The Effects of Resistance Training on Sport-Specific Performance of Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

Abstract

This systematic review examines the influence of resistance training (RT) on the performance outcomes of elite athletes. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search across PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science databases was conducted, considering studies up to November 19, 2023. The inclusion criteria were elite athletes involved in high-level competitions. Studies were categorized by the competitive level among elite athletes, athlete's sex, performance outcomes, and a training modality with subgroup analyses based on these factors. Thirty-five studies involving 777 elite athletes were included. The results of the meta-analysis revealed a large and significant overall effect of RT on sport-specific performance (standardized mean difference, SMD = 1.16, 95% CI: 0.65, 1.66), with substantial heterogeneity (I² = 84%). Subgroup analyses revealed differential effects based on the competitive level, the type of sport-specific outcomes, and sex. National elite athletes showed more pronounced (large SMD) benefits from RT compared to international elite athletes (small SMD). Global outcomes revealed a medium but non-significant (p > 0.05) SMD, while local outcomes showed a large SMD. Notably, female athletes exhibited a large SMD, though not reaching statistical significance (p > 0.05), probably due to limited study participants. No significant (p > 0.05) differences were found between heavy and light load RT. Resistance training is effective in improving sport-specific performance in elite athletes, with its effectiveness modulated by the competitive level, the type of the performance outcome, and athlete's sex. The findings underscore the need for personalized RT regimens and further research, particularly in female elite athletes, as well as advanced RT methods for international elite athletes.

Full text

Journal of Human Kinetics volume 91/2024, 135–155 DOI: 10.5114/jhk/185877 135
Modern strategies to support health, fitness and sports training
1 Department of Athletics, Faculty of Physical Education and Health, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw,
Biała Podlaska, Poland.
2 Faculty of Physical Education and Health, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
3 Department of Sports and Training Science, Faculty of Physical Education and Health, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical
Education in Warsaw, Biała Podlaska, Poland.
4 Division of Health Sciences & Human Performance, Concordia University Chicago, Chicago, USA.
* Correspondence: hubert.makaruk@awf.edu.pl
The Effects of Resistance Training on Sport-Specific Performance
of Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
by
Hubert Makaruk 1,*, Marcin Starzak 1, Piotr Tarkowski 2, Jerzy Sadowski 3,
Jason Winchester 4
This systematic review examines the influence of resistance training (RT) on the performance outcomes of elite
athletes. Adhering to PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search across PubMed, Scopus, SPORTDiscus, and Web of
Science databases was conducted, considering studies up to November 19, 2023. The inclusion criteria were elite athletes
involved in high-level competitions. Studies were categorized by the competitive level among elite athletes, athlete's sex,
performance outcomes, and a training modality with subgroup analyses based on these factors. Thirty-five studies
involving 777 elite athletes were included. The results of the meta-analysis revealed a large and significant overall effect
of RT on sport-specific performance (standardized mean difference, SMD = 1.16, 95% CI: 0.65, 1.66), with substantial
heterogeneity (I² = 84%). Subgroup analyses revealed differential effects based on the competitive level, the type of sport-
specific outcomes, and sex. National elite athletes showed more pronounced (large SMD) benefits from RT compared to
international elite athletes (small SMD). Global outcomes revealed a medium but non-significant (p > 0.05) SMD, while
local outcomes showed a large SMD. Notably, female athletes exhibited a large SMD, though not reaching statistical
significance (p > 0.05), probably due to limited study participants. No significant (p > 0.05) differences were found
between heavy and light load RT. Resistance training is effective in improving sport-specific performance in elite athletes,
with its effectiveness modulated by the competitive level, the type of the performance outcome, and athlete's sex. The
findings underscore the need for personalized RT regimens and further research, particularly in female elite athletes, as
well as advanced RT methods for international elite athletes.
Keywords: training; strength exercise; strength and conditioning; plyometrics; sport-specific outcomes
Introduction
Sport-specific performance is a complex,
multi-dimensional concept crucial for success in
competitive sports (Ford et al., 2011; Johnston et al.,
2018). It is characterized by a unique blend of
physical, technical, tactical, and psychological
elements, each carefully tailored to the specific
demands of a particular sport. This performance
extends beyond basic physical attributes like
strength, power, endurance, speed, agility, and
flexibility (Tucker and Collins, 2012). It also
includes mastering specialized movement patterns
that are essential for effectively executing tasks
unique to a sport (Elferink-Gemser et al., 2007). For
example, the performance of a kick in soccer (Katis
et al., 2013) or a serve in tennis (Etnyre, 1998)
requires not just force but also accuracy, control,
and decision-making. It is important to note that
researching sport-specific performance entails
significant challenges, primarily due to the
intricacies involved in identifying key aspects or
predictors of success within competitive sports.
Direct evidence establishing predictors of

136 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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competition success is scarce. The methodological
constraints are particularly pronounced in
dynamic and multifaceted sports disciplines,
where capturing the essence of sport-specific
performance is both critical and challenging
(Chaabene et al., 2018). These challenges can be
magnified in team sports where, outside of the
attributes that a given athlete may possess or even
technical and tactical components, dynamics of
communication and interpersonal relationships
can influence competitive outcomes. Despite these
difficulties, in some systematic reviews,
researchers have attempted to identify and
evaluate sport-specific outcomes (Chaabene et al.,
2018; Saeterbakken et al., 2022; Thiele et al., 2020).
Elite athletes compete at the highest levels
of national and international sports. Their
development in sports performance goes beyond
innate talent to include unique training methods
designed specifically for their advanced needs,
which often differ from those of non-elite athletes
(Lorenz et al., 2013). Defining the criteria to classify
'elite' athletes has been a challenging task for
researchers, which has resulted in confusion and
inconsistency in the literature. Although some
attempts have been made to clarify the issue, as
seen in Swann et al. (2015), there remains a
considerable lack of consensus among researchers
regarding this matter. Because of this, the term
'elite' in sports research spans a wide range, from
athletes with only few years of training experience,
to academy or university competitors, top-ranked
participants, skilled national or international
competitors, and extends to professionals, semi-
professionals, world-class athletes, medalists,
Olympians, and even Olympic or world
champions (Williams et al., 2017). This absence of a
universally accepted standard for what makes an
athlete ‘elite’ presents a challenge to the validity of
research focusing on high-level sports
performance and training methods tailored to
these athletes. It complicates the process of
drawing reliable conclusions about the unique
training and performance characteristics that
distinguish elite athletes from their non-elite
counterparts. In this work, we address this
challenge by categorizing elite athletes as those
competing at the highest international or national
levels in their respective sports.
Resistance training (RT) is widely
acknowledged as a vital component in enhancing
athletic performance, significantly influencing an
athlete's sport-specific abilities and skills (Abdi et
al., 2019; Loturco et al., 2024; Spieszny et al., 2022;
Thiele et al., 2020b). Its diverse nature allows for a
broad spectrum of benefits, adaptable to various
athletic needs and goals (Harries et al., 2012;
Loturco et al., 2023a; Saeterbakken et al., 2022).
This training method encompasses a wide range of
tools, including free weights, machines, resistance
bands, plyometrics, resisted sprint training, core
stability exercises, and bodyweight exercises
(Loturco et al., 2023b; Morris et al., 2022; Stone et
al., 2000). The selection of tools and techniques can
be specifically tailored to enhance particular
muscle groups (Schoenfeld et al., 2019), improve
overall strength, increase power or build
endurance, depending on the athlete’s sport and
individual requirements. However, this diversity
also poses a challenge in identifying the most
effective training regimen for each athlete,
requiring a deep understanding of the sport's
specific physical demands and the athlete’s
personal performance goals (Harries et al., 2012;
Thiele et al., 2020). For example, a basketball player
may focus on plyometric exercises to improve
explosive power and agility, vital for jumping and
quick movements on the court. In contrast,
a swimmer may utilize resistance bands to
strengthen upper body muscles, crucial for
effective stroke techniques in the water, and can
deliberately avoid repetition ranges thought to be
more effective at inducing muscle hypertrophy in
an effort, to prevent an increase in their cross-
sectional area.
In this systematic review, we address
a critical gap in the current understanding of how
RT specifically benefits elite athletes. Existing
research predominantly focuses on the general
physical advantages of RT, such as enhanced
muscle mass and overall strength (Naclerio et al.,
2013; Ratel, 2011; Zouita et al., 2023). However,
when sport-specific performance is examined,
participants are often not elite athletes (Harries et
al., 2012), or studies combine data from elite
athletes with those of sub-elite and recreational
athletes, leading to less distinct findings (Thiele et
al., 2020). This situation results in a lack of clarity
on how adaptations derived from RT translate into
enhanced sport-specific performance, particularly
at the elite level. Our review aimed to synthesize
available evidence to discern the specific impact of

by Hubert Makaruk et al. 137
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license.
various RT methods on sport-specific skills and
performance of elite athletes. The objective was
twofold: firstly, to systematically analyze and
integrate findings from existing studies, thereby
establishing a clear understanding of the role of RT
in elite sports performance. Secondly, the review
sought to provide evidence-based
recommendations for optimizing RT protocols for
elite athletes, identifying strategies that would
effectively enhance athletic performance. Such
a focused approach is crucial for advancing the
field of sports science and guiding coaches toward
evidence-based practices in the development of
elite-level athletes.
Methods
Search Strategy
This systematic review was conducted
following the PRISMA guidelines (Moher et al.,
2009). Given that the study did not entail direct
involvement of human subjects, the institutional
review board approval was not required. An
extensive search was conducted across four
electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus,
SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science) using specific
search terms combined with Boolean operators, as
detailed in Table 1. This search included all
publications available up to November 19, 2023,
and was not limited by language.
Study Selection and Data Extraction
During the study selection and data
extraction phase, titles, abstracts, and full texts
were systematically evaluated by two independent
reviewers (H.M., M.S.) according to the PICO
criteria outlined in Table 2. The EndNote X9.3.3
software (Clarivate Analytics) was used to
facilitate the removal of duplicate articles, which
was complemented by a manual check to ensure
thorough de-duplication. Any discrepancies
encountered in the selection process were resolved
through discussion until a consensus was reached.
Each study was coded for the following
data: authors, sport, a competitive level (divided
into categories: international level, national top-
level), an intervention or a control group
(resistance methods, e.g., strength training, power
training, plyometrics, sprint resistance, trunk
muscle training), the number of participants, sex,
age, duration and frequency of intervention, the
type of the performance test, outcomes (divided
into categories: global, e.g., throwing velocity and
local, e.g., running time). According to Thiele et al.
(2020), multiple outcomes were ranked based on
their significance for sport-specific performance,
and the variable with the highest ranking was
included in the subsequent analysis. Additionally,
the types of resistance interventions were divided
into two distinct categories: heavy and light (or
power) load RT. Heavy RT typically involved
lifting heavier weights (> 65% of one repetition
maximum (1RM)) at a lower volume to increase
muscle strength and hypertrophy, while light RT
emphasized lifting lighter weights (< 60% of 1 RM)
at a higher speed to enhance muscle power and
speed of movement (Fisher et al., 2017). When
study estimates were reported only graphically,
data were extracted using ImageJ software version
1.53 (National Institutes of Health,
USA, http://imagej.nih.gov).
Study Quality
Two independent reviewers (M.S. and
P.T.) assessed the risk of bias and methodological
quality of eligible articles using the PEDro scale
(Maher et al., 2003). Discrepancies in PEDro scores
were resolved through consultation with a third,
independent, PEDro-certified assessor (H.M.).
Compliance with the PEDro scale's criteria was
indicated by "yes" for criteria met and "no" for the
unmet ones, following the guidelines provided by
PEDro (see
https://pedro.org.au/english/resources/pedro-
scale/). The PEDro scale evaluates internal validity
and the presence of statistically replicable
information, using a scale from 0 (high risk of bias)
to 10 (low risk of bias). A score of 6 or more
represents the threshold for studies with a low risk
of bias. Item 1 only pertains to external validity and
is not included in the calculation of the overall
PEDro score. In training intervention studies,
blinding participants to the exercise program is
impossible, and often, it is also not feasible to blind
the investigators. Therefore, items 5 and 6 of the
PEDro scale, which are related to blinding, were
removed, reducing the maximum score to 8.
Following the criteria of previous exercise
intervention reviews (Kümmel et al., 2016;
Saeterbakken et al., 2022; Starzak et al., 2024),
studies were categorized as follows: 6–8 excellent
quality, 5 good quality, 4 moderate quality, and 0–
3 poor quality. Points were awarded only when a

138 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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study explicitly met the criteria. Additionally, the
PEDro scale was modified for this study to align
more closely with the specific methodological
aspects of the strength and conditioning field
(Makaruk et al., 2022).
Statistical Analysis
Between-subject standardized mean
differences (SMDs) were calculated to determine
the effects of RT on sport-specific performance,
utilizing the formula: SMD = (mean1 − mean2) /
spooled, where 'mean1' was the mean pre/post-test
value of the intervention group, 'mean2' was the
mean pre/post-test value of the control group, and
'spooled' was the pooled standard deviation
(Saeterbakken et al., 2022). The SMD was adjusted
for sample size according to Hedges and Olkin
(2014), using the factor (1 − (3 / (4N − 9))), with 'N'
representing the total sample size. Adjusted SMD
values, calculated as the difference between pre-
test and post-test SMDs, were also determined
(Durlak, 2009). A random effects model was
applied to weigh each study according to its
standard error and to aggregate the weighted
mean adjusted SMDs. Positive SMD values were
consistently reported when RT was found to have
a favorable effect compared with controls. A p
value of < 0.05 was considered indicative of
statistical significance. SMD values were
categorized as trivial (< 0.2), small (0.2 ≤ SMD < 0.5),
medium (0.5 ≤ SMD < 0.8), or large (SMD ≥ 0.8)
(Cohen, 2013).
The inclusion of studies in the meta-
analysis required a minimum of two intervention
groups. Subject-related moderator variables such
as the performance level, the type of sport-specific
outcomes, sex, and the type of the resistance
method were examined through sub-group
analyses. Meta-analyses were conducted using
Review Manager (RevMan5.3, Copenhagen: The
Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane
Collaboration, 2014). The level of agreement
between reviewers was assessed using Kappa
correlation coefficients (Altman, 1990). These
coefficients are generally interpreted as follows:
0.81–1.00 indicates very good agreement, 0.61–0.80
good, 0.41–0.60 moderate, 0.21–0.40 fair, and < 0.20
poor (Altman, 1990). The I2 statistic was utilized to
assess the level of between-study heterogeneity
(Higgins et al., 2003), with values of 25%, 50%, and
75% corresponding to low, moderate, and high
heterogeneity, respectively. Values exceeding 75%
were deemed highly heterogeneous. Additionally,
the chi-square test was used to ascertain whether
analysis results were due to chance, with
significant results indicated by low p-values or
high chi-square statistics relative to degrees of
freedom (df).
Results
Study Selection
A primary search of the electronic
databases yielded 3607 studies. Additional three
records were identified from other sources. After
removing duplicates using Endnote software, and
screening the titles and abstracts, 140 studies were
selected for full-text revision. Five additional
studies were found through a reference list search
of eligible literature. Following all screening
processes, 35 studies with 777 participants were
included for qualitative analysis, and 29 studies
were used for the meta-analysis. The flow of
studies through the review process is reported in
Figure 1.
Methodological Quality
Table 3 provides a detailed analysis of the
methodological quality of the studies using the
PEDro scale. The median quality score was 4
points, with a range from 3 to 6 points, indicating
moderate methodological quality. The agreement
rate between the assessments performed by the
two reviewers was classified as very good since the
Kappa correlation coefficient was 0.94.
None of the studies met the criterion of
allocation concealment, with only one study
explicitly stating whether an 'intention-to-treat'
analysis was performed for the relevant outcomes.
Moreover, except for one study, none of the studies
included provided information on the criteria used
for blinding methods.
Study Characteristics
The pooled number of participants across
the studies was 777, with a sample size ranging
from 9 to 36 participants (Table 4). Twenty-five
studies involved only male participants, two
studies included only female athletes, and eight
studies combined male and female participants.
The participants' average age varied from 13.2 to
29.6 years. Out of the total, twenty-nine studies
enrolled athletes who were adults (aged ≥ 18

by Hubert Makaruk et al. 139
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years), whereas six studies involved youth athletes
(aged ≤ 18 years). In twenty-six studies, athletes
were categorized as national elites, while in nine
studies, they were categorized as international elite
athletes.
Table 1. Searched terms used to identify potential studies.
Concept Searched term
Independent variable
(key issue)
"strength training" OR "weight training" OR "resistance training" OR "power training" OR
"eccentric training" OR "isometric training" OR "strength exercise*" OR "weight exercise*"
OR "resistance exercise*" OR "power exercise*" OR "eccentric exercise*" OR "isokinetic
exercise*" OR "isometric exercise*" OR "heavy load*" OR "hypertrophy" OR "bodybuilding"
OR "plyometric*" OR "Olympic lift*" OR "muscular endurance" OR "crossfit" OR
"calisthenics" OR "free weight*" OR "machine exercise*" OR "machine weight*" OR "elastic
bands" OR "weight vest" OR "weights belts" OR "core resistance" OR "core training" OR
"trunk training" OR "medicine ball*" OR "kettlebell*" OR "resisted speed" OR "resisted
sprint*" OR "resisted run*" OR "sled towing" OR "resisted sled" OR "uphill run*" OR
"flywheel training" OR "flywheel resistance" OR "eccentric overload training" OR "isoinertial
training" OR "Velocity Based Resistance Training" OR "Velocity-Based Strength Training"
OR "VBT"
Dependent variable
(sport skills as a result of
learning)
"1 RM" OR "1RM" OR "rep* max*" OR "max* strength" OR "max* strength" OR "squat" OR
"clean and jerk" OR "power clean" OR "snatch" OR "deadlift" OR "bench press" OR "leg press"
OR "strength performance" OR "strength outcome*" OR "sprint" OR "speed run*" OR "run*
time" OR "run* speed" OR "run* performance" OR "endurance run*" OR "run* endurance"
OR "distance run*" OR "long distance run*" OR "run* economy" OR "run* distance" OR "run*
outcome*" OR "sprint time" OR "1 repetition maximum" OR "sport-specific performance"
OR "agility" OR "change of direction" OR "COD"
Population
"elite" OR "world-class athletes" OR "world-class players" OR "professional athletes" OR
"highly trained" OR "highly skilled" OR "well-trained" OR "top athletes" OR "top-ranking
athletes" OR "national team" OR "international level"
#1 AND #2 AND #3
Table 2. Selection criteria.
Category Inclusion criteria Exclusion criteria
Population Elite female and male athletes who are international
or national top-level athletes (succeeded in national
competitions) or athletes in highly competitive
leagues (e.g., NCAA Division 1)
Athletes competing at regional, state, or
provincial levels, masters level competitors (> 35
years), the sample size includes both elite and
non-elite (e.g., novice or recreational) athletes,
athletes from countries with low sports
competitiveness, disabled athletes
Intervention Training programs lasting a minimum of 4 weeks or
comprising at least 10 sessions; resistance training
interventions including free weights, machine
weights, isokinetic devices, elastic bands, resisted
running, and plyometrics
Resistance training combined with
supplementary aids (e.g., nutritional,
pharmacological, physiological, or
psychological)
Comparator Control group consisting of elite athletes Absence of a control or an active control group,
athletes from sports different from the
intervention group
Outcome At least one measure of sport-specific performance Lack of pre- and post-intervention measures,
outcomes differing significantly from at least top
national level
Study design Between-subjects design Systematic reviews, observational studies, case
studies

140 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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Table 3. PEDro methodological quality rating scores.
Study
Criterion Total PEDro
score
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Aagaard et al. (2011) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Ben Brahim et al. (2021) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Blazevich and Jenkins (2002) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
Born et al. (2020) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 4
Büsch et al. (2015) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 6
Carlsson et al. (2017) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Cherif et al. (2022) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
Fernandez-Fernandez et al. (2013) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Hermassi et al. (2010) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Hermassi et al. (2015) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Hermassi et al. (2019) 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 6
Jones et al. (2018) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
Karpiński et al. (2020) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Kristiansen et al. (2023) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Kristoffersen et al. (2019) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Losnegard et al. (2011) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 4
McEvoy and Newton (1998) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
Millet et al. (2002) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Newton and McEvoy (1994) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Newton et al. (1999) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Paavolainen et al. (1999) 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 4
Ramos Veliz et al. (2014) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Ramos Veliz et al. (2015) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Rønnestad et al. (2012) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 4
Rønnestad et al. (2015) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Rønnestad et al. (2017) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Sabido et al. (2016) 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Saez de Villarreal et al. (2014) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Saez de Villarreal et al. (2015a) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Saez de Villarreal et al. (2015b) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Saunders et al. (2006) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Sedano et al. (2009) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 5
Sedano et al. (2013) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
Therell et al. (2022) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 3
Wang et al. (2022) 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 4
A detailed explanation of each item on the PEDro scale is available at https://pedro.org.au/english/resources/pedro-
scale/.

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license.
Table 4a. Study characteristics.
Study
Population
Intervention Training period/
Frequency Outcome
Sport/
Competitive level
Sex, sample size
(n), age (years
±SD)
Aagaard et al. (2011) Cycling/
International Elite
M, 19.5 (±0.8),
EG: 7
CON: 7
EG: weighted strength
training,
CON: regular training
16 weeks,
2–3 sessions/week
45-min endurance test,
capacity (W),
EG1↑ > E2↑
Ben Brahim et al.
(2021)
Soccer/
International Elite
M, 18.8 (±0.8),
EG: 20
CON: 14
EG: resisted sprint
training,
CON: regular training
6 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Ball-shooting speed
(km·h−1),
EG↑ > CON↑
Blazevich and
Jenkins (2002)
Sprinters/
National Elite
M, 19.0 (±1.4),
EG1: 5
EG2: 4
EG1: strength training
with high movement
speeds,
EG2: strength training
with low movement
speeds
7 weeks,
2 sessions/week
20-m acceleration (s),
EG1↑ = EG2
Born et al. (2020) Swimming/
International Elite
M&F,
EG1: 10, 17.1
(±2.6),
EG2: 11, 17.1
(±2.7)
EG1: heavy strength
training,
EG2: plyometric
training
6 weeks,
2 sessions/week
25-m Freestyle swimming
sprint (s),
EG1 = EG2
Büsch et al. (2015) Handball/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 10, 16.7
(±0.6),
EG2: 9, 17.4 (±0.9)
EG1: resistance training
on stable ground,
EG2: resistance training
on unstable ground
10 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Figure eight run
performance (s),
EG1↑ = EG2↑
Carlsson et al. (2017) Cross country
skiing/
National Elite
M&F,
EG1: 14, M: 18.4
(±1.0), F: 18.5
(±0.8),
EG2: 19, M: 18.4
(±0.9), F: 17.7
(±0.9)
EG1: strength training,
EG2: ski-ergometer
training
6 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Maximal-speed test with
the double-poling
technique, maximal speed
(km·h−1),
EG1↑ = EG2↑
Cherif et al. (2022) Handball/
National Elite
M, 22.1 (±3.0),
EG: 11
CON: 11
EG: strength and power
training,
CON: regular training
12 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Throwing velocity (m·s−1),
EG↑ = CON
Fernandez-
Fernandez et al.
(2013)
Tennis/
National Elite
M,
EG: 15, 13.2 (±0.6)
CON: 15, 13.2
(±0.5)
EG: resistance training,
CON: regular training
6 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Serve velocity (km·h−1),
EG↑ = CON
Hermassi et al.
(2010)
Handball/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 9, 20.0 (±0.5)
EG2: 9, 20.1 (±0.6)
CON: 8, 20.0
(±0.7)
EG1: heavy strength
training,
EG2: moderate strength
training,
CON: regular training
10 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Throwing velocity with
run-up (m·s−1),
EG1↑, EG2 > CON
Hermassi et al.
(2015)
Handball/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 10, 18.4
(±0.5)
EG2: 12, 18.7
(±0.5)
CON: 12, 18.5
(±0.5)
EG1: resistance training,
EG2: throwing training,
CON: regular training
8 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Throwing velocity with
run-up (m·s−1),
EG1↑ > CON;
EG2 = CON
M: Men; W: Women; EG: Experimental group; CON: Control group; ↑: Indicates a significant increase

142 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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Table 4b. Study characteristics.
Study
Population
Intervention Training period/
Frequency Outcome
Sport/
Competitive level
Sex, sample size
(n), age (years
±SD)
Hermassi et al.
(2019)
Handball/
National Elite
M
EG: 11, 20.3 (±0.5)
CON: 11, 20.1
(±0.5)
EG: weighted strength
training,
CON: regular training
12 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Throwing velocity with
run-up (m·s−1),
EG↑ > CON
Jones et al. (2018) Swimming/
International Elite
M&F,
EG1: 4M, 2F, 19.4
(±1.1)
EG2: 6M, 18.9
(±0.9)
EG1: weighted strength
training,
EG2: ballistic training
6 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Time to 5 m (s),
EG1 = EG2
Karpiński et al.
(2020)
Swimming/
National Elite
M,
EG: 15, 20.2 (±1.2)
CON: 15, 20.0
(±1.9)
EG: core muscle
training,
CON: regular training
6 weeks,
3 sessions/week
50-m swimming time (s),
EG↑ = CON
Kristiansen et al.
(2023)
Sprint Kayaking/
National Elite
M, 18.6 (±4.1), F,
17.0 (±1.4),
EG1: 14
EG2: 12
EG1: strength training
(improve),
EG2: strength training
(maintain)
6 weeks,
3 sessions/week
200-m kayak ergometer all-
out test (s),
EG1↑ = EG2
Kristoffersen et al.
(2019)
Cycling/
National Elite
M&F, 29.6 (±0.6),
EG1: 14
EG2: 6
EG1: resistance sprint
training,
EG2: heavy strength
training
6 weeks,
2 sessions/week
5-min all-out cycling,
average power output
(W·kg−1),
EG1↑ = EG2↑
Losnegard et al.
(2011)
Cross-country
skiing/
National Elite
M&F,
EG: 9, M, 21.2
(±2.5), F, 21.3
(±5.1),
CON: 10, M, 20.8
(±2.5), F, 22.6
(±2.4)
EG: heavy strength
training,
CON: regular training
12 weeks,
1–2 sessions/week
1.3-km skate-rollerski
performance (VO2 max),
EG = CON
McEvoy and
Newton (1998)
Baseball/
International Elite
M, 24 (±4),
EG: 9
CON: 9
EG: ballistic weight
training,
CON: regular training
10 weeks,
3 sessions/week/
every 2 weeks
Throwing speed (m·s−1),
EG↑ > CON
Millet et al. (2002) Triathlon/
International Elite
M,
EG: 7, 24.3 (±5.2)
CON: 8, 21.4
(±2.1)
EG: concurrent heavy
weight training,
endurance-strength
training,
CON: regular training
14 weeks,
2 sessions/week
3000-m running at VΔ25%,
running economy
(mL·kg−1·km−1),
EG > CON
Newton and
McEvoy (1994)
Baseball/
National Elite
M, 18.6 (±1.9),
EG1: 8
EG2: 8
CON: 8
EG1: ballistic training,
EG2: weighted strength
training,
CON: regular training
8 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Throwing speed (m·s−1),
EG2↑ = EG1, CON
Newton et al. (1999) Volleyball/
National Elite
M, 19 (±2),
EG1: 8
EG2: 8
EG1: ballistic training,
EG2: strength training
8 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Three-step vertical jump
(cm),
EG1↑ > EG2
Paavolainen et al.
(1999)
Cross-country
running/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 10, 23 (3),
EG2: 8, 24 (±5),
EG1: sport-specific
explosive strength
training with high
training volume,
CON: sport-specific
explosive strength
training with low
training volume
9 weeks
5-km time trial (min),
EG1↑ > CON
M: Men; W: Women; EG: Experimental group; CON: Control group; ↑: Indicates a significant increase

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Table 4c. Study characteristics.
Study
Population
Intervention Training period/
Frequency Outcome
Sport/
Competitive level
Sex, sample size
(n), age (years
±SD)
Ramos Veliz et al.
(2014)
Water polo/
National Elite
M, 20.4 (±5.1),
EG: 16
CON: 11
EG: strength training,
CON: regular training
18 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Throwing velocity (m·s−1),
EG↑ = CON
Ramos Veliz et al.
(2015)
Water polo/
National Elite
F, 26.4 (±4.3),
EG: 11
CON: 10
EG: lower body strength
and power training,
CON: regular training
16 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Throwing velocity (m·s−1),
EG↑ = CON
Rønnestad et al.
(2012)
Nordic Combined/
International Elite
M,
EG: 8, 19 (±2)
CON: 9, 20 (±3)
EG: heavy strength
training,
CON: regular training
without heavy strength
training
12 weeks,
2 sessions/week
7.5-km rollerski time-trial
performance (s),
EG = CON
Rønnestad et al.
(2015)
Cycling/
International Elite
M,
EG: 9, 19.1 (±1.7),
CON: 7, 20.1
(±1.6)
EG: heavy strength
training,
CON: regular training
10/15 weeks,
1–2 sessions/week
Wingate test (VO2max),
EG = CON
Rønnestad et al.
(2017)
Cycling/
International Elite
M&F,
EG: 10M, 2F, 19
(±2),
CON: 6M, 2F, 20
(±2)
EG: heavy strength
training,
CON: regular training
10 weeks,
2 sessions/week
40-min all-out trial (VO2max)
EG = CON
Sabido et al. (2016) Handball/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 12, 17.1
(±0.6),
EG2: 11, 17.4
(±0.5),
CON: 5, 17.0
(±0.6)
EG1: bench press throw
exercise - known loads,
EG2: bench press throw
exercise - unknown
loads,
CON: regular training
4 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Jumping throw (km·h−1),
EG2↑ = EG1, CON
Saez de Villarreal et
al. (2014)
Water polo/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 10, 19.7
(±5.4),
EG2: 9, 18.5 (±2.3)
EG1: dry land resistance
training,
EG2: in water resistance
training
6 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Throwing speed (km·h−1),
EG1 = EG2
Saez de Villarreal et
al. (2015a)
Water polo/
National Elite
M, 23.4 (±4.1),
EG1: 10
EG2: 10
EG3: 10
EG1: strength and
plyometric training,
EG2: in water strength
training,
EG3: plyometric training
6 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Throwing speed (km·h−1),
EG1↑ > EG3↑;
EG1↑ = EG2↑
Saez de Villarreal et
al. (2015b)
Soccer/
National Elite
M
EG: 13, 15.3 (±0.3),
CON: 13, 14.9
(±0.2)
EG: plyometric-sprint
training,
CON: regular training
9 weeks,
2 sessions/week
Ball-shooting speed
(km·h−1),
EG↑ > CON
Saunders et al. (2006) Long and middle
distance running/
National Elite
M,
EG: 7, 23.4 (±3.2),
CON: 8, 24.9
(±3.2)
EG: plyometric training,
CON: regular training
9 weeks,
2–3 sessions/week
Treadmill running test,
running economy at 18
km·h−1, (VO2; L·min−1),
EG↑ > CON
Sedano et al. (2009) Soccer/
National Elite
F,
EG: 10, 22.8 (±2.1),
CON: 10, 23.0
(±3.2)
EG: plyometric training,
CON: regular training
12 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Kicking speed (km·h−1),
EG↑ > CON
M: Men; W: Women; EG: Experimental group; CON: Control group; ↑: Indicates a significant increase

144 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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Table 4d. Study characteristics.
Study
Population
Intervention Training period/
Frequency Outcome
Sport/
Competitive level
Sex, sample size
(n), age (years
±SD)
Sedano et al. (2013) Soccer/
National Elite
M,
EG: 11, 18.4
(±1.1),
CON: 11, 18.2
(±0.9)
EG: plyometric training,
CON: regular training
10 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Kicking speed (km·h−1),
EG↑ > CON
Therell et al. (2022) Cross-country
skiing/
National Elite
M&F,
EG1: 12, 18.1
(±0.6),
EG2: 12, 18.0
(±1.5)
EG1: static core muscle
training,
EG2: dynamic core
muscle training
9 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Roller ski treadmill test,
energetic cost (J·kg−1·m−1),
EG1 = EG2
Wang et al. (2022) Volleyball/
National Elite
M,
EG1: 6, 20.8
(±1.5),
EG2: 6, 20.5
(±1.4),
EG3: 6, 20.2 (±0.8)
EG1: high-load
resistance training,
EG2: low-load
resistance training with
blood flow restriction,
EG3: high-load
resistance training with
blood flow restriction
8 weeks,
3 sessions/week
Three footed takeoff
vertical jump (cm),
EG3↑ > EG2;
EG↑ = EG1
M: Men; W: Women; EG: Experimental group; CON: Control group; ↑: Indicates a significant increase
Figure 1. Flow chart of study selection for systematic review and meta-analysis.

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license.
Figure 2. The effects of resistance training (RT) compared with a control group (CON) on
sport-specific performance in elite athletes.
Experimental = experimental group, Control = control group, SMD = standardized mean difference,
SE = standard error, Total = number of participants, CI = confidence interval, IV = inverse variance,
Random = random effect model, df = degrees of freedom.
Figure 3. The effects of resistance training (RT) compared with a control group (CON) on
sport-specific performance in elite athletes, delineated by the competitive level (international
elite athletes, national elite athletes). Experimental = experimental group, Control = control group,
SMD = standardized mean difference, SE = standard error, Total = number of participants, CI =
confidence interval, IV = inverse variance, Random = random effect model, df = degrees of freedom.

146 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
Journal of Human Kinetics, volume 91, March 2024 http://www.johk.pl
Figure 4. The effects of resistance training (RT) compared with a control group (CON) on
sport-specific performance, categorized into global and local outcomes, in elite athletes.
Experimental = experimental group, Control = control group, SMD = standardized mean difference,
SE = standard error, Total = number of participants, CI = confidence interval, IV = inverse variance,
Random = random effect model, df = degrees of freedom.
Figure 5. The effects of resistance training (RT) compared with a control group (CON) on
sport-specific performance in elite athletes with a focus on sex-based differences.
Experimental = experimental group, Control = control group, SMD = standardized mean difference,
SE = standard error, Total = number of participants, CI = confidence interval, IV = inverse variance,
Random = random effect model, df = degrees of freedom.

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license.
Figure 6. The effects of heavy loads resistance training (HL) compared with light loads
resistance training (LL) on sport-specific performance in elite athletes.
Experimental = experimental group, Control = control group, SMD = standardized mean difference,
SE = standard error, Total = number of participants, CI = confidence interval, IV = inverse variance,
Random = random effect model, df = degrees of freedom.
The duration of RT interventions varied
from four to eight weeks, with training frequencies
ranging from one to three sessions per week. The
studies included in the analysis assessed sport-
specific performance using various RT methods
such as heavy strength training, ballistic training,
plyometrics, concurrent strength and endurance
training, core muscle training or different
modalities of RT. These modalities included
strength training on a stable and an unstable
surface, dry-land and in-water strength training, as
well as strength training with blood flow
restriction, or combined methods of RT, including
strength and plyometric training.
Twenty-three studies conducted
comparisons between an intervention group that
followed RT and an active control group that
mostly followed a regular training routine in a
specific sport, which was similar to the
intervention group. Four of the twenty-three
studies included two experimental groups
compared to control groups. In addition, ten
studies compared two different RT interventions
without a control group, while two others
compared three RT interventions exclusively.
Main Analyses
The primary meta-analysis, encompassing
23 studies with 460 elite athletes, demonstrated
that RT significantly enhanced sport-specific
performance, evidenced by a SMD of 1.16 (95% CI:
0.65, 1.66), indicative of a large effect size (Figure
2). Despite the noted heterogeneity (I² = 84%), the
overall positive effect was statistically significant
(Z = 4.48, p < 0.00001). Subsequent analyses
distinguished between international and national
elite athletes (Figure 3). International elite athletes
did not exhibit a statistically significant (p > 0.05)
improvement in performance (SMD = 0.29; 95% CI:
−0.07, 0.64; I² = 0%), in contrast to national elite
athletes who saw a larger, significant (p < 0.00001)
benefit from RT (SMD = 1.57; 95% CI: 0.90, 2.24; I²
= 87%). A further breakdown revealed differential
responses based on the type of the sport-specific
outcome (Figure 4). Global outcomes yielded a
medium but non-significant SMD of 0.49 (95% CI:
−0.11, 1.09; p > 0.05; I² = 70%), whereas local
outcomes showed a more pronounced, significant
effect (SMD = 1.59; 95% CI: 0.88, 2.29; p < 0.00001)
with high heterogeneity (I² = 87%). The sex-based
analysis included 18 studies on male athletes and 2
on female athletes (Figure 5). The SMD for males
was significant at 1.02 (95% CI: 0.55, 1.49; p <
0.00001; I² = 77%), while females, despite a larger
SMD of 3.40 (95% CI: −0.47, 7.26), did not reach
statistical significance (p = 0.08), with very high
heterogeneity (I² = 95%). Lastly, the meta-analysis
(Figure 6) comparing heavy versus light RT across

148 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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eight studies found no significant (p > 0.05)
differences in athletic performance outcomes
(SMD = −0.03; 95% CI: −0.38, 0.31), and
homogeneity in effects was observed (I² = 0%).
Discussion
The nature of each sport requires the
development of specific skills to meet the demands
and challenges of each sport, ensuring peak
performance. Our analysis reveals that RT may
play a pivotal role in sport-specific performance
enhancement in elite athletes. The main
conclusions of the conducted meta-analysis were
that (i) RT produced large overall beneficial effects
on sport-specific outcomes in elite athletes when
compared with a control group of elite athletes, (ii)
the effectiveness of RT in sport-specific
performance was determined by a diverse range of
factors, including the competitive level of athletes,
the nature of outcomes, sex differences, and
variations in RT methods, and (iii) there was a
notable lack of randomized studies examining the
influence of RT on sport-specific performance
among international-level elite athletes,
particularly those at Olympic or world champion
levels, and a paucity of studies focusing on elite
female athletes.
The findings of this systematic review
revealed that RT, when used as a supplement to
sport-specific training, offered large advantages
(SMD greater than 1) for enhancing performance in
various sports, from cross-country skiing
(Losnegard et al., 2011), orienteering (Paavolainen
et al., 1999) through handball (Hermassi et al.,
2010) and soccer (Sedano et al., 2009) to water polo
(Veliz et al., 2015). This enhancement demonstrates
the versatile and impactful nature of RT in
boosting sport-specific performance in elite
athletes. A significant advantage was consistent
across studies, as reflected by the high
heterogeneity (I² = 84%), suggesting that while RT
is broadly effective, the degree of impact varies
considerably among individuals. This variation
could be due to differences in sport-specific
demands, RT protocols, or individual athlete
responses, underscoring the necessity for
personalized RT regimens to optimize sport-
specific performance enhancements in elite
athletes. It is also possible that differences in prior
experience with RT between athletes could have
contributed to the variations noted above.
Interestingly, the subgroup analysis based
on the level of competition revealed that RT had a
more pronounced and significant effect on national
elite athletes compared to their international
counterparts. This may suggest that athletes at the
national level likely have more room for physical
improvement through RT compared to
international athletes who may already be at or
near their peak physical condition. Additionally,
the observed low heterogeneity among
international elite athletes might indicate more
uniform training and performance standards at the
highest sports level. In contrast, the diverse
responses (high heterogeneity) within national
elites could reflect a broader spectrum of training
methods, physiological adaptations, and
performance capacities. These insights point
towards the need for a tailored approach in
implementing RT, considering the athlete's current
competitive level and specific needs (Loturco et al.,
2023a). Thus, it becomes evident that a more
specialized and advanced form of RT may be the
key to unlocking further performance
enhancements in international-level elite athletes.
For instance, Zinke et al. (2018) found that in canoe
sprint, where trunk muscles are crucial for both
stabilizing the body in an unstable environment
and generating propulsive forces, isokinetic
training significantly enhanced athletic
performance. Their study with world-class
canoeists included a comprehensive 8-week
isokinetic training program, emphasizing muscle
hypertrophy and power. The findings revealed
significant improvements in the peak torque of
trunk rotators and established a strong correlation
between the increased strength of concentric trunk
rotators and peak paddle force, underscoring the
efficacy of isokinetic training in boosting specific
aspects of performance in elite canoe sprinters.
Similarly, Schärer et al. (2019) explored the impact
of a four-week eccentric-isokinetic training
program on international and national top-level
gymnasts, focusing on enhancing static strength
elements in ring routines. This targeted approach
yielded significant improvements in maximum
strength for key elements such as the swallow and
support scale. The success of this training regimen
highlights the effectiveness of specific, tailored
exercises for elite gymnasts. It is important to note
that both the above-mentioned studies were single-
group, non-randomized investigations. While they

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provided valuable insights into the effects of
specialized training regimens on elite athletes, the
lack of randomization and control groups in those
studies limits the ability to generalize their
findings. This highlights the need for more
randomized controlled trials in this field to better
understand the impacts of such training methods
and to validate their effectiveness across a broader
range of athletes. In addition, the smaller effect
noted in international athletes does not necessarily
suggest that RT was ineffective in that it is possible
that cessation of current RT by such athletes could
lead to a reduction in performance over time.
Typically, authors do not differentiate
among various types of sport-specific outcomes.
Both broad categories—such as running or
swimming times—and more specific tasks like
velocity in throwing or kicking are often analyzed
together. To recognize this diversity and gain a
more nuanced understanding of the impact of
training interventions on sport-specific outcomes,
we decided to separately examine the influence of
RT on two distinct groups of outcomes: global and
local. Global sport-specific outcomes, such as
running, swimming, cycling, or rowing, engage
multiple large muscle groups and often involve the
entire body. These activities are typically
considered whole-body movements and are used
to assess overall performance in a given sport.
Contrarily, local sport-specific outcomes focus on
the performance of isolated muscle groups. This
could be specific to the velocity of a kick in soccer,
the accuracy of a throw in baseball or the power of
a punch in boxing. They are crucial in sports where
particular movements or actions are repetitive and
critical for success. Meta-analyses of global and
local sport-specific outcomes provide compelling
evidence that RT has a differential impact on sport-
specific performance, with a pronounced benefit
for local sport tasks over global activities. On the
one hand, this may reveal the multifaceted nature
of global outcomes, indicating that they do not rely
solely on one training method. On the other hand,
it suggests that coaches have a tangible
opportunity to effectively enhance technical
elements of competitive tasks through RT. For
instance, notable advancements in the velocity of
ball-throwing or kicking have been observed in
handball (Cherif et al., 2022; Hermassi et al., 2010;
Hermassi et al., 2019), soccer (Ben Brahim et al.,
2021; Campo et al., 2009) and water polo (Veliz et
al., 2015). This evidence highlights the crucial need
to understand how incorporating RT methods can
specifically influence sport-related outcomes,
thereby enabling a more effective and tailored
approach to meet the distinct requirements of each
sport.
An additional meta-analysis conducted as
part of this study highlighted the impact of RT on
sport-specific outcomes concerning sex
differences. It is clear that RT benefits both male
and female athletes, a finding that aligns with
previous research (Kojić et al., 2021); however, the
evidence suggests more substantial gains in male
athletes. The observed positive trends in female
athletes likely did not reach statistical significance,
potentially due to the limited number of studies
focused on elite female athletes (Campo et al., 2009;
Veliz et al., 2015). This paucity of research on
female athletes emphasizes the critical need for
more comprehensive studies that investigate the
effects of RT on sport-specific outcomes in elite
female cohorts.
The findings of the final meta-analysis
revealed no significant differences between heavy
and light load RT, with notably low heterogeneity
(I² = 0%). These results imply that RT adaptations
may align more closely with the unique
performance requirements of their sports rather
than the intensity of the load. This concept of
specificity is particularly relevant in the context of
team sports and multi-discipline events (Reilly et
al., 2009), where performance requirements are
diverse and require a holistic approach to training.
Further, supporting the concept that RT
adaptations are closely linked to sport-specific
demands is the consistency observed across
various RT studies in both individual and team
sports used in this meta-analysis. This
understanding may underscore the importance of
a customized training approach, one that
acknowledges and addresses the intricacies of each
sport and athlete. It also highlights the need for
training regimens that are not only physically
demanding but also strategically aligned with the
specific skills, tactics, and team dynamics essential
for success in competitive sports.
The primary limitation of this study, which
is also prevalent in RT literature, is the tendency to
aggregate various types of sport-specific outcomes.
This approach may obscure the distinct effects of
RT on global versus local sport tasks, potentially

150 The effects of resistance training on sport-specific performance of elite athletes
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masking the nuanced benefits of specific skills and
highlighting the necessity for separate analyses to
fully comprehend RT's impact on diverse
performance metrics. This also highlights the need
to identify sport-specific key performance
indicators that are predictive of success, which can
then serve as the outcome measures for future
investigations. Future research should focus on the
development of sport-specific resistance training
protocols that account for the unique physiological
and biomechanical demands of different sports,
aiming to optimize individual athlete performance
and reduce injury risk. Additionally, there is a
need to explore the longitudinal effects of
resistance training on athletes’ development,
particularly how variations in training loads,
frequency, and intensity over time influence sport-
specific skills and performance outcomes. As noted
earlier, there is a scarcity of research performed on
women as compared to men looking into the
magnitude of impact that resistance training has on
sport performance. As such, future investigations
should explore whether similar relationships exist
between men and women and what are, if any, sex-
specific differences. We also suggest that studies
looking into potential thresholds of strength and
power in relation to different levels of competition
be performed. This may help solidify the
understanding of how influential resistance
training is for athletes at different performance
levels, i.e., national versus international
competition, and indicate potential implications of
prioritization of resistance training in the overall
training plan. Finally, the results of this review
suggest that there exists a good deal of
individuality in the magnitude of response to
resistance training and the relevant relationship
with sport performance. Future investigations may
wish to explore this phenomenon in an effort to
optimize outcomes for all athletes.
The systematic review and meta-analysis
conducted herein underscore the significance of RT
as supplementary to sport-specific training in
enhancing performance of elite athletes. Resistance
training has demonstrated large beneficial effects
across a range of sports, indicating its efficacy in
improving sport-specific performance, from
endurance to high-power sports and from
individual to team sports. However, the influence
of RT is not uniform; it varies according to the
athlete's competitive level, sex, and the specific
demands of their sport. Notably, the impact of RT
is more pronounced in national elite athletes than
their international counterparts, suggesting that
the latter may require more advanced and
individualized training interventions (Loturco et
al., 2024). Further meta-analysis revealed that RT
had a more significant impact on local sports tasks
compared to global activities, indicating its
differential influence on sport-specific
performance. The studies also identified a critical
research gap regarding the effects of RT on female
elite athletes, emphasizing an urgent need for
further investigation. Overall, the findings
advocate for the principle of specificity in RT
programs, with a balanced integration of heavy
and light loads tailored to the athlete's unique
needs and the performance requirements of their
sport. Finally, this review calls for more
randomized controlled trials, especially among
international-level elite and female athletes, to
confirm the generalizability of these findings and
to refine RT protocols for optimal sport-specific
outcome enhancement.
Conclusions
This study underscores the importance for
coaches to design RT programs that are specifically
tailored to the unique needs of each athlete,
factoring in their sport, competitive level, and sex,
to maximize sport-specific performance
enhancements. The current body of literature
suggests that at lower levels of competition,
resistance training provides greater impact on
sport performance, perhaps due to differing levels
of conditioning at the international level. It also
highlights the necessity of developing advanced
and individualized RT interventions for
international elite athletes and addressing the
research gap between the sexes, ensuring that
training protocols are optimized for all athletes.

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Author Contributions: Conceptualization: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S. and J.W.; methodology: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S.
and J.W.; software: H.M. and M.S.; validation: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S. and J.W.; formal analysis: H.M., M.S., P.T.,
J.S. and J.W.; investigation: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S. and J.W.; resources: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S. and J.W.; data
curation: H.M. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S. and J.W.; writing—review
& editing: H.M., M.S., P.T., J.S. and J.W.; visualization: H.M. and M.S.; supervision: H.M., M.S., J.S. and J.W.;
project administration: H.M., M.S. and J.S.; funding acquisition: H.M. and J.S. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
ORCID iD:
Hubert Makaruk: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2118-4051
Marcin Starzak: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9548-907X
Jerzy Sadowski: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1751-9613
Funding Information: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Received: 01 February 2024
Accepted: 08 March 2024
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