. Higher socioeconomic status (SES) students are more likely to have access to fee-based extra classes offered by teachers from their same school and are more likely to enroll when offered. But a substantial number of children with an apparent ability to afford extra classes are not participating, which highlights the role of student engagement in explaining enrichment-driven extra class attendance. Higher capacity and better credentialed teachers are more likely to report providing extra classes, and they also earn more than other teachers engaged in tutoring. As a result, the additional income from extra classes is concentrated in a small subset of teachers. There is some evidence that students who do not participate in extra classes suffer additional negative consequences during regular school hours. These different supply and demand elements are brought together into an analysis of student achievement gaps. Not surprisingly, extra classes are associated with higher test scores on standardized tests in mathematics and physics, but these explain only part of the achievement gap between high-and low-SES students. The largest achievement gaps are instead found between students who do and do not take extra classes, which in turn underscores the importance of shadow education research in Cambodia and beyond. © 2018 by the Comparative and International Education Society. All rights reserved.
The article explores the motivation of Thai secondary school students who chose to enroll in private tutorial institutes. The research draws on primary qualitative data compiled from structured interviews utilizing a comparative perspective to provide insight into perceptions of tutorial versus formal secondary education. The evidence presented here suggests that Thai secondary students have two clear motivations for consuming
and engaging in private tutorial education: (1) the belief that tutorial classes will provide them with better educational performance as measured by their grade point average and performance on standardized tests, and (2) a service-driven motivation where tutorial educators provide student-centered learning and personalized education.
This paper investigates the practice of private supplementary tutoring (also known as ‘shadow education’) by public school teachers in Cambodia, a country with an education system plagued by corruption (Dawson, 2011). The paper begins by introducing the growing phenomenon of private tutoring (PT) in the broader context of Asia. It then turns to an overview of the problems of corruption in Cambodian public services more generally before focusing on corrupt practices specific to the education sector. Within this context the problem of public school teachers providing PT to their own students is introduced, followed by a discussion of the effects of this practice on teachers, students, educational content, and processes of teaching and learning. The paper then shifts to explore potential economic, socio-cultural and organizational factors that may cause teachers to engage in these corrupt practices. Finally, the paper discusses possible solutions, looking at regulatory policies for PT in other Asian countries and attempts at addressing the problem of corrupt PT in Cambodia itself. The paper argues that a combination of advocacy and awareness raising of corruption at the system level, regulation of PT, and reforms to the education sector to increase quality and equity are potential solutions to this challenging problem.
This essay review critically engages Young Chun Kim's book, Shadow Education and the Curriculum and Culture of Schooling in South Korea, by responding to two central questions at its heart: What does decolonization of educational research mean and what does it look like? In what way can cultural studies of countries with histories of colonized educational systems challenge the inertia to recapitulate colonized historical consciousness? Kim provides theoretical and empirical foundations for generating intellectual space that reveals the dialectical relationship between the dominant modes of discourse in educational research and aspirations of the colonized to envision their own educational culture and history.
The concept of hidden curriculum has become well established. It addresses the contexts of learning, the actions of students’ peers and teachers, and other domains which shape learning but are not part of official syllabuses. The concept of a hidden marketplace for private tutoring, widely known as shadow education, is less established but also becoming part of general understanding of the complementarities of regular and supplementary instruction. This paper brings the two literatures together to examine the values transmitted, mostly unintentionally, by shadow education in Cambodia. Most of this shadow education is delivered by regular teachers, commonly to their existing students and in their existing schools. The paper considers the impact of shadow education not only on the students who do receive it but also on those who do not. Patterns in Cambodia differ from those in more prosperous countries, but have parallels with other low-income countries. The authors suggest that much more attention is needed to the dynamics and impact of shadow education, including relationships between actors and the values that shadow education transmits as part of the hidden curriculum.
Private supplementary tutoring (PST) is a worldwide enterprise that comes in a variety of forms and with a growing number of students. Sweden, together with the other Nordic countries, has a relatively short history of large-scale organised supplementary education, which can be explained by its confidence in regular mainstream education. In recent years though, this picture has partly changed, and today families in Sweden are offered different kinds of education services outside the ordinary school system. This paper targets how PST is legitimized and justified through marketing as a solution to problems related to the education of children. Through a positioning analysis of three consumer narratives published online by a PST company, this paper aims to further our understanding of which functions PST fills within the Swedish education system. Results show that private tutors appear in the consumer narratives as compensating for shortcomings in schools and families as well as complementing the support that parents and teachers can offer children. These findings signal that PST marketing creates demands for different kinds of support which may, in the long run, rewrite the map of the Swedish education landscape.
While quantitative research on the nature and extent of private tutoring in England is increasingly available, very limited evidence exists regarding pupils' voices in evaluating their participation in private tutoring. Thus, the present qualitative study seeks to investigate the perceptions of 14 Year 6 pupils from three primary schools in East Kent of receiving tutoring. Data were collected through semi-structured focus group interviews and pupils' drawings. The data suggest that the participants displayed prevention (ought) orientation by conceiving tutoring as a powerful means to help them to pass the grammar school entrance exam and thus avoid failing their parents' expectations. However, some participants gradually realised that the advantages of receiving tutoring were not restricted to tangible (quantifiable) benefits related to improved examination results. Tutoring also enabled them to achieve their desired possible self-image by boosting their self-esteem and interest in learning, and becoming more confident when socialising with others (i.e. intangible benefits). The participants acted agentively, not only reflecting on the benefits of tutoring but also on its disadvantages including creating pressure on their parents and themselves and being somewhat an unfair advantage in competition. From this qualitative study, pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research are suggested.
This article focuses on the limitations of terms and definitions regarding shadow education research in Cambodia. Although shadow education in Cambodia is typically defined as private tutoring taught by mainstream schoolteachers to their own students, other manifestations of it have been missed by most studies on the subject, including my own. By tracing the terms used and the definitions of shadow education in various research studies, I argue that the assumptions made over terms and definitions (i.e., what ought to be the case) limited researchers’ understanding of shadow education in its ontological evolution and complexity (i.e., what is the case). Methodologically, the unintentional recycling of the same definition across time resulted in the epistemic fallacy and concept reification. These outcomes have profound consequences for how the phenomenon may be theorized not only in Cambodia but across the Southeast Asian region. In conclusion, I propose an alternative approach to study shadow education based on critical realism.
Purpose
Private supplementary tutoring is expanding fast around the world. Recognising that examination boards are major shapers of curricular load, the purpose of this paper is to identify the roles of examination boards at Grades 8, 9 and 10 in Bengaluru, India. Two boards were chosen, with one having a heavier perceived curricular load than the other.
Design/methodology/approach
The study used mixed methods with a questionnaire survey of 687 students in Grades 8, 9 and 10, and 51 face-to-face, semi-structured interviews.
Findings
Perhaps surprisingly, the findings did not reveal significant differences in tutoring demand by students. Both groups viewed the board examinations as having high stakes, and accordingly invested in extensive private tutoring. Competition emanating from credentialism was the main driver of the decision to receive tutoring among both cohorts.
Originality/value
Although previous studies have explored various components of demand for tutoring, to the authors’ knowledge, this is the first to explore the impact of examination boards on demand for tutoring. Since the system of schools being affiliated to examination boards is common not only in India but also in many other countries, the study has broad international relevance.
The global expansion of mass schooling has greatly increased opportunities for low-income families, and governments have devoted much effort to equalising access and quality in education systems. Alongside regular schooling, the so-called shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring has grown rapidly across the world. The fact that rich families can purchase more and better quality shadow education undermines the achievements of increased equality of opportunities in formal schooling. Drawing on a mixed-methods study in Shanghai, China, the article shows how shadow education has offset school equalisation policies through differentiation of access and through sorting mechanisms. Shadow education occupies a space beyond strict government control in which privileged families and elite schools ignore and mediate the equalisation policies, seeking competitive advantages. Uneven access to shadow education and tracking within it shape, maintain, and exacerbate inequitable schooling experiences at individual and institutional levels.
The aim of this paper is to clarify in what ways school performance and out-of-school lessons are linked, with special emphasis on social disparities in educational attainment. Previous research about shadow education indicates that out-of-school education may indeed be a factor to improve the academic achievement of school students. On the other hand, it is stated nearly without exception that the socioeconomic background of a student plays a significant role for academic achievement as well. Using data of the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), this paper shows new findings in comparing effects of shadow education investments on students' performance in Japan and Germany. I found that out-of-school education investments in both countries led to four significant outcomes: (i) in Japan, high school students' academic achievement is increased due to out-of-school lessons; (ii) in both countries there is great variation in how out-of-school lessons affect academic performance according to the types of out-of-school lessons and the living area; (iii) out-of-school education determines higher achievement scores in international comparison in a decisive way and therefore provides a reasonable explanation for the Japanese success in PISA; and (iv) since the mid-1990s the system in Japan has advanced from a mixed to a predominantly enrichment out-of-school education system, while the German out-of-school education system is still of remedial character.
Private supplementary tutoring with an additional fee is generally called shadow education, and this has become a common phenomenon in urban Dhaka, where patterns and scale of tutoring in English have been remarkable in recent years. This study used a mixed-methods approach that included quantitative and qualitative data collected from a survey and individual interview. Tutoring in English has been a regular feature of the teaching profession in this urban area. The paper examines various patterns of private tutoring in English and focuses on the amount of tutoring, including the tutoring received and not received by students in urban Dhaka. It shows the variations of scale regarding tutoring in English between male and female students. The study also identifies different types of private tutors who deliver supplementary tutoring. Finally, the choices pupils make regarding their evaluation on the effectiveness of shapes of tutoring in English are discussed.
Schooling has become a standard component in the daily lives of families, and education is typically the largest item in government budgets. Many scholars have documented the spread of schooling and have analyzed the implications of that spread. Recent decades have brought great expansion of supplementary education alongside schooling. Some of this supplementary education mimics schooling as a shadow, and some complements schooling with elaborate and/or different curricula. The supplementary education is commonly a substantial component of household budgets. This essay examines the nature of changing patterns of schooling and supplementary education around the world. It views the topic through the lenses of (in)equalities, remarking on bidirectional influences between schooling and its supplements. Among major intensifying forces in supplementary education have been governmental achievements in expansion of schooling and in reductions of inequalities. Supplementary education then to some extent resists reforms by restoring and maintaining inequalities. The essay concludes with remarks about the implications for comparative analysis of both schooling and supplementary education.
Private supplementary tutoring has long existed in Bangladesh, as elsewhere in the world, but in recent decades has become much more visible. Much tutoring “shadows” or reproduces formal schooling as fee-based academic teaching outside school hours. This paper focuses on school factors that shape demand for private supplementary tutoring in English at the secondary level, drawing on data gained from both quantitative and qualitative methods. The paper is especially concerned with urban and rural variations, noting that rates of tutoring are greater in urban areas but that many factors converge to create similarities. Private tutoring in English is highly demanded because English is a compulsory course; and in addition to being a subject in its own right, it assists in the learning of other subjects. While private tutoring may support the academic learning of some pupils, it also has problematic dimensions. As such, the spread of tutoring across urban and rural areas is not necessarily to be welcomed.
Although research on private tutoring has gained visibility in recent years, private tutoring in English (PT-E) has not received notable attention. This paper examines students’ perceptions of PT-E in Bangladesh in terms of its necessity and helpfulness, peer pressure in PT-E participation and ethicality of PT-E practice and government intervention. Our analysis of survey data (N = 572) leads to characterising PT-E and explaining the reasons for its popularity. As a popular learning space beyond formal schooling, PT-E is available in various forms and quality catering to the purchasing power of different social groups. We argue that students may resort to PT-E not because of its proven effectiveness but because of their declining faith in school English teaching. The paper contributes to our understanding of the complex interactions between the curricular (school) and non-curricular (PT-E) settings and family socioeconomic resources in the teaching of English as a globally desired language.
In Malaysia, private tutoring is widely perceived as a household necessity. A 2004/05 household expenditure survey recorded that 20.1 per cent of households with at least one child aged seven to 19 indicated expenditures on private tutoring (Kenayathulla 2013, p.634). In a smaller sample of urban students, Tan (2011) surveyed 1,600 Year 7 (lower secondary) students from eight schools in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur, and found that 88.0 per cent had received tutoring during their primary schooling
Private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education, has been viewed by many families around the world as a necessary complement to schooling. The analysis presented draws on questionnaire and interview data from secondary school students, teachers, principals, parents and other stakeholders in Myanmar. Parents displayed institutional mistrust in their perception of the inadequacy of public schooling to meet their children's needs. Organisational and interpersonal mistrust were also evident. The matters of mistrust relate to the theme of accountability in education, which requires systems for regulation and monitoring. The regulations on tutoring in Myanmar were widely ignored and were arguably worse than useless. The article is grounded in the context of Myanmar but has considerable insights for the wider literature.
Purpose
The extent of Private Supplementary Tutoring (PST) upon higher education has received little attention in the academic literature. This study endeavours to discover the extent of the PST phenomenon and the socioeconomic determinants behind the demand for it amongst students in science-related disciplines at Kuwait University (KU).
Design/methodology/approach
A quantitative research paradigm was employed. By using a questionnaire survey method, data was collected from 475 participating students from twelve different colleges at KU. The questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS.
Findings
The findings showed that 50.1% of students employing PST in KU to some extent. The study also found that PST is more important in certain subjects than others. The students and/or their families also bear the cost of these extra educational expenses. The findings also indicated that a college student’s gender, the academic year of study, university allowance, alternative income sources, family financial status and monetary support all play a statistically significant role in whether they receive PST.
Practical implications
deeper analysis of these factors, which underly the demand for PST, may offer a better understanding of its role in higher education, the functionality of higher education as a whole, and the effects of current policy and the political landscape.
Originality/value
While significant attention has been given to PST in K-12 education over the last few decades, this study is extended significantly into the as-yet uncharted waters of higher education. This study focused on PST in higher education and the socioeconomic determinants behind its demand.
An expanding literature focuses on the so-called shadow education system of private supplementary tutoring, and contributes to understandings of the nexus between in-school and out-of-school learning. This paper, contextualised in broader literature, draws on questionnaire and interview data from students, teachers, principals, parents and other stakeholders in Myanmar, and observes that shadow education may subtract as well as supplement. For some decades, public education in Myanmar has suffered from financial stringency, large classes, and overloaded curriculum. Students and their families have sought private tutoring, particularly from public school teachers, to supplement school education; and teachers and other providers have welcomed the revenue that they can earn. As a result, private tutoring has become embedded in the lives of many students and teachers, and has consumed time and energy supposed to be spent on school education. However, the private tutoring has also helped to keep the school system running.
Along with the dramatic expansion of private tutoring around the world, a significant body of literature has been produced to understand this phenomenon. While many studies consider the issue of geographic location, the spatial dimension tends not to be a central focus of private tutoring studies. In contrast, the present essay applies mobility theory to research from Cambodia, where private tutoring is essential to student success. It does so in order to place private tutoring provision into a broader perspective that includes but moves beyond the economic dimensions of supply and demand and the sociological dimensions of economic, cultural , and social capital to include consideration of how private tutoring provision is constrained by a multi-dimensional spatial field of possibilities and how private tutoring participation is enabled by one's position and abilities in relation to that field. The paper argues for increased attention to 'spatial capital' in studies of private tutoring and education generally.
This book presents policy debate and analysis of educational reform context, process, and capacity - mainly in Southeast Asian countries - and calls for a new political economy of educational reforms and capacity development. The conceptual/analytical framework addresses both the efficiency and equity dimensions of educational reforms; encompasses all the stakeholders in the process of educational reforms; and suggests whose capacity needs to be developed. Country cases, targeting Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam and featuring Southeast Asia/country experts as contributors, offer in-depth analyses of the dynamics of educational reform context, process and capacity, and examine efficiency, equity, and quality issues in basic and higher education.
This book is a highly relevant source of information for education policy makers and planners, and will help researchers to understand the innovative way to analyse educational reforms and capacity development in developing countries.
In Malaysia, private tutoring is widely perceived as a household necessity. A 2004/05 household expenditure survey recorded that 20.1 per cent of households with at least one child aged seven to 19 indicated expenditures on private tutoring.
Shadow education has been expanding for decades in China and in other Asian countries. One of the most important reasons for taking shadow education is to improve test scores, especially in contexts where such scores are crucial for access to better institutions and subsequent employment
This chapter reports on dimensions of a research journey. The journey was a project entitled ‘Private Supplementary Tutoring: Scale, Nature and Implications for Secondary Schooling in Hong Kong’.