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Character strength traits, states, and emotional well-being: A daily diary study

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Abstract

Objective Does whole trait theory work for character strengths? This study examines the daily within‐ and between‐person variability of the manifestations of positively valued lower‐order personality characteristics, namely character strengths, their convergence with trait character strengths, and their relationships to daily measures of affect. Background Manifestations of personality traits vary both between‐ and within people. So far, research has focused on between‐person differences in character strengths, while within‐person differences have been neglected. Methods German‐speaking participants ( N = 199, 84.3% women; mean age = 26.0 years) participated in a two‐week daily diary study. They completed a baseline measure of character strength traits and daily measures of character strength states and positive and negative affect. Results Results suggested that character strength traits converged well with aggregated states. Further, we observed high within‐person variability in most character strengths. The trait‐state convergence and the amount of within‐person variability were predicted by whether the character strengths were rather phasic (i.e., more dependent on situational characteristics) or rather tonic (i.e., less dependent on situational characteristics). Higher within‐person variability in character strengths was related to trait levels of perspective, honesty, social intelligence, and fairness. Regarding relationships between character strengths and affect, within‐person associations were widely parallel to previously reported between‐person associations and largely independent of trait levels of character strengths. Conclusion These findings inform research on whole trait theory and character–strengths‐based interventions.

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... The work of was one of the few studies that also looked at specific character strength enactments; they confirmed that character strength states contribute additional relevant information beyond traits for predicting relevant outcomes. Further to this, Gander and Wagner (2021) showed that there is substantial within-person variation in character strength states. In line with previous research (e.g., McCabe & Fleeson, 2016) and theoretical considerations, we argue that the functions of character strengths are best studied through a state perspective. ...
... The questionnaire included the CSSRF and the CSFR (and an additional measures not relevant here), and the respective items were presented in a randomized order. The data presented here were collected as part of a larger study and overlap with those presented in Gander and Wagner (2021), which also uses the CSSRF data. The research questions, however, do not overlap between the two manuscripts. ...
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Personality traits are most often assessed using global self-reports of one’s general patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behavior. However, recent theories have challenged the idea that global self-reports are the best way to assess traits. Whole Trait Theory postulates that repeated measures of a person’s self-reported personality states (i.e., the average of many state self-reports) can be an alternative and potentially superior way of measuring a person’s trait level (Fleeson & Jayawickreme, 2015). Our goal is to examine the validity of average state self-reports of personality for measuring between-person differences in what people are typically like. In order to validate average states as a measure of personality, we examine whether they are incrementally valid in predicting informant reports above and beyond global self-reports. In 2 samples, we find that average state self-reports tend to correlate with informant reports, although this relationship is weaker than the relationship between global self-reports and informant reports. Further, using structural equation modeling, we find that average state self-reports do not significantly predict informant reports independently of global self-reports. Our results suggest that average state self-reports may not contain information about between-person differences in personality traits beyond what is captured by global self-reports, and that average state self-reports may contain more self-bias than is commonly believed. We discuss the implications of these findings for research on daily manifestations of personality and the accuracy of self-reports.
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Character strengths-based interventions are effective for increasing well-being. However, whether such interventions also change character strengths has never been tested. In Study 1, we studied the effects of seven different variants of character strengths-based interventions on well-being, ill-being, and character strengths traits and states (i.e., frequency of behavior during one week). We analyzed data of N = 1,163 participants (82.3% women, aged 18 to 78; Md = 45) who were randomized to seven intervention conditions lasting one week; (1) learning about the VIA classification of character strengths, (2) learning about one’s own strengths, using signature strengths (3) in a new way, (4) with a minor challenge, (5) with a larger challenge, (6) for other people, (7) forming a strengths-based habit, or a placebo control condition (early memories). Results showed that using signature strengths in a new way led to increased well-being, social well-being, as well as character strengths states and traits. Forming a strengths-based habit also increased well-being and character strengths states. No effects on ill-being were found. In Study 2, we tested a four-week multi-component program that combined several interventions tested in Study 1 in a sample of N = 254 participants (77.8% women, aged 19 to 87; Md = 42). Compared to a waitlist control group, the intervention condition showed increases in well-being and character strengths states, and reductions in stress and neuroticism. We conclude that character strengths interventions may not only affect well-being but also character strengths states and traits, as well as broader personality traits such as neuroticism.
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The personality trait neuroticism is tightly linked to mental health, and neurotic people experience stronger negative emotions in everyday life. But, do their negative emotions also show greater fluctuation? This commonsensical notion was recently questioned by [Kalokerinos et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112, 15838-15843 (2020)], who suggested that the associations found in previous studies were spurious. Less neurotic people often report very low levels of negative emotion, which is usually measured with bounded rating scales. Therefore, they often pick the lowest possible response option, which severely constrains the amount of emotional variability that can be observed in principle. Applying a multistep statistical procedure that is supposed to correct for this dependency, [Kalokerinos et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 112, 15838-15843 (2020)] no longer found an association between neuroticism and emotional variability. However, like other common approaches for controlling for undesirable effects due to bounded scales, this method is opaque with respect to the assumed mechanism of data generation and might not result in a successful correction. We thus suggest an alternative approach that a) takes into account that emotional states outside of the scale bounds can occur and b) models associations between neuroticism and both the mean and variability of emotion in a single step with the help of Bayesian censored location-scale models. Simulations supported this model over alternative approaches. We analyzed 13 longitudinal datasets (2,518 individuals and 11,170 measurements in total) and found clear evidence that more neurotic people experience greater variability in negative emotion.
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In two studies, we establish the association between different assessments of character strengths (i.e., traits, habitual and daily behavior at school) with school-related well-being and achievement. Study 1 (N = 414, mean age = 14.14 years) demonstrated that habitual strengths-related behavior at school accounted for unique variance in well-being at school and in achievement beyond the influence of the respective character strength trait. Further, the desirability of certain strengths (e.g., perseverance, fairness, forgiveness, and humor) at the classroom level accounted for additional variance in students’ well-being. Study 2 (N = 186, mean age = 14.27 years) used a diary design across five days to replicate the between-person associations and study within-person associations. Results revealed that daily strengths-related behavior predicted well-being on the following day. Overall, the results underline the importance of strengths-related behavior at school and suggest that all 24 character strengths are relevant for well-being at school.
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Research activity on correlates of character strengths has been steadily increasing in the past years. However, very little is known about basic properties of character strengths, such as their conceptual breadth (narrow versus broader strengths), polarity (unipolar versus bipolar strengths), and emergence (phasic versus tonic strengths). These properties are relevant to the operationalization of character strengths and likely also for related interventions. We therefore asked a sample of N = 249 psychologists to rate the breadth, polarity, and emergence of the 24 character strengths. The results provide a first account of these properties and suggest a considerable variety in them. Our analysis suggests that the content validity of the VIA-IS and VIA-IS-R may be limited as these variety was apparently not sufficiently accounted for in these instruments. We call for further research on such basic properties and propose that these findings are considered for the future assessment of character strengths.
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In the last decade, organizational researchers have increasingly recognized the value of studying personality states at work. This line of research has to date mainly focused on outcomes of and situational antecedents of personality state change at work. In this study, we draw on social cognitive theory of self-regulation and the social investment principle to test if a structured intervention can bring about changes in employees’ personality states at work. Specifically, we investigate the effect of a four-week low-dose mindfulness intervention delivered via a mobile application on employees’ personality state change in a multi-group experiment with a passive and an active control group. Employees ( N = 162), either practicing mindfulness, doing brain training exercises, or not receiving any treatment were tracked in a diary study across a period of four weeks. Results of growth curve analyses showed that compared to the control groups, the mindfulness intervention led to significantly more increases in employees’ daily mindfulness, emotional stability and agreeableness across the four-week period. Furthermore, daily agreeableness and emotional stability mediated the effect of the intervention on daily job satisfaction and performance. No intervention effects were found for daily openness, conscientiousness, and extraversion. Implications are discussed for research and practice.
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Numerous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of character strengths-based interventions for fostering well-being. However, there are still several open questions. The present article discusses some of the most important questions. We review the current body of research and provide ideas and possible future directions on issues such as: Should interventions be generic or personalized? What strengths should be addressed in a strengths-based intervention? What is the role of signature strengths? Do strengths-based interventions change the level of character strengths? How can you justify strengths-based interventions? We conclude that increasing knowledge has not tempered but rather has heightened the initial high expectations on the important contribution of strengths-based interventions in research and practice, but still much work remains to be done.
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Personality traits are strongly related to affect, but the mechanisms accounting for this association remain mostly unclear. We test a new theoretical model that proposes that personality states, situation characteristics, and affective states mediate the relation between personality traits and trait affect. Data from an experience sampling study (N = 206; 4381 observations) indicate that personality traits are associated with personality states and experienced situation characteristics, personality states and experienced situation characteristics are associated with state affect, state affect is associated with trait affect, and that these variables indeed mediate the relation between personality traits and trait affect. These results emphasize the importance of daily experiences for trait-level variables and call for further research on the interplay between personality, behavior, situations, and affect.
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Mixed-effects multilevel models are often used to investigate cross-level interactions, a specific type of context effect that may be understood as an upper-level variable moderating the association between a lower-level predictor and the outcome. We argue that multilevel models involving cross-level interactions should always include random slopes on the lower-level components of those interactions. Failure to do so will usually result in severely anti-conservative statistical inference. We illustrate the problem with extensive Monte Carlo simulations and examine its practical relevance by studying 30 prototypical cross-level interactions with European Social Survey data for 28 countries. In these empirical applications, introducing a random slope term reduces the absolute t-ratio of the cross-level interaction term by 31 per cent or more in three quarters of cases, with an average reduction of 42 per cent. Many practitioners seem to be unaware of these issues. Roughly half of the cross-level interaction estimates published in the European Sociological Review between 2011 and 2016 are based on models that omit the crucial random slope term. Detailed analysis of the associated test statistics suggests that many of the estimates would not reach conventional thresholds for statistical significance in correctly specified models that include the random slope. This raises the question how much robust evidence of cross-level interactions sociology has actually produced over the past decades.
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Character strengths are positively valued traits that are expected to contribute to the good life (Peterson and Seligman 2004). Numerous studies have confirmed their robust relationships with subjective or hedonic well-being. Seligman (2011) provided a new framework of well-being suggesting five dimensions that encompass both hedonic and eudemonic aspects of well-being: positive emotions, engagement, positive relationships, meaning and accomplishment (forming the acronym PERMA). However, the role of character strengths has not been studied so far in this framework. Also, most studies on the relationships between character strengths and well-being only have only relied on self-reports. This set of two studies examines the relationships of character strengths and the orientations to well-being in two cross-sectional studies (Study 1: N = 5521), while also taking informant-reports into account and utilizing different questionnaires to control for a possible method bias (Study 2: N = 172). Participants completed validated assessments of character strengths and the PERMA dimensions (self-reports in Study 1, self- and informant-reports in Study 2). Results showed that in self-reports, all strengths were positively related to all PERMA dimensions, but there were differences in the size of the relationships. Accomplishment, for example, showed the strongest associations with strengths such as perspective, persistence, and zest, whereas for positive relationships, strengths such as teamwork, love, and kindness were the best predictors. These findings were largely confirmed by informant-reports in Study 2. The findings provide further support for the notion that character contributes to well-being and they could guide the development of strengths-based interventions tailored to individual needs.
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The aim of this study was to explore the role of character strengths and their associations to life satisfaction in older people. We were interested in studying several transitions that are specific for older people: aging, retirement, living alone, and being widowed. We examined the relationships of these demographic characteristics and living conditions with character strengths and studied their effects on the association of character strengths with life satisfaction. In a cross-sectional analysis, 15,598 older adults (aged 46–93 years) who had completed measures on character strengths, life satisfaction, and demographic characteristics and living conditions were selected from an existing database. Overall, analyses revealed positive associations of most character strengths with age, and higher scores in most character strengths for the employed (vs. the retired) and those living with a partner (vs. those living alone), while only few relationships with being widowed (vs. being married) were observed. Further, the contribution of character strengths to life satisfaction generally decreased slightly with age, but increased for certain character strengths, such as modesty or prudence. Also, stronger relationships between several character strengths and life satisfaction were found for retired people and those living alone, while being widowed did not affect these relationships. The results demonstrate how character strengths might contribute to the life satisfaction of older adults in various living conditions and thereby offer a starting point for strengths-based programs in later life.
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Character strengths are positively valued personality traits that are assumed to be stable across time and situations, but also malleable due to cultivation or deliberate intervention. Also, studies showed that character strengths are robustly related to well-being. Consequently, character strengths have often been used in interventions aimed at increasing well-being. However, the stability of character strengths and the longitudinal relationships with well-being are widely unexplored: First, previous reports on the stability of character strengths have mainly focused on one assessment instrument only and second, they did not consider other indicators of stability (and malleability) besides rank-order stability, (i.e., mean-level stability). In this longitudinal study, we assessed character strengths and well-being at two time points and examined the stability and malleability of character strengths and the convergence of changes in character strengths and well-being by means of correlation analyses. Two samples (n1 = 601, n2 = 1162) completed different measures of character strengths and instruments for the assessment of well-being, ill-being, and health within up to three and a half years. Results showed that character strengths are stable over longer time periods (test-retest reliabilities ranging from rtt = .60–.83) and that relationships between changes in strengths and well-being are highly parallel to what has been reported in cross-sectional studies (strongest relationships for zest, hope, curiosity, and love). Furthermore, results suggest that some strengths, most predominantly humor, but also spirituality and prudence might be more amenable for change than others. These results might bear important information for selecting character strengths in interventions.
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Over the past four decades, psychometric meta-analysis (PMA) has emerged a key way that psychological disciplines build cumulative scientific knowledge. Despite the importance and popularity of PMA, software implementing the method has tended to be closed-source, inflexible, limited in terms of the psychometric corrections available, cumbersome to use for complex analyses, and/or costly. To overcome these limitations, we created the psychmeta R package: a free, open-source, comprehensive program for PMA.
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Whole Trait Theory (WTT) was developed as an integrative model of traits that incorporates mechanisms of differential reaction to situations. Providing an explanatory account to the Big 5 (defined in terms of density distributions of personality states) creates two parts to traits, an explanatory part and a descriptive part. WTT proposes that the explanatory side of traits consists of social-cognitive mechanisms. These two parts of traits should be recognized as distinct entities that are nevertheless joined into whole traits. This review provides an overview of WTT, discusses new directions for considering WTT in personality development, the possible application of WTT to non-Big 5 traits, and possibilities for interventions based on insights from WTT.
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The dynamic mediation model (Wilt, Noftle, Fleeson, & Spain, 2012) explains the associations between personality traits and happiness through links between personality states and daily well-being. To test this model, and the mediators of these relations, we examined if between- and within-person variation in personality was associated with daily well-being for undergraduates ( N = 133) and US adults ( N = 117). The model explained the trait neuroticism and daily well-being association. Also, after controlling for traits, people were happier on days in which they were extraverted, agreeable, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience. Finally, these associations were partially mediated by the satisfaction of daily psychological needs. We discuss how the operationalization of state extraversion might impact its relation with daily well-being.
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Two experience sampling studies were examined in order to replicate the key findings from Baird, Le, and Lucas (2006) which demonstrated that intra-individual variability in personality traits was not correlated with adjustment when measured with experience sampling methods after correcting for dependencies between means and standard deviations on traits. The present studies are consistent with the major findings of Baird et al.: personality variability was not consistently associated with adjustment. In addition, we found evidence of a small positive correlation between personality variability and adjustment in some cases. Lastly, we found mixed evidence for a quadratic effect of adjustment on personality variability, such that individuals reporting above average and below average levels of adjustment exhibit the greatest level of variability.
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Individual differences researchers very commonly report Pearson correlations between their variables of interest. Cohen (1988) provided guidelines for the purposes of interpreting the magnitude of a correlation, as well as estimating power. Specifically, r = 0.10, r = 0.30, and r = 0.50 were recommended to be considered small, medium , and large in magnitude, respectively. However, Cohen's effect size guidelines were based principally upon an essentially qualitative impression, rather than a systematic, quantitative analysis of data. Consequently, the purpose of this investigation was to develop a large sample of previously published meta-analytically derived correlations which would allow for an evaluation of Cohen's guidelines from an empirical perspective. Based on 708 meta-analytically derived correlations, the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles corresponded to correlations of 0.11, 0.19, and 0.29, respectively. Based on the results, it is suggested that Cohen's correlation guidelines are too exigent, as b3% of correlations in the literature were found to be as large as r = 0.50. Consequently, in the absence of any other information, individual differences researchers are recommended to consider correlations of 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30 as relatively small, typical, and relatively large, in the context of a power analysis, as well as the interpretation of statistical results from a normative perspective.
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Prior research on the effects of personality on the variability of states has either not assessed states in real-life contexts or not incorporated meaningful contextual information when analyzing state variability. Providing an integrated contextualized approach, we introduce the Within and Across Context (WAC) Variability framework that disentangles real-life within-person fluctuations occurring within and across real-life contexts. To illustrate the utility of this framework, we investigated effects of Big Five personality traits on the level and the within- and cross-context variability of experience-sampled states (affect, self-esteem, behavior) of psychology freshmen (N = 118). Results provide initial empirical support for the meaningful separation of within- and cross-context variability and their distinct relations to personality.